Answers and Explanations—6.4 The Black Death

P1	Paragraph 1	Comments
S1	Bubonic plague is caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which is endemic in wild rodents, including rats.	Bubonic plague is caused by a bacterium carried by rats.
2	When these animals are present in great numbers and density, a “plague reservoir” provides a springboard for epidemics.	“Plague reservoir” = lots of rats.
3	As the infected rat population dies, their fleas migrate to humans and spread the disease.	Fleas jump to humans.
4	Such a reservoir has long existed in the central steppes of Asia.	Reservoir in Asian steppes.
5	Consequently, China, India, and much of the Middle East have long endured epidemics, including the Justinian plague, which ravaged the Byzantine Empire in 541.	So there have been many epidemics in China, India, Middle East.
6	However, Europe was spared, at least on a grand scale, for another 800 years.	But not Europe until 800 years after 541.

	According to paragraph 1, humans contract bubonic plague most directly when	Fact. P1 discusses how and where bubonic plague spreads. The question asks for the direct cause of bubonic plague in humans.
✗	A a plague reservoir is present nearby	S2 states that “a ‘plague reservoir’ provides a springboard for epidemics.” Without a plague reservoir, it’s doubtful that humans will contract plague. But the presence of this reservoir is not sufficient. It is not actually the direct mechanism by which humans contract plague.
✓	B infected fleas migrate from rats to humans	Correct. S3: “As the infected rat population dies, their fleas migrate to humans and spread the disease.”
✗	C they live in the central steppes of Asia	The central steppes of Asia is the historical location of a plague reservoir. But the paragraph doesn’t imply that all or even most humans contract plague when they live in those steppes.
✗	D they are bitten by rats	Perhaps being bitten by plague-infected rats will pass plague to humans (although only if the plague bacterium is present in rat saliva). But this possible method is never mentioned in P1.

	The word “springboard” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Springboard” = foundation, launching pad, or catalyst.
✗	A cure	Opposite. In this context, a cure for an epidemic would be something that might bring it to an end. A “springboard” would be a jumping off point (meaning it would likely get worse).
✗	B damper	Opposite in another sense. “Damper” = obstacle, something that hinders or obstructs. This would be the opposite of a catalyst.
✓	C foundation	Correct. “A ‘plague reservoir’ provides a springboard for epidemics” = a plague reservoir provides a foundation or a launching pad for epidemics.
✗	D explanation	Unrelated. Understanding the meaning of or cause of an epidemic is not the same as catalyzing or initiating it.

	Paragraph 1 presents a fact and then goes on to	Purpose. S1 contains the basic fact about what causes bubonic plague. The paragraph continues by outlining how plague is spread. The last part of the paragraph provides historical illustrations.
✗	A detail how an epidemic from the Byzantine Empire infected the whole Middle East	S5 only mentions that the Byzantine Empire suffered an epidemic in 541. It is implied that this empire was part of the Middle East. In any event, transmission from this empire to the “whole Middle East” is never mentioned.
✗	B discuss how plague epidemics ultimately reached Europe	P1 only discusses how plague kept recurring in Asia and the Middle East. S6: “However, Europe was spared, at least on a grand scale, for another 800 years.”
✗	C provide additional facts that clash and a theory to reconcile them all	No set of clashing facts are presented, let alone a theory that might reconcile them. The broad picture of how plague spreads is logically coherent.
✓	D describe how plague is transmitted and cite historical examples	Correct. S2–3 discuss how plague is transmitted. S4–5 provide examples.

