Answers and Explanations—4.3 The Flynn Effect

P1	Paragraph 1	Comments
S1	Since 1930, scores measuring intelligence quotients (IQs) have been increasing steadily across the globe.	IQs going up everywhere over time.
2	James Flynn first discovered this phenomenon in the 1980s in the United States.
3	Ensuing analysis found that it was occurring in virtually every country where such data was collected.
4	This trend is referred to as “the Flynn Effect,” a sustained increase in intelligence test scores worldwide with each passing year.	This is called the Flynn Effect.
5	Researchers have devoted a significant amount of study to the effect not only because of its geographic scope, but also because, mysteriously, the annual rise has occurred every year in more or less linear fashion over the past century.	Researchers are studying it because 1) it’s everywhere and 2) it’s going up linearly (at a steady rate) every year.

	The word “ensuing” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Ensuing” = following later, subsequent.
✗	A confirmatory	Unrelated. Although the analysis did “confirm” the occurrence of the phenomena described, these words are not related.
✓	B later	Correct. “Ensuing analysis” = later analysis, research that happened afterward.
✗	C broader	Unrelated. The author is not saying that the analysis was more “broad.”
✗	D rigorous	Although the analysis might have been “rigorous” (thorough and accurate), this is unrelated to “ensuing.”

	According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true about the Flynn Effect?	Fact. P1 is all about the Flynn Effect (although it’s not named until S4). So the answer could be anywhere in the paragraph.
✓	A It is taking place all over the planet.	Correct. S1: “across the globe.” S3: “in virtually every country.”
✗	B It is unique to the United States.	Opposite. S1: “across the globe.” S3: “in virtually every country.”
✗	C It is occurring at a lesser rate than previously.	Not mentioned in P1.
✗	D Researchers have been studying this phenomenon since 1930.	S1 states that the effect has been happening since 1930. But S2 states that Flynn discovered the effect “in the 1980s.” So researchers have only been studying the phenomenon since then.

P2	Paragraph 2	Comments
S1	Does this mean we are getting smarter?	Are we getting smarter?
2	The definition of “intelligence” is hotly debated, but generally speaking, IQ tests are designed to measure both fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.	IQ tests measure both fluid and crystallized intelligence.
3	Fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving abilities, such as looking for patterns, and using visual cues to solve problems.	Fluid = problem-solving.
4	Crystallized intelligence refers to learned skills, such as math and vocabulary.	Crystallized = learned skills.
5	When IQ tests are administered, the convention is to set the average of the test results to 100, with a standard deviation of 15 to 16 points.	Average IQ score = 100.
6	The test score distribution is restandardized with every new batch of test-takers, such that the number 100 consistently represents the average score of that year’s test-takers.	Restandardized with every new batch of test-takers.
7	When younger subjects take older tests, their average score is higher than the previous group’s average: the Flynn Effect.	Younger people do better on older tests = Flynn Effect.
8	The Flynn Effect is driven more by gains in fluid intelligence than in crystallized intelligence.	Driven more by gains in fluid.

	The word “batch” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Batch” = group, often one group of many in a sequence.
✗	A school	A literal “school” is not what is meant here. The only context in which “school” means a less well-formed “group” is with artists following a particular philosophy (the “Impressionist school”) or with fish (a “school of fish”). Neither meaning fits here.
✗	B society	A “society” is a group, but these words are not synonymous.
✗	C country	A “country” is populated by a group of people, but these words are not synonymous.
✓	D group	Correct. “With every new batch of test-takers” = with every new group or cohort of people taking the test.

	Which of the following can be inferred about crystallized intelligence from paragraph 2?	Inference. S4 defines crystallized intelligence. S2 implies that fluid and crystallized intelligence are different.
✗	A Crystallized intelligence is less likely to be improved through teaching than fluid intelligence.	The paragraph does not imply this. If anything, you might infer the opposite is true, since crystallized intelligence refers to learned skills. Because fluid and crystallized intelligence are distinguished as categories in S2, you might conclude that fluid intelligence refers to skills that are not learned, or that cannot be learned.
✗	B Crystallized intelligence is more difficult to assess than fluid intelligence.	The paragraph does not suggest this. S2 states that IQ tests measure both types of intelligence. There is no indication that one is harder to measure than the other.
✓	C Higher crystallized intelligence scores demonstrate superior skills that have been taught to the test-taker.	Correct. S4: “Crystallized intelligence refers to learned skills.” This means skills that have been taught. You can safely infer that higher scores on assessments of crystallized intelligence correspond to higher levels of skills that have been taught.
✗	D Worse performance on assessments of crystallized intelligence indicates greater fragility or fragmentation of thinking.	The term “crystallized” is never defined outside of S4, so you shouldn’t read into it. The passage is not talking about literal or even metaphorical crystals, nor about thematically related concepts (fragility or fragmentation).

