Chapter 1: ‘Distress of Nations and Perplexity’: Europe after the Great War
1 Annette Becker, War and Faith. The Religious Imagination in France, 1914–1930 (Oxford 1998) pp. 146ff.
2 A. L. Rowse, A Cornish Childhood (London 1974) pp. 255–6
3 On Kipling see David Gilmour, The Long Recessional. The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (London 2002) pp. 248ff. The most allusively comprehensive account of grief is Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning. The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge 1995)
4 Georges Rouault, Miserere (Paris n.d.)
5 See Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford 1975) pp. 187ff.
6 Alex King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain. The Symbolism and Politics of Remembrance (Oxford 1998)
7 George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses. Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Ithaca 1975) pp. 68–72
8 George L. Mosse, ‘Towards a General Theory of Fascism’ in his The Fascist Revolution (New York 1999) p. 15
9 Konrad Heiden, Der Fuehrer, trans. Ralph Manheim (London 1999) pp. 121–2 citing Lieutenant Gerhard Rossbach
10 George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers. Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford 1990) p. 165; Nigel Jones, A Brief History of the Birth of the Nazis (New York 2004) replaces earlier works on the Freikorps
11 Horst Möller, Europa zwischen den Weltkriegen (Munich 1998) p. 122
12 Allan Bullock ‘The Double Image’ in Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (eds), Modernism. A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (London 1976) pp. 58ff.
13 Henri Barbusse, Under Fire, trans. Robin Buss (London 2003) pp. 296–319 for the quotations
14 Edward Timms, Karl Kraus, Apocalyptic Satirist. Culture and Catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna (New Haven 1986) is the best biography
15 For an excellent discussion of Kraus’s views on the wartime press see Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London 1998) ch. 8 pp. 212ff.
16 Karl Kraus, In Those Great Times. A Kraus Reader, ed. Harry Zohn (Manchester 1984) pp. 82–3
17 Karl Kraus, Die letzten Tage der Menschheit. Tragödie in fünf Akten mit Vorspiel und Epilog (Frankfurt am Main 1986) act 1, scene 27–8, pp. 190–1 [hereafter cited as Die letzten Tage]
18 Kraus, Die letzten Tage act 2, scene 15, p. 355
19 J. N. Figgis, Civilisation at the Crossroads (London 1913) p. 95
20 Peter Ackroyd, T. S. Eliot (London 1984) p. 128
21 For a routine debunking of the poem see Christopher Hitchens, ‘A Breath of Dust’, Atlantic Monthly (2005) 296, pp. 142–8
22 For a good knockabout assault on modern irrationalism see Francis Wheen, How Mumbo-Jumbo Conquered the World (London 2004)
23 T. S. Eliot ‘The Dry Salvages’, Four Quartets in Collected Poems 1909–1962 (London 1963) p. 212
24 J. V. Langmead Casserley, The Retreat from Christianity in the Modern World (London 1952) pp. 65–6
25 See the classic study by Karl-Dietrich Bracher, The Age of Ideologies. A History of Political Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1984) especially pp. 26ff.
26 Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (London 2004). On the multiple factual and interpretative inadequacies of this gargantuan enterprise see the reviews by such German authorities as Heinrich-August Winkler in Der Spiegel or Klaus Hildebrand in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
27 Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford 2001) pp. 157–8
28 Karl Löwith, My Life in Germany before and after 1933. A Report (London 1994) p. 15
29 Ibid. p. 63
30 A truth evident to Thomas Mann in his 1938 essay ‘A Brother’ about Hitler
31 Oskar Jaszi, Magyariens Schuld, Ungarns Sühne. Revolution und Gegenrevolution in Ungarn (Munich 1923) pp. 69–70
32 See Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth. Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford 1987) pp. 18–19
33 Robert P. Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler (New Haven 1985) p. 84
34 Klaus Schreiner, ‘“Wann kommt der Retter Deutschlands?” Formen und Funktionen von politischen Messianismus in der Weimarer Republik’, Saeculum (1998) 49, pp. 125–6; I am grateful to James Campbell SJ for elucidating theseoracles
35 Löwith, My Life in Germany p. 18
36 Ulrich Linse, Barfüssige Propheten. Erlöser der zwanziger Jahre (Berlin 1983) pp. 33ff.
37 Sebastian Haffner, Defying Hitler. A Memoir (London 2002) pp. 51–2
38 Linse, Barfüssige Propheten pp. 156ff.
39 Armin Mohler, Die konservative Revolution in Deutschland 1918–1932. Ein Handbuch (Darmstadt 1994) p. 138
40 D. H. Lawrence, ‘A Letter from Germany’ in Selected Essays (London 1950) pp. 175–9; see also Harry T. Moore, The Priest of Love. A Life of D.H. Lawrence (London 1974) p. 387
41 Hermann Hesse ‘The Longing of our Time for a Worldview’ in Anton Kaes, Martin Jay and Edward Dimendberg (eds), The Weimar Republic Sourcebook (Berkeley 1994) nr 141, p. 366
42 Elke Fröhlich (ed.), Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels (Munich 2005) 1/II December 1925–May 1928, p.112, entry for 24 July 1926
43 Christoph Bry, Der Hitler-Putsch. Berichte und Kommentare eines Deutschland-Korrespondenten (1922–1924) für das ‘Argentinische Tag-und Wochenblatt ed. Martin Gregor-Dellin (Nördlingen 1987) 22 November 1922, pp. 64–6