P2	Paragraph 2	Comments
S1	In 1346, the central steppes of Asia were part of the Mongol Khanate of the Golden Horde; a Mongol army besieged the Italian trading outpost in Kaffa, a Black Sea port.	1346: Mongol army besieged Kaffa, an Italian outpost.
2	The Mongol force suffered from plague, and during the siege the bodies of those dead were catapulted into the town.	Dead bodies with plague in them are catapulted in.
3	The following spring, the Italians fled home by ship and brought the plague to Europe.	Next spring, Italians flee, bringing plague home.
4	At that time, Europe was exceedingly vulnerable to such an epidemic.	Europe was very vulnerable.
5	Burgeoning medieval trade networks allowed the disease to spread rapidly by ship, up to several hundred kilometers a week.	Why.
6	The lack of modern medical knowledge ensured that no effective measures were taken to curb its spread.
7	In 1347, the Adriatic Italian seaports were infected, and from there the plague followed the sailing routes to Sicily and then Marseilles; after a lull during the winter, when cold temperatures inhibit the flea population, 1348 saw the plague spread to Spain, the rest of France, and then England and northern Europe.	How plague spread.
8	From Norway, the trading ships of the Hanseatic League carried it to the Baltic cities and Russia.
9	By the time the epidemic had run its course in 1353, all of Europe had been significantly ravaged.	Ravaged all of Europe.

	The word “burgeoning” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Burgeoning” = growing, flourishing, proliferating, prospering.
✓	A flourishing	Correct. “Burgeoning medieval trade networks” = flourishing medieval trade networks.
✗	B unraveling	If the trade routes were “unraveling,” they would be collapsing or falling apart. The opposite is true here.
✗	C dwindling	Opposite.
✗	D branching	“Branching” does not necessarily convey the growth that “burgeoning” does. “Branching” could describe static, unchanging networks that just have a lot of branches.

	Paragraph 2 supports the idea that the spread of the plague throughout Europe was facilitated by which of the following factors?	Inference. S1–3 describe how the Italians in Kaffa were exposed to plague and brought it home. S4 states that Europe was very vulnerable (= at risk). S5–6 describe why.
✓	A Ineffective medical countermeasures	Correct. S6: “The lack of modern medical knowledge ensured that no effective measures were taken to curb its spread.”
✗	B Low temperatures in wintertime	S7: “after a lull during the winter, when cold temperatures inhibit the flea population.” In fact, low winter temperatures seem to slow down the spread of plague.
✗	C The exclusion of plague-ridden corpses from Kaffa	In fact, plague-ridden corpses were apparently not excluded all that effectively from Kaffa (they were catapulted into the town).
✗	D Europe’s proximity to the central steppes of Asia	S1 states that these central steppes (which harbored plague) were part of the Mongol Khanate. But geographical proximity at most only indirectly facilitated the spread of plague throughout Europe. After all, the steppes did not physically get any closer to Europe in the 1300s.

	Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.	Simplify Sentence. The sentence is long and fact-filled. Fortunately, there are few logical twists. The right answer can leave out some or even many details, but it must get the core story straight. Wrong answers will mix up the facts or otherwise change the meaning fundamentally.
✗	A In 1347, after a winter lull due to inactivated fleas, plague infected Italian seaports and then spread to Sicily, Marseilles, and the rest of France, Spain, England, and northern Europe.	Plague infected the Italian seaports before winter, not after.
✗	B Plague, after landing in Adriatic Italian seaports in 1347, followed sailing routes to Sicily, Marseilles, then Spain, the rest of France, and finally England and northern Europe.	This version leaves out the winter lull altogether, which is an important detail. It also gives no time frame for the spread of the disease. Its rapid advance is key to the story.
✓	C Even with winter briefly inactivating the fleas, plague swept through several European countries within a year of landing in Italian seaports in 1347, following travel routes and spreading north.	Correct. This version leaves out much of the geographic detail but captures the central meaning of the original sentence. It emphasizes the rapidity of the spread northward along travel routes and the temporary nature of the winter lull (as well as why there was a lull at all).
✗	D After infecting Italian seaports in 1347, plague blazed through cities, islands, and countries of Europe following well-traveled routes, only to be halted by winter, which leveled the flea population.	This version places the winter pause at the end of the sentence and rephrases it with more extreme language (“level” a population = flatten it = destroy it). So this version overemphasizes that winter pause, turning it into a force that was able to stop plague completely. But according to the original sentence, winter was only able to slow the devastation down briefly.