P3	Paragraph 3	Comments
S1	While the cause of the Flynn Effect remains a mystery, scientists have been able to rule out some possible causes.	Cause of Flynn Effect = mystery. But some causes have been ruled out.
2	The time frame in which these increases have occurred, along with their geographic scope, seem to preclude the cause being genetic (genetic evolution takes a long time to take effect, as it occurs over many generations via reproduction).	Not genetic.
3	The Flynn Effect, by contrast, refers to steady increases in measured intelligence over much shorter time frames.	It’s happening too fast for evolution.
4	Further, the population groups among whom it is occurring, often separated by great distances, do not interact extensively enough for reproduction to lead to shared genetic traits across the groups.	Not shared traits either. Populations don’t interact enough.

	According to paragraph 3, what factors have led researchers to rule out genetics as a cause of the Flynn Effect?	Fact. S2–4 rule out genetics.
✗	A The extended distance and time over which the effect has occurred.	The time frame is short, according to S2 (by contrast with the “long time” needed for evolution to work).
✗	B The restriction of the effect to narrow geographic regions.	The geographic scope is wide. You already know this from P1, but S4 in this paragraph mentions again that the groups affected are “often separated by great distances.”
✓	C The geographic scope of the effect, as well as its short time frame.	Correct. Both factors have helped rule out genetics as a cause. S2 indicates that the time frame is considered short, in comparison to the “long time” and “many generations” for evolution to take effect. S2 also credits the “geographic scope” of the effect. You are reminded in S4 that this scope is wide (with groups “separated by great distances”).
✗	D The fact that the effect has occurred in one defined population group, but not in other groups.	S4 notes that the effect is occurring in more than one group around the world.

	Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the Flynn Effect?	Inference. P3 focuses on what is known not to cause the Flynn Effect.
✓	A Despite ruling out possible factors, researchers still do not know what causes the effect.	Correct. S1: “the cause of the Flynn Effect remains a mystery.” That is, people don’t know what the cause is.
✗	B Despite efforts to identify a single cause, multiple causes of the effect seem to be at work.	The paragraph does not discuss what causes the effect, even possibly. S1 says that the cause is a mystery. S2–4 notes that the cause is not genetic.
✗	C Despite some criticism, it appears that cultural factors may be driving the effect.	P3 does not discuss cultural factors.
✗	D Despite some findings to the contrary, it is likely that the effect does not actually exist.	Paragraph 3 does not question the existence of the Flynn Effect. S1 just asserts that its cause remains a mystery.

P4	Paragraph 4	Comments
S1	Researchers attempting to identify the cause of the Flynn Effect have therefore been left with what seems to be the only alternative: a changing global culture.	Only possible cause seems to be a changing culture.
2	Research over the past 30 years has focused on identifying possible causes rooted in culture.	Research has focused on possible cultural causes.
3	These have included improvements in nutrition, education, testing methods, and so forth.	List of possibilities.
4	Further hypotheses have included increased complexity of social environments, changes in childrearing, advances in technology, and improved test-taking abilities.

	Which one of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence of the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.	Simplify Sentence. S1 (highlighted) says that researchers have been left with what seems to be the only possible cause of the Flynn Effect: a global culture that is changing. Notice that “alternative” means “choice, possibility” here.
✗	A Researchers are not certain that a changing global culture is responsible for the Flynn Effect.	It is true that researchers are not certain, but they are choosing to point to a changing global culture because of a lack of any other explanations.
✓	B Unable to definitively identify alternative causes, researchers seem to believe that a changing global culture might be responsible for the Flynn Effect.	Correct. This choice supports the uncertainty of the researchers as well as the idea that they are “left with” a changing global culture (in that other options have been ruled out).
✗	C Researchers have stopped looking for the cause of the Flynn Effect because a changing global culture is confusing the issue.	Researchers haven’t stopped looking. The changing global culture is just what they have settled on at this point.
✗	D In their attempts to understand the Flynn Effect, a changing global culture has left researchers without an alternative.	This choice muddles words from the original sentence. They are not attempting to understand the effect itself, but rather its cause. Also, the changing global culture is the alternative.