44 Christoph Bry, Verkappte Religionen. Kritik des kollektiven Wahns (Nördlingen 1988) p. 129
45 Ibid. p. 241
46 Adrian Hastings, A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (London 2001) p. 174
47 John Kent, William Temple (Cambridge 1992) p. 125
48 Edward Norman, Church and Society in England 1770–1970. A Historical Study (Oxford 1976) p. 340
49 For the general background see Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918–1945 (London 1997) pp. 30ff.
50 Kurt Nowak, Geschichte des Christentums in Deutschland. Religion, Politik und Gesellschaft vom Ende der Aufklärung bis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Munich 1995) p. 208
51 For the details see Rudolf Morsey, ‘1918–1933’ in Winfried Becker, Günter Buchstab, Anselm Doering-Manteuffel and Rudolf Morsey (eds), Lexikon der Christlichen Demokratie in Deutschland (Paderborn 2002) pp. 36–7
Chapter 2: The Totalitarian Political Religions
1 Ronald Clark, The Life of Bertrand Russell (London 1995) p. 380
2 Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell (Boston 1968) p. 149; Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell. The Spirit of Solitude 1872–1921 (New York 1996) p. 581; Caroline Moorehead, Bertrand Russell. A Life (London 1992) pp. 312ff; and Alan Ryan, Bertrand Russell. A Political Life (New York 1988) pp. 81ff.
3 Bertrand Russell, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (London 1920) pp. 15–17
4 Philip Boobbyer, S. L.Frank. The Life and Work of a Russian Philosopher 1877–1950 (Athens, OH 1995) pp. 65–7
5 Robert Service, Lenin. A Biography (London 2000) p. 64
6 Nicolas Berdyaev, The Russian Revolution (Ann Arbor 1966) p. 58
7 Adam Ulam, The Bolsheviks (Cambridge, Mass. 1965) pp. 205–6
8 Alexandr Blok, ‘The Twelve’, Selected Poems, trans. Jon Stallworthy and Peter France (Manchester 2000) p. 110
9 See the excellent discussion of ‘God-building’ in Arthur Jay Klinghoffer, Red Apocalypse. The Religious Evolution of Soviet Communism (Lanham 1996) pp. 49–51
10 Richard Pipes, Russia under the Bolshevik Regime 1919–1924 (London 1994) p. 344
11 For examples see William B. Husband, ‘Soviet Atheism and Russian Orthodox Strategies of Resistance 1917–1932’, Journal of Modern History (1998) 70, pp. 87ff. forexamples
12 Etienne Fouilloux, ‘Erschütterungen (1912–1939)’ in Jean-Marie Mayeur (ed.), Erster und Zweiter Weltkrieg. Demokratien und Totalitäre Systeme (1914–1958). Die Geschichte des Christentums (Freiburg 1992) vol. 12, p. 932 reproduces extracts from Tikhon’s letter
13 Jonathan Daly, ‘Storming the Last Citadel’. The Bolshevik Assault on the Church, 1922’ in Vladimir Brovkin (ed.), The Bolsheviks in Russian Society. The Revolution and the Civil Wars (New Haven 1997) p. 243
14 The text of the letter dated 19 March 1922 is reproduced as Document 94 in Richard Pipes (ed.), The Unknown Lenin. From the Secret Archive (New Haven 1996) pp. 152–5
15 See especially Dimitry Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime 1917–1982 (New York 1984) vol. 1, pp. 43ff.
16 Robert Conquest, Religion in the USSR (New York 1968) pp. 20–1
17 See Lynne Viola, ‘The Peasant Nightmare. Visions of the Apocalypse in the Soviet Countryside’, Journal of Modern History (1990) 62, especially pp. 759ff.
18 Sarah Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia. Terror, Propaganda and Dissent 1934–1941 (Cambridge 1997) pp. 79–80
19 William C. Fletcher, The Russian Orthodox Church Underground 1917–1970 (Oxford 1971)
20 For examples see René Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism (New York 1929) pp. 186–8, and Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams. Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (Oxford 1989) p. 108
21 David Powell, Anti-religious Propaganda in the Soviet Union. A Study in Mass Persuasion (Cambridge, Mass. 1975) p. 36
22 Daniel Peris, Storming the Heavens. The Soviet League of the Militant Godless (Ithaca 1998)
23 See James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State. How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed (New Haven 1998) pp. 193ff.
24 Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution. The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven 1999) p. 40 and more generally for the influence of 1789 on February and October 1917
25 Ibid. pp. 59–60
26 Jennifer McDowell, ‘Soviet Civil Ceremonies’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (1974) 13, p. 267
27 Stites, Revolutionary Dreams pp. 84–92
28 Lynne Atwood and Catriona Kelly, ‘Programmes for Identity. The “New Man” and the “New Woman” ’, in Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd (eds), Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Revolution 1881–1940 (Oxford 1998) p. 269
29 Robert C. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary 1879–1929 (London 1973) p. 58
30 Robert Conquest, Stalin. Breaker of Nations (London 1991) p. 110; on Stalin’s time at the Tiflis seminary see Adam B. Ulam, Stalin. The Man and his Era (Boston 1989) pp. 22ff.