P3	Paragraph 3	Comments
S1	While the fragmentary nature of medieval records has hindered scholars, recent research has caused an upward revision in the already horrific estimate of the mortality rate.	Recent research: death rate even worse.
2	It is now thought that more than half of the population perished.	More than half the people died.
3	While some more northern or isolated regions were less afflicted, the Italian cities may have lost as many as 80 percent of their people.
4	All told, perhaps 50 million died, a number comparable with global deaths caused by the Second World War.	50 million deaths.
5	One of the first acknowledged great books of Western literature, The Decameron, chronicles the impact as it describes the plight of a group of Italian gentry that fled to the countryside in a vain attempt to avoid infection.	One story: described in The Decameron.
6	The cities became cemeteries, in which streets were littered with unburied dead, and houses were abandoned or occupied only by the dying.	Cities = cemeteries. Houses were abandoned.

	The main purpose of paragraph 3 is to	Purpose. P3 discusses the terrible mortality rate of the plague, with an illustration that comes down through an Italian work of literature.
✓	A emphasize and illustrate the decimation of Europe	Correct. S1–4 detail the deaths resulting from the plague. S5–6 illustrate the effects of this decimation.
✗	B explain why German principalities fared better than the Italian cities	S3 mentions that some northern locations were less afflicted. But this is only a minor qualification. Furthermore, these locations are not identified as German.
✗	C support the claim that The Decameron is a literary classic	The book is only cited to illustrate of the effects of the plague. S5 calls it “one of the first acknowledged great books of Western literature,” but making this declaration is not the primary purpose of the paragraph.
✗	D downplay the losses of the Second World War by comparison with those caused by plague	S4 mentions the losses of the Second World War to show how enormous the casualties from plague were, not to downplay or soften the losses of the war.

P4	Paragraph 4	Comments
S1	It would be 300 years before the population returned to its 1347 peak.	300 years for population to come back.
2	Thus, it is little wonder that this plague, named the Black Death, remains in the human consciousness hundreds of years later, as the disruption of such depopulation greatly affected the development of European society.	Black Death: still in our minds. Greatly affected how European society developed.
3	Some of the changes actually brought unforeseen benefits: the resulting labor shortage raised wages and the standard of living for the surviving peasantry, many of whom then acquired land left vacant by the deaths of the previous owners and tenants.	Even some unforeseen benefits. Labor shortage, higher wages.
4	It has also been theorized that this disruption spurred the development of modern capitalism, since labor-intensive feudal organization was no longer practical.	May have even spurred capitalism to develop.

	The word “spurred” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Spur” = encourage, stimulate, provoke, urge.
✗	A accompanied	Not quite. “Accompanied” would indicate just that they occurred together, not that one caused or encouraged the other.
✗	B halted	Opposite. “Halted” = stopped or curbed.
✗	C affected	Not quite. “Affect” = influence, but this influence could be positive or negative.
✓	D promoted	Correct. “This disruption spurred the development of modern capitalism” = this disruption promoted or encouraged the development of modern capitalism.

	According to paragraph 4, which of the following is mentioned as an unexpected benefit of the plague?	Fact. S3 lists “unforeseen benefits” of the plague. S4 may or may not be continuing this list.
✗	A Feudalism recovered as a social structure.	S4 suggests that feudalism actually declined in the wake of the devastation, “since labor-intensive feudal organization was no longer practical.” Moreover, it’s not clear that S4 is actually listing benefits of the plague.
✓	B Many peasants subsequently acquired real estate.	Correct. S3: “many of whom then acquired land left vacant by the deaths of the previous owners and tenants.”
✗	C The epidemic left a lasting impact on human consciousness.	S2 mentions the impact to stress the magnitude of the depopulation, not to enumerate a benefit of the disease.
✗	D Overcrowded urban areas were reduced in population.	This idea is not mentioned in the paragraph.

P5	Paragraph 5	Comments
S1	Other consequences were much darker.	Other, much darker consequences.
2	The epidemic struck swiftly and terribly; people sickened within days of infection and died within a week.	Swift and terrible death.
3	Naturally enough, panic, fear, and anger quickly tore the social fabric apart.	Panic, fear, and anger.
4	As neither government nor religious leaders had any factual understanding of the terrifying malady that had befallen them, these leaders did not oppose the inevitable scapegoating of members of religious or ethnic minorities, beggars, foreigners, or those with disfiguring diseases other than plague.	Inevitable scapegoating (= blaming) minorities & others.
5	In 1349, authority figures condoned, or even encouraged, the extermination of many Jewish communities in central Europe.	Extermination of many Jewish communities.

	The word “disfiguring” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Disfigure” = mar, deface, mutilate, spoil the appearance.
✗	A debilitating	Not quite. “Debilitate” = weaken, incapacitate. But this does not necessarily mean that the patient’s appearance is marred.
✓	B marring	Correct. “Marring” = disfiguring, mutilating, scarring.
✗	C infectious	Unrelated. An “infectious” disease is one that can be spread. The author is talking about diseases that damage or impair rather than those that are easily spread.
✗	D incurable	The diseases might have been “incurable” (untreatable), but this word is not related to “disfigure.”

	According to paragraph 5, which of the following is true about government and religious leaders at the time of the Black Death?	Fact. S4 discusses how these leaders, otherwise helpless, allowed or encouraged violence against minority groups.
✗	A Their comprehension of the disease was based on hard facts.	S4: “neither government nor religious leaders had any factual understanding of the terrifying malady that had befallen them.”
✓	B They allowed vulnerable, marginal groups to be victimized.	Correct. S4: “these leaders did not oppose the inevitable scapegoating of members of religious or ethnic minorities, beggars, foreigners, or those with disfiguring diseases other than plague.” The scapegoated groups were vulnerable and marginal (= outsider).
✗	C Their mortality rate was lower than that of ordinary citizens.	This might well be true. But it was not mentioned in the paragraph.
✗	D They strove to preserve social tranquility and justice.	S4 indicates the opposite.

P6	Paragraph 6	Comments
S1	Today, in developed countries, it is easy to view the plague as a relic of the medieval past, especially since the disease can be treated with modern antibiotics.	Easy to view plague as relic of medieval past.
2	However, less celebrated outbreaks regularly occurred in Europe into the eighteenth century.	But outbreaks continued into 18th century.
3	In the nineteenth century, another bubonic plague epidemic killed tens of millions.	Another epidemic in 19th century.
4	Much more recently, panic reminiscent of the fourteenth century quickly asserted itself when many quickly succumbed during the Ebola outbreak from 2014 to 2016.	Much more recent panic around Ebola in 2014–2016. Reminiscent of 14th century.

	The phrase “reminiscent of” in the passage is closest in meaning to	VOCABULARY. “Reminiscent of” = suggestive of, resembling, awakening memories.
✗	A suspicious of	Unrelated. No one was “suspicious of” (doubtful or unsure of) the fourteenth century.
✗	B sensitive to	Unrelated. No one was “sensitive to” (aware of or even thoughtful of) the fourteenth century.
✗	C commemorative of	“Commemorative of” would mean that the panic was consciously celebrating the memory of the Black Death. This is not the intended meaning. “Commemorative” and “reminiscent” are not synonyms.
✓	D suggestive of	Correct. “Panic reminiscent of the fourteenth century” = panic suggestive of the fourteenth century, panic that could remind one of that time.

P3	Paragraph 3	Comments
S1	While the fragmentary nature of medieval records has hindered scholars, recent research has caused an upward revision in the already horrific estimate of the mortality rate.
2–3	A It is now thought that more than half of the population perished. While some more northern or isolated regions were less afflicted, the Italian cities may have lost as many as 80 percent of their people.	S1 doesn’t refer to anything that could reasonably contain the “fictional stories” of the new sentence. The “recent research” in S1 wouldn’t contain such fiction.
4	B All told, perhaps 50 million died, a number comparable with global deaths caused by the Second World War.	S3 also does not relate at all to fictional stories.
5	C One of the first acknowledged great books of Western literature, The Decameron, chronicles the impact as it describes the plight of a group of Italian gentry that fled to the countryside in a vain attempt to avoid infection.	Placement here still doesn’t work. It is illogical to address “fictional stories presented therein” before the book has been mentioned.
6	D The cities became cemeteries, in which streets were littered with unburied dead, and houses were abandoned or occupied only by the dying.	Correct. The new sentence clearly refers to The Decameron in S5. This book can contain the “fictional stories” referred to in the new sentence, which also leads well into S6.

	The fictional stories presented therein run the gamut from erotica to tragedy, but most contrast the bucolic countryside to the urban horror. Where would the sentence best fit?	Insert Text. “Therein” means “in or within that place or thing,” which had to have been mentioned already. So the previous sentence must contain something that itself can contain the fictional stories described in this new sentence.
✗	A Choice A
✗	B Choice B
✗	C Choice C
✓	D Choice D	Correct.

	Whole Passage	Comments
P1	Bubonic plague is caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which is endemic in wild rodents, including rats…	Bubonic plague is caused by a bacterium carried by rats. “Plague reservoir” = lots of rats. Fleas jump to humans. Reservoir in Asian steppes. So there have been many epidemics in China, India, Middle East. But not Europe until 800 years after 541.
P2	In 1346, the central steppes of Asia were part of the Mongol Khanate of the Golden Horde; a Mongol army besieged the Italian trading outpost in Kaffa, a Black Sea port…	1346: Mongol army besieged Kaffa, an Italian outpost. Dead bodies with plague in them are catapulted in. Next spring, Italians flee, bringing plague home. Europe was very vulnerable. Why. How plague spread. Ravaged all of Europe.
P3	While the fragmentary nature of medieval records has hindered scholars, recent research has caused an upward revision in the already horrific estimate of the mortality rate…	Recent research: death rate even worse. More than half the people died. 50 million deaths. One story: described in The Decameron. Cities = cemeteries. Houses were abandoned.
P4	It would be 300 years before the population returned to its 1347 peak…	300 years for population to come back. Black Death: still in our minds. Greatly affected how European society developed. Even some unforeseen benefits. Labor shortage, higher wages. May have even spurred capitalism to develop.
P5	Other consequences were much darker. The epidemic struck swiftly and terribly; people sickened within days of infection and died within a week…	Other, much darker consequences. Swift and terrible death. Panic, fear, and anger. Inevitable scapegoating (= blaming) minorities & others. Extermination of many Jewish communities.
P6	Today, in developed countries, it is easy to view the plague as a relic of the medieval past, especially since the disease can be treated with modern antibiotics…	Easy to view plague as relic of medieval past. But outbreaks continued into 18th century. Another epidemic in 19th century. Much more recent panic around Ebola in 2014–2016. Reminiscent of 14th century.

	The Black Death, the outbreak of bubonic plague that ravaged Europe in the fourteenth century, not only caused horrific suffering but also altered the course of social history.	Summary. Correct answers must be clearly expressed in the passage. They must also be among the major points of the passage. They should tie as directly as possible to the summary given.
✗	a The Black Death inspired the poets and writers of the period, spurring a renaissance of Western literature.	The passage does not claim that the plague caused a literary renaissance. The only related reference is that The Decameron, an acknowledged masterpiece, chronicles the plague.
✓	b The plague’s devastation created both positive and negative reverberations throughout the social order.	Correct. P4–5 discuss the positive and negative consequences of the plague at length.
✓	c When plague-ridden Italians returned from war, trade networks and medical ignorance enabled the epidemic’s rapid sweep through Europe.	Correct. P2 gives a detailed history of the origin and spread of the plague in Europe. This choice summarizes that paragraph.
✗	d Some areas of Europe, such as Italian cities, were far more afflicted than other areas.	Mentioned in P3. But this is a minor detail in the context of the passage as a whole.
✓	e More recent plague outbreaks and parallel epidemics imply that modern society is not immune to similar disruptions.	Correct. This is the core point of the concluding paragraph.
✗	f In medieval European cities, rats were far more numerous than they are today, and their fleas spread the disease to humans.	The first part, while true, is never mentioned. The second part is discussed in P1, but it is a minor detail in the context of the whole passage.