	The phrase “rooted in” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Rooted in” = based on, caused by, fundamentally connected to.
✓	A arising from	Correct. “Possible causes rooted in culture” = possible causes arising from culture, or that spring out of culture.
✗	B grown into	“Grown from” might seem to be a better match. But that phrase wouldn’t sound like natural English. And “grown into” does not have the right meaning.
✗	C dug out of	The language of “root” and “dug” might make this choice tempting. However, “dug out of” means to be pulled from (as from the ground). This is not a synonym for “rooted in.”
✗	D distinct from	In a way, this is the opposite. If something is “distinct from,” it is different, whereas something “rooted in” comes from that thing and is likely similar.

	According to paragraph 4, why have researchers focused on improvements in nutrition, education, testing methods, and so forth?	Fact. S3: “These have included improvements in nutrition …” S2 indicates that “these” refers to the “possible causes rooted in culture.” In case you’ve forgotten, S1 reminds you that these causes would be of the Flynn Effect. S2 states that researchers have been focused on identifying possible cultural causes. That’s why research has focused on the improvements listed in the question.
✗	A These factors drive health and overall well-being globally.	P4 does not say or imply this at all.
✗	B These improvements are the reasons why the Flynn Effect exists.	These are possible reasons for the Flynn Effect’s existence. Researchers do not yet know whether these improvements are in fact causes of the effect.
✗	C These cultural factors are believed by researchers to vary by region.	Researchers are actually looking for “global” causes of the effect.
✓	D These are cultural factors that could be causes of the Flynn Effect.	Correct. S2: “Research… has focused on identifying possible causes [of the Flynn Effect, as S1 indicates] rooted in culture.” S3 lists the improvements in nutrition and so on as some of the possible causes.

P5	Paragraph 5	Comments
S1	A problem that researchers have faced in analyzing possible cultural factors is that the universality of the Flynn Effect seems in contradiction to the nature of culture itself, which by definition varies across time and space.	Problem: the Flynn Effect is universal, but culture varies across time and space.
2	In other words, different characteristics of places and population groups are what create divergence across cultures, and this diversity is a fundamental feature of the human population at large.	Diversity of cultures is fundamental.
3	Culture is different in Brazil than it is in Israel or Australia or Canada.
4	But for cultural factors to be responsible for the Flynn Effect, they must essentially affect people across countries nearly identically.	But to cause the Flynn Effect, cultural factors must affect everyone the same way.
5	This would seem to be unlikely.	Unlikely.

	The word “divergence” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Divergence” = difference, separation between things, diversity. “Diverge” = move apart, deviate away from.
✗	A opposition	Close, but too extreme. “Divergence” just means difference. It does not necessarily mean that the cultures are actively opposing each other.
✗	B movement	The root verb “diverge” has a sense of movement. But it’s always movement apart, or separation. By itself, the noun “movement” doesn’t mean the same thing at all as “divergence.”
✗	C alignment	Opposite. “Alignment” = arranged in a straight line or organized manner.
✓	D variation	Correct. “Different characteristics… create divergence across cultures” = different features create variation, or differences, across those cultures.

	Paragraphs 5-6	Comments
P5 S4–5	But for cultural factors to be responsible for the Flynn Effect, they must essentially affect people across countries nearly identically. This would seem to be unlikely.
P6 S1–2	A Further, factors such as improved nutrition would seem to affect nutritionally impoverished regions more dramatically than regions where nutritional resources have been stable for decades. In other words, if better nutrition is driving improved fluid intelligence, areas that have seen the most improvement in nutrition should see the largest increase in IQ scores, while in areas where nutritional resources have been widely available for a long time, IQ scores should be leveling off.	It doesn’t make sense to put the new sentence, which begins with the phrase “For example,” at the beginning of the paragraph. The only good reason would be to elaborate on a point made at the end of the preceding paragraph. But that paragraph does not end with a contrast between high-nutrition regions and low-nutrition regions.
3	B But this is not the case.	Correct. The new sentence provides an example of the exact idea expressed in S1–2.
4	C Regions with poor nutritional resources and regions with high nutritional resources have both shown steady gains over time, regardless of how nutritional resources have changed.	Placement here puts “For example” after the sentence, “But this is not the case.” But the inserted sentence is not an example of this not being the case. It is an example of the points made in S1–2.
End	D	S4 describes the actual state of affairs: all regions are increasing their IQ scores at a similar rate. So it doesn’t work to put a hypothetical example of how regions might increase their scores at different rates.