31 Robert Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London 1997) p. 153
32 Susan Buck-Morris, Dreamworld and Catastrophe. The Passing of Mass Utopia in East and West (Cambridge, Mass. 2000) p. 73
33 See especially Christel Lane, The Rites of Rulers. Ritual in Industrial Society—the Soviet Case (Cambridge 1981) pp. 210–16
34 Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy. The Russian Revolution 1891–1924 (London 1996), pp. 804ff.; Dimitri Volkogonov, Lenin. Life and Legacy (London 1991), pp. 435ff.; Service, Lenin. A Biography, pp. 481ff.
35 Didier Misiedlak, ‘Religion and Political Culture in the Thought of Mussolini’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005) 6, pp. 395–406, is useful
36 See the important discussion by Jacob L. Talmon, Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution. Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick 1991) pp. 490–5
37 Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871–1982 (London 1990) p. 215
38 R.J.B. Bosworth, The Italian Dictatorship (London 1998) p. 41
39 Emilio Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, Mass. 1996) p. 20
40 Benito Mussolini, ‘Discorso di Pesaro’ in E. Susmel and D. Susmel (eds), Opera omnia di Benito Mussolini (Florence 1956) 22, p. 197
41 George Mosse, ‘The Poet and the Exercise of Political Power’ in his Masses and Man. Nationalist and Fascist Perceptions of Reality (Detroit 1980)
42 Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (New York 1966) p. 188
43 See the excellent discussion in Emilio Gentile, ‘Fascism in Power. The Totalitarian Experiment’ in Adrian Lyttleton (ed.), Liberal and Fascist Italy (Oxford 2002) pp. 146–8
44 Henry Spencer, ‘The Mussolini Regime’ in Guy Stanton Ford (ed.), Dictatorship in the Modern World (New York 1935) p. 102
45 For palingenesis see the numerous intemperate effusions of Roger Griffin
46 See Mabel Berezin, Making the Fascist Self. The Political Culture of Interwar Italy (Ithaca 1997) pp. 63–5
47 Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics p. 35
48 Jens Petersen, ‘Die Entstehung des totalitarismusbegriffs in Italien’ in Manfred Funke (ed.), Ein Studien-Reader zur Herrschaftsanalyse moderner Diktaturen (Düsseldorf 1978) p. 123
49 Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics p. 62
50 ‘Doctrine of Fascism’ in Michael Oakeshott (ed.), The Social and Political Doctrines of Contemporary Europe (Cambridge 1939) pp. 164–78
51 Berezin, Making the Fascist Self p. 191
52 See Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth. Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford 1987)
53 On these complex tendencies see Richard A. Webster, The Cross and the Fasces. Christian Democracy and Fascism in Italy (Stanford 1960) pp. 23–5
54 John Pollard, ‘Italy’ in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1965 (Oxford 1996) pp. 78–9
55 Elisa Carrillo, Alcide de Gasperi. The Long Apprenticeship (Notre Dame 1965) p. 62
56 Webster, The Cross and the Fasces p. 75
57 John Pollard, The Vatican and Italian Fascism 1929–32. A Study in Conflict (Cambridge 1985) pp. 27–8
58 For this interaction see Renato Moro, ‘Religion and Politics in the Time of Secularization. The Sacralisation of Politics and Politicisation of Religion’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005) 6, especially pp. 80–3
59 Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia p. 172
60 As suggested by Robert H. McNeal, Stalin. Man and Ruler (London 1988) p. 152
61 Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary pp. 477–81
62 Ibid. pp. 481–2
63 Robert C. Tucker, ‘The Rise of Stalin’s Personality Cult’, American Historical Review (1979) 84, pp. 347–66
64 Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia pp. 150–1
65 Boris Souvarine, Stalin (New York 1939) p. 662
66 Mikhail Heller and Aleksandr Nekrich, Utopia in Power. The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (London 1985) p. 282
67 Lane, Rites of Rulers p. 217 citing a poem in a 1938 children’s magazine
68 Robert C. Tucker, ‘Does Big Brother Really Exist?’ in Irving Howe (ed.), 1984 Revisited. Totalitarianism in our Century (New York 1983) pp. 100–2
69 Robert C. Tucker, ‘Lenin’s Bolshevism as a Culture in the Making’ in Abbott Gleason, Peter Kenez and Richard Stites (eds), Bolshevik Culture. Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution (Bloomington 1985) pp. 25–38
70 See Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain. Stalinism as a Civilisation (Berkeley 1995) especially pp. 292–3
71 Victor Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom. The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Official (London 1947) p. 55
72 Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia p. 140
73 Klaus-Georg Riegel, ‘Rituals of Confession Within Communities of Virtuosi: An Interpretation of the Stalinist Criticism and Self-Criticism in the Perspective of Max Weber’s Sociology of Religion’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2000) 1, p. 31
74 Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom pp. 132–47
75 Arkady Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor. The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky (New York 1990) pp. 42–6
76 Ibid. p. 115
77 Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor p. 123
78 Robert Conquest, The Great Terror (London 1968) pp. 162–3
79 Ibid. pp. 230–53
80 Figes and Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution p. 185
81 Klaus-Georg Riegel, ‘Marxism–Leninism as a Political Religion’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005) 6, p. 107
82 Fülöp-Miller, The Mind and Face of Bolshevism p. 3
83 See Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power. Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley 1997) especially pp. 187ff.
84 Frank Manuel and Fritzie Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, Mass. 1979) pp. 271–9
85 Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain for these remarks
86 Ibid. p. 205
87 Christopher Read, ‘Values, Substitutes and Institutions. The Cultural Dimension of the Bolshevik Dictatorship’ in Brovkin (ed.), The Bolsheviks in Russian Society p. 315
88 For this see Lewis Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (Cambridge 1988) pp. 63ff.
89 Ibid. p. 230
90 For an excellent discussion of these themes see Katerina Clark, ‘Utopian Anthropology as a Context for Stalinist Literature’ in Robert C. Tucker (ed.), Stalinism. Essays in Historical Interpretation (New Brunswick 1999) pp. 180–98
91 Mikhail Heller, Cogs in the Wheel. The Formation of Soviet Man (New York 1988) p. 177
92 The painting is reproduced in Igor Golomstock, Totalitarian Art (New York 1990) p. 210
93 Lisa A. Kirschenbaum, Small Comrades. Revolutionizing Childhood in Soviet Russia, 1917–1932 (New York 2001) p. 158; for details on Morozov see Conquest, The Great Terror pp. 668–9, and Jan Feldman, ‘New Thinking about the “New Man”. Developments in Soviet Moral Theory’, Studies in Soviet Thought (1989) 38, pp. 147–63 for the fifty years it took for the USSR to ditch both Morozov and Stakhanov as moral icons. Most exhaustively see Catriona Kelly, Comrade Pavlik. The Rise and Fall of a Soviet Boy Hero (London 2005)
94 Jochen Hellbeck, ‘Fashioning the Stalinist Soul. The Diary of Stepan Podlubnyi (1931–1939)’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas (1996) 44, pp. 344ff. for all citations from the diary
95 Helmut Heiber, Goebbels. A Biography (New York 1972) p. 15
96 See Uriel Tal, ‘“Political Faith” of Nazism Prior to the Holocaust’ in his Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Third Reich (London 2004) p. 28, and Michael Rissmann, Hitlers Gott (Zurich 2001) p. 41
97 H. R. Trevor-Roper (introduced by) Hitler’s Table Talk 1941–1944 (Oxford 1988) hereafter HTT. HTT 27 February 1942, p. 342
98 Adolf Hitler Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (London 1959) p. 417 [hereafter cited as HMK]
99 HMK p. 393
100 This important point is made by Philippe Burrin, ‘Die politischen Religionen: Das Mythologisch-Symbolische in einer säkularisierten Welt’ in Michael Ley and Julius H. Schoeps (eds), Der Nationalsozialismus als politische Religion (Bodenheim bei Mainz 1997) pp. 181–2. Steigmann-Gall’s ‘discovery’ of the alternative of ‘religious politics’ in his ‘Was National Socialism a Political Religion or a Religious Politics?’ in Michael Geyer and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), Religion und Nation. Nation und Religion. Beiträge zu einer unbewältigten Geschichte (Göttingen 2004) pp. 386ff. constructs a very windy road to a very modest conclusion by the device of reversing two words used by other scholars
101 Richard Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich. Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 (Cambridge 2003) p. 63
102 Claus-Ekkehard Bärsch, Die politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (Munich 1998) p. 288
103 See Max Domarus (ed.), Hitler. Speeches and Proclamations (London 1992) 2, p. 1146 for the relevant speech in September 1938 which constituted a coded warning to Himmler and Rosenberg
104 Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London 1991) p. 32 misunderstands these events
105 See Claudia Witte, ‘Artur Dinter’ in B. Danckwortt, T. Querg and Claudia Schöningh (eds), Historische Rassismusforschung (Hamburg 1995) pp. 113–51
106 Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich pp. 60–1. Steigmann-Gall’s book fails to address larger debates about secularisation and surrogacy
107 The recent spate of anti-Catholic literature summarised in Goldhagen’s A Moral Reckoning. The Role of The Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair (New York 2002) fails to grapple with any of these issues and hence amounts to an offensive caricature of the complex realities of a bi-confessional society, not to speak of international Catholicism. Whereas Hitler attacked the Roman Catholic Church for being philosemitic, there is curiously no record of his acknowledging the antisemitism that such critics as Goldhagen claim it was allegedly permeated with
108 HTT 13 December 1941, p. 144
109 HTT 20–21 February 1942, pp. 322–3, and 28 April 1942, p. 445 for his observatory at Linz. Rissmann, Hitlers Gott makes too much of this in a book that does not tell us much about Hitler’s God at all
110 HTT 20–21 February 1942, p. 325 where he says he was ‘liberated from the superstition that the priests used to teach’ at the age of fourteen
111 See the unjustly neglected Detlev Grieswelle’s Propaganda der Friedlosigkeit—Eine Studie zu Hitlers Rhetorik 1920–1933 (Stuttgart 1972) pp. 56–7
112 HTT 9 April 1942, p. 419
113 HTT 27 February 1942, p. 343
114 HTT 13 December 1941, p. 143
115 HTT 20–21 February 1942, pp. 322–4
116 HTT 20–21 February 1942, p. 322
117 HTT 13 December 1941, p. 145
118 HTT 7 April 1942, p. 410
119 HTT 4 July 1942, p. 533
120 HTT 11 August 1942, pp. 625–6
121 Domarus (ed.), Hitler. Speeches and Proclamations 2, p. 908
122 Peter Adam, The Arts of the Third Reich (London 1992) p. 172 for the painting
123 On Hitler’s exploitation of his ‘authentic experiences’, where apart from the embroidered truth of his war service he fabricated a period as a ‘construction worker’, see J. P. Stern, Hitler. The Führer and the People (London 1975) pp. 23ff.
124 Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth p. 30
125 Cited by Ralph Georg Reuth, Goebbels (London 1993) p. 54
126 Domarus (ed.), Hitler. Speeches and Proclamations 2, p. 836
127 Ibid. p. 833
128 See especially Uriel Tal, ‘Political Faith of Nazism’ p. 35 and his ‘Structures of German “Political Theology” in the Nazi Era’ in his Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Third Reich; and Hartmut Lehmann, ‘“God our Old Ally”. The Chosen People Theme in Late Nineteenth-and Early Twentieth-Century Nationalism’ in W. Hutchinson and H. Lehmann (eds), Many are Chosen (Minneapolis 1994) pp. 85ff.
129 Robert P. Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler (New Haven 1985) p. 103
130 Uriel Tal, ‘On Modern Lutheranism and the Jews’ in his Religion, Politics and Ideology pp. 192ff.
131 The classic study of these issues is Kurt Nowak, ‘Euthanasie’ und Sterilisierung im ‘Dritten Reich’. Die Konfrontation der evangelischen und katholischen Kirche mit dem ‘Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses’ und der ‘Euthanasie’-Aktion (Göttingen 1978) p. 92
132 Sabine Schleiermacher, ‘Der Centralausschuss für die Innere Mission und die Eugenik am Vorabend des “Dritten Reiches” ’ in T. Strohm and J. Thierfelder (eds), Diakonie im ‘Dritten Reich’. Neuere Ergebnisse zeitgeschichtliche Forschung (Heidelberg 1990) pp. 60–77. And Michael Burleigh, ‘Between Enthusiasm, Compliance and Protest. The Churches, Eugenics and the Nazi “Euthanasia” Programmes’ in Burleigh, Ethics and Extermination. Reflections on Nazi Genocide (Cambridge 1997) pp. 130–141
133 See above all Maurice Oleander, The Languages of Paradise. Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass. 1992) and the older Leon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth. A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe (New York 1971)
134 HMK p. 348
135 HMK p. 263
136 HMK p. 270
137 HMK p. 265
138 HMK p. 278
139 Robert S. Wistrich, ‘The Last Testament of Sigmund Freud’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book (2004) 49, pp. 99–104
140 See the discussion in Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich. A New History (London 2000) pp. 219ff.
141 Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich p. 48 quoting lectures Althaus gave in 1932
142 Kurt Meier, Kreuz und Hakenkreuz. Die evangelische Kirche im Dritte Reich (Munich 1992) p. 37
143 Hans Kohn, ‘Communist and Fascist Dictatorship. A Comparative Study’ in Ford (ed.), Dictatorship in the Modern World p. 149
144 Joshua Podro, Nuremberg. The Unholy City (London 1937)
145 Victor Klemperer, The Language of the Third Reich. LTI–Lingua Tertii Imperii. A Philologist’s Notebook (London 1999) p. 34
146 Hans-Ulrich Thamer, ‘Faszination und Manipulation. Die Nürnberger Reichsparteitage der NSDAP’ in Uwe Schultz (ed.), Das Fest. Kulturgeschichte von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (Munich 1988) pp. 353ff.
147 George Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses (Ithaca 1975) p. 206
148 Domarus (ed.), Hitler. Speeches and Proclamations 2, pp. 727–8
149 See especially Sabine Behrenbeck, Der Kult um die toten Helden. Nationalsozialistische Mythen, Riten und Symbole (Vierow 1996) pp. 299ff.
150 Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism. Secret Aryan Cults and their Influence on Nazi Ideology (London 1985) pp. 177ff.
151 Michael Wildt, ‘The Spirit of the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA)’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2005) 6, p. 347
152 Waldemar Gurian, Bolshevism. Theory and Practice (London 1932) pp. 226–7
153 Heinz Hürten (ed.), Deutsche Briefe 1934–1938. Ein Blatt der katholischen Emigration (Mainz 1969)
154 Eric Voegelin, Autobiographical Reflections pp. 46–7
155 Eric Voegelin, The Political Religions. The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin [hereafter CWEV] (Columbia, Missouri 2000) 5; see also The History of the Race Idea. From Ray to Carus. CWEV (Columbia, Missouri 1998) 3 and Race and State. CWEV (Columbia, Missouri 1997) 2; see also Eric Voegelin, Autobiographical Reflections, ed. Ellis Sandoz (Baton Rouge 1989) for the biographical details
156 Franz Borkenau, The Totalitarian Enemy (London 1940) pp. 130 and 140–1. On Borkenau see Birgit Lange-Enzmann, Franz Borkenau als politischer Denker (Berlin 1996). See also William D. Jones, The Lost Debate. German Socialist Intellectuals and Totalitarianism (Urbana 1999)
157 Raymond Aron, The Dawn of Universal History. Selected Essays from a Witness to the Twentieth Century (New York 2002) pp. 177–223; the best biography of Aron remains Robert Colquhoun, Raymond Aron. The Philosopher in History (London 1986)
Chapter 3: The Churches in the Age of Dictators
1 See Norman Sherry, The Life of Graham Greene (London 1989) 1, especially pp. 653ff., and Graham Greene, The Lawless Roads (London 1939) p. 182
2 Greene, The Lawless Roads pp. 100–1
3 Pius XI, Acerba Animi, 29 September 1932
4 Anthony Rhodes, The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century, vol. 2: The Vatican in the Age of Dictators 1922–1945 (London 1973) p. 101
5 On Calles see Enrique Krauze, Mexico. Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico 1810–1996 (New York 1997) pp. 404ff.
6 Sherry, The Life of Graham Greene 1, pp. 612-13
7 Frances Lannon, Privilege, Persecution, and Prophecy. The Catholic Church in Spain 1875–1975 (Oxford 1987) p. 181
8 Rhodes, The Power of Rome 2, pp. 121–2
9 For examples see Mary Vincent’s excellent Catholicism in the Second Republic. Religion and Politics in Salamanca, 1930–1936 (Oxford 1996) pp. 184–8
10 Pius XI, Dilectissima nobis, 3 June 1933, pius-xi/encyclicals
11 For these details see Frances Lannon, ‘The Church’s Crusade against the Republic’ in P. Preston (ed.), Revolution and War in Spain 1931-1939 (London 1984) pp. 48–53
12 Stanley Payne, Spanish Catholicism. An Historical Overview (Madison, Wis. 1984) p. 160
13 Vincent, Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic pp. 217–20
14 See especially Mary Vincent, ‘Spain’ in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1965 (Oxford 1996) pp. 117–18
15 Paul Preston, A Concise History of the Spanish Civil War (London 1996) p. 47
16 Ibid. p. 43
17 José M. Sánchez, The Spanish Civil War as a Religious Tragedy (Notre Dame 1987) p. 9
18 Franz Borkenau, The Spanish Cockpit (London 1937) pp. 112–13
19 Cedric Salter, Try-Out in Spain (New York 1943) pp. 19–20
20 Sánchez, The Spanish Civil War as a Religious Tragedy p. 17
21 Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (London third edition 1990) p. 271
22 Sánchez,The Spanish Civil War as a Religious Tragedy pp. 47–8 for these statistics
23 Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime 1936–1975 (London 2000) p. 199
24 Payne, Spanish Catholicism p. 175
25 Paul Preston, ‘The Discreet Charm of a Dictator. Francisco Franco’ in his Comrades. Portraits from the Spanish Civil War (London 1999) p. 53
26 Payne, The Franco Regime p. 206
27 See especially Stanley Payne, A History of Fascism 1914-45 (London 1995) pp. 262–7
28 On this distinction see the classic analysis by Karl Dietrich Bracher, ‘Authoritarismus und Totalitarismus’ in his Wendezeiten der Geschichte. Historische-politische Essays (Stuttgart 1992) pp. 145–72
29 Charles Delzell (ed.), Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 (New York 1970) p. 332
30 See Tom Gallagher, ‘Portugal’ in Buchanan and Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe pp. 129ff.
31 Tom Gallagher, ‘Portugal’ in Martin Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives (London 1990) p. 165
32 Payne, A History of Fascism p. 249
33 See Klaus-Jörg Siegfried, Universalismus und Faschismus. Das Gesellschaftsbild Othmar Spann (Vienna 1974) pp. 144–7
34 Johannes Messner, Dollfuss. An Austrian Patriot (London 1935) p. 99
35 Alfred Pfoser and Gerhard Renner, ‘“Ein Toter fuehrt uns an!” Anmerkungen zur kulturellen Situation im Austrofaschismus’ in Emmerich Talos and Wolfgang Neugebauer (eds), ‘Austrofaschismus’—Beiträge über Politik: Ökonomie und kultur 1934–1938 (Vienna 1984) pp. 238–42
36 Frank Coppa, ‘Two Popes and the Holocaust’ in John K. Roth and Elizabeth Maxwell (eds), Remembering for the Future. The Holocaust in the Age of Genocide (Basingstoke 2001) 2, p. 399
37 Erika Wienzierl, ‘Austria. Church, State, Politics’ p. 20
38 Frank Coppa, ‘The Vatican and the Dictators’ in Richard Wolff and Jörg Hoensch (eds), Catholics, the State, and the European Radical Right 1919–1945 (New York 1987) p. 211
39 The text of the memorandum can be found in Charles R. Gallagher, ‘Pacelli Documents’, America. The National Catholic Weekly (2005) 192, pp. 1–4. See also Charles R. Gallagher, ‘Personal, Private Views’, America (2003) 189, pp. 1–5
40 Dermot Keogh, The Vatican, the Bishops and Irish Politics 1919–39 (Cambridge 1986) p. 204
41 On these developments see F. S. L. Lyons, Ireland since the Famine (London 1963) p. 495
42 See the fine discussion in R. F. Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (Oxford 1988) pp. 516ff.
43 Dermot Keogh and Finín O’Driscoll, ‘Ireland’ in Buchanan and Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe pp. 279ff.
44 John H. Whyte, Church and State in Modern Ireland 1923–1979 (Totowa, NJ 1980) p. 28
45 Ibid. pp. 52–6
46 Stella Alexander ‘Croatia. The Catholic Church and Clergy, 1919–1945’ in Wolff and Hoensch (eds), Catholics, the State, and the European Radical Right pp. 31ff.
47 Martin, Conway, ‘Belgium’ in Buchanan and Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe pp. 201–3
48 For the above see John Hellman’s excellent Emmanuel Mounier and the New Catholic Left 1930–1950 (Toronto 1981)
49 Robert Paxton, ‘France. The Church, the Republic’ in Wolff and Hoensch (eds), Catholics, The State and the European Radical Right p. 78
50 Douglas Lane Patey, The Life of Evelyn Waugh (Oxford 1998) pp. 146–7
51 Marcus Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars. The Struggle for a Nation’s Soul 1500–2000 (New Haven 2001) pp. 307–9
52 Frederic Hartweg, ‘Der französische Protestantismus und die Kirchen in Deutschland’ in Gerhard Besier (ed.), Zwischen ‘nationaler Revolution’ und militärischer Aggression (Munich 2001) p. 240
53 Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners. A History of the Popes (New Haven 2001) p. 338
54 Robert Speaight, Georges Bernanos. A Study of the Man and the Writer (London 1974) pp. 156ff.
55 Malcolm Scott, Mauriac. The Politics of a Novelist (Edinburgh 1980) pp. 70–6
56 Bernard Doering, Jacques Maritain and the French Catholic Intellectuals (Notre Dame 1983) especially pp. 85–125
57 On this see Thomas Brechenmacher, ‘Pope Pius XI, Eugenio Pacelli, and the Persecution of the Jews in Nazi Germany 1933–1939. New Sources from the Vatican Archives’, German Historical Institute Bulletin (2005) 27, pp. 22–3
58 Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918–1945 (London 1997) p. 41
59 On this see Philip Jenkins, The New Anti-Catholicism. The Last Acceptable Prejudice (Oxford 2003)
60 On this see the discussion in Ronald Rychlak, Righteous Gentiles (Dallas 2005) pp. 26–8
61 Philip Hughes, Pope Pius the Eleventh (London 1937) pp. 68ff.
62 See Kenneth Whitehead, ‘The Pope Pius XII Controversy’, Political Science Reviewer (2002) 31, p. 349 citing William Teeling, Pope Pius XI and World Affairs (New York 1937) p. 67
63 Lord Clonmore, Pope Pius XI and World Peace (London 1938) p. 54
64 On this see Ronald Rychlak, ‘Goldhagen v. Pius XII’, First Things (2002) pp. 42–3, and Emma Fattorini, Germania e Santa Sede. Le nunziatura di Pacelli tra la Grande Guerra e la Repubblica di Weimar (Bologna 1992) p. 116
65 Gerhard Besier, Der Heilige Stuhl und Hitler-Deutschland. Die Faszination des Totalitären (Munich 2004) especially pp. 79–92
66 D. A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy (Oxford 1970) p. 333
67 Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno
68 John Pollard, The Vatican and Italian Fascism 1929–32. A study in conflict (Cambridge 1985) pp. 136–7
69 Pius XI, Non abbiamo bisogno quotations from clauses 12 and 44
70 For the details see Ludwig Volk, Der bayerische Episkopat und der Nationalsozialismus 1930-1934 (Mainz 1966) pp. 14–19
71 Archivio Nunziatura Monaco, protocollo nr 28961, Busta 396, Fascicolo 7, Foglio 6r–7v and ‘Pacelli denounces the Nazis’, Inside the Vatican (March 2003) pp. 30–1 for an English translation of the document
72 Zsolt Aradi, Pius XI. The Pope and the Man (New York 1958) p. 222
73 Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle. Memoirs (London 1959) p. 47
74 Ernst Hanisch, Die Ideologie des Politischen Katholizismus in Österreich 1918–1938 (Vienna 1977) p. 30
75 Besier, Der Heilige Stuhl pp. 140–5
76 On this see David Bates, ‘Legitimität and Légalité. Political Theology and Democratic Thought in an Age of World War’ in Michael Geyer and Hartmut Lehmann (eds), Religion und Nation. Nation und Religion (Göttingen 2004) pp. 435ff.
77 Giovanni Sale, Hitler, la Santa Sede e gli Ebrei (Milan 2003) p. 107
78 Konrad Repgen, ‘Über die Entstehung der Reichskonkordats-Offerte im Frühjahr 1933 und die Bedeutung des Reichskonkordats’, Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (1978) 26, pp. 499ff. And his ‘Zur vatikanischen Strategie beim Reichkonkordat’, Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (1983) 31, pp. 512–15
79 See Michael Feldkamp, Pius XII und Deutschland (Göttingen 2000) p. 95
80 See the classic account by Karl-Dietrich Bracher, Die Auflösung der Weimarer Republik (Villingen 1971 fifth edition)
81 Ludwig Volk, ‘Die Fuldaer Bischofskonferenz von Hitlers Machtergreifung bis zur Enzyklika “Mit brennender Sorge”’, in Dieter Albrecht (ed.), Katholische Kirche im Dritten Reich (Mainz 1976) p. 40
82 John Jay Hughes, ‘The Pope’s “Pact with Hitler”. Betrayal or Self-Defense?’, Journal of Church and State (1975) 17, p. 70
83 Besier, Der Heilige Stuhl pp. 183ff.
84 John Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933–1945 (London New York 1968) pp. 25–6
85 Repgen, ‘Zur vatikanischen Strategie beim Reichskonkordat’, documentary appendix pp. 530–5
86 Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle p. 48
87 ‘Vatican told Nuncio to Forgo Praise of Hitler’, Zenit.org 1 May 2003 referring to an interview with Matteo Napolitano citing Entry 604, p.o. fascicle 113 in the Vatican archives
88 Robert P. Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler. Gerhard Kittel, Paul Althaus, and Emanuel Hirsch (New Haven 1985)
89 Robert A. Krieg, Catholic Theologians in Nazi Germany (New York 2004) pp. 146ff.
90 Michael B. Lukens, ‘Joseph Lortz and a Catholic Accommodation with National Socialism’ in Robert P. Ericksen and Susannah Heschel (eds), Betrayal. German Churches and the Holocaust (Minneapolis 1999) pp. 162–3
91 Lothar Groppe, ‘The Church and the Jews in the Third Reich’, Fidelity (1983) 1, p. 20
92 Fritz Gerlich, Der Kommunismus als Lehre vom Tausendjährigen Reich (Munich 1920)
93 On Gerlich see Erwein Freiherr von Aretin, Fritz Michael Gerlich. Prophet und Martyrer (Munich 1983) and Rudolf Morsey ‘Fritz Gerlich (1883–1934)’ p. 35
94 William Doino, ‘Edith Stein’s Letter’, Inside the Vatican (March 2003) pp. 22–7 contains this exchange in facsimile
95 Kurt Nowak, ‘Euthanasie’ und Sterilisierung im ‘Dritten Reich’. Die Konfrontation der evangelischen und katholischen Kirche mit dem ‘Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses’ und der ‘Euthanasie’ (Göttingen 1978) p. 112
96 Krieg, Catholic Theologians in Nazi Germany pp. 49–50. Beth A. Griech-Polelle’s Bishop von Galen. German Catholicism and National Socialism (New Haven 2002) p. 69 omits Pacelli’s censuring of the two academics. Her references to ‘Dr Victor Brandt’ on p. 72, conflating Viktor Brack, who was not a doctor of any description, with Professor Karl Rudolf Brandt, Hitler’s accident emergency surgeon (both organisers of the T-4 euthanasia programme), do not inspire much confidence either
97 Gerhard Besier, Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich. Spaltungen und Abwehrkämpfe 1934–1937 (Munich 2001) pp.210–11
98 Feldkamp, Pius XII und Deutschland p. 105
99 Guenther Lewy, The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany (London 1964) p. 133
100 Anon, The Persecution of the Catholic Church in the Third Reich (London 1940) pp. 426–7
101 Ibid. p. 105
102 See Wolfgang Dierker, Himmlers Glaubenskrieger (Paderborn 2002) p. 151
103 Besier, Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich p. 204
104 Anon, The Nazi Persecution of the Catholic Church (London 1939) p. 268
105 Charles R. Gallagher, ‘Personal, Private Views’, America. The National Catholic Weekly (2003) 189, p. 2
106 Lewy, The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany p. 125
107 Brechenmacher, ‘Pope Pius XI’ p. 36
108 See Hubert Wolf, ‘Pius XI und die “Zeitirrtümer”’, Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (2005) 53, pp. 12ff.
109 Peter Godman, Hitler and the Vatican (New York 2004) pp. 194–9 for these texts
110 The text of the encyclical can be found in Anon (ed.), The Persecution of the Catholic Church in the Third Reich pp. 523–7 or under Pius XII Encyclicals on the Vatican website
111 For further examples see Heinz-Albert Raem, Pius XI und der Nationalsozialismus. Die Enzyklika ‘Mit brennender Sorge’ vom 14. März 1937 (Paderborn 1979) pp. 214–16 for numerous examples
112 On reactions to the encyclical see Giovanni Sale, ‘L’enciclica contro il Nazismo,’ Civiltà Cattolica (2004) 11, pp. 114–27
113 Rhodes, The Vatican in the Age of the Dictators p. 208
114 Heinz Hürten, Deutsche Katholiken 1918–1945 (Paderborn 1996) p. 396
115 Richlak, Righteous Gentiles p. 36
116 Dierker, Himmlers Glaubenskrieger pp. 224–7
117 See the ‘Waldemar Gurian Memorial Issue’ in the 1955 Review of Politics, the very