	For example, the Netherlands (a developed nation with high levels of nutrition generally) would not see as dramatic a rise in IQ scores as would, say, The Gambia or another developing nation. Where would the sentence best fit?	Insert Text. The inserted sentence begins with “For example.” So this sentence must provide an example of a more general point made in the previous sentence (or two). The example is of a developed country (the Netherlands) with high levels of nutrition and of a developing country (The Gambia), presumably with lower levels. The prior sentence should be contrasting places with high and low levels of nutrition. That sentence should point out that places with high levels of nutrition would see a smaller rise in IQ scores, if nutritional improvements were in fact a cause of the IQ rise. Notice that this is a hypothetical example (“would not see”), not a real example (which would not contain the verb “would”). This example would work if nutrition were a cause of IQ increases.
✗	A Choice A
✓	B Choice B	Correct.
✗	C Choice C
✗	D Choice D

	Whole Passage	Comments
P1	Since 1930, scores measuring intelligence quotients (IQs) have been increasing steadily across the globe…	IQs going up everywhere over time. This is called the Flynn Effect. Researchers are studying it because 1) it’s everywhere and 2) it’s going up linearly (at a steady rate) every year.
P2	Does this mean we are getting smarter?…	Are we getting smarter? IQ tests measure both fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid = problem-solving. Crystallized = learned skills. Average IQ score = 100. Restandardized with every new batch of test-takers. Younger people do better on older tests = Flynn Effect. Driven more by gains in fluid.
P3	While the cause of the Flynn Effect remains a mystery…	Cause of Flynn Effect = mystery. But some causes have been ruled out. Not genetic. It’s happening too fast for evolution. Not shared traits either. Populations don’t interact enough.
P4	Researchers attempting to identify the cause of the Flynn Effect…	Only possible cause seems to be a changing culture. Research has focused on possible cultural causes. List of possibilities.
P5	A problem that researchers have faced in analyzing possible cultural factors is that…	Problem: the Flynn Effect is universal, but culture varies across time and space. Diversity of cultures is fundamental. But to cause the Flynn Effect, cultural factors must affect everyone the same way. Unlikely.
P6	Further, factors such as improved nutrition would seem to affect nutritionally impoverished regions more dramatically…	If nutrition is a factor, then places that have gained the most in nutrition should also have gained the most in IQs. Those would be places starting off with poor nutrition, with the most gains made recently. But IQ gains everywhere are similar.
P7	The mystery of how culture could be causing the Flynn Effect…	Infant IQs are rising steadily, too. This further limits the possible impact of culture.

	This passage is developed primarily by	Purpose. This question focuses on the overall organization of the passage.
✗	A outlining reasons to support one theory of an observed pattern	More than one theory is discussed. Also, no single theory is well supported throughout the passage.
✗	B arguing for a particular cause of a global phenomenon	The author doesn’t argue for one cause. At one point, cultural causes seem to be “the only alternative” (P4). But P5–7 point out problems with such cultural causes. The issue remains a mystery.
✓	C examining possible causes of a mysterious phenomenon	Correct. The “mysterious phenomenon” is the Flynn Effect. Several paragraphs “examine possible causes” of this effect.
✗	D discussing multiple problems with a single theory of an effect	Multiple theories are discussed. P5–7 do discuss multiple problems with possible cultural causes. But genetics are described and then dismissed as a possible cause in P3.

	Complete the table below by selecting THREE answer choices that are skills that would be representative of fluid intelligence and TWO that are skills that would be representative of crystallized intelligence.	Table. Correct answers in table questions do not have to convey a main idea. They just have to be justified by the passage. In P2, fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are defined. P2 S3: “Fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving abilities, such as looking for patterns, and using visual cues to solve problems.” P2 S4: “Crystallized intelligence refers to learned skills, such as math and vocabulary.”
	a Solving a jigsaw puzzle by examining and putting together the pieces	FLUID. Example of “problem-solving abilities” and “using visual cues to solve problems.”
	b Doing an algebra problem	Crystallized. Example of “learned skills, such as math.”
	c Winning a spelling bee	Crystallized. Example of “learned skills, such as…vocabulary.”
	d Matching shapes in a set of visual patterns	Fluid. Example of “problem-solving abilities, such as looking for patterns” and “using visual cues to solve problems.”
	e Watching traffic to find a shortcut	Fluid. Example of “problem-solving abilities” and “using visual cues to solve problems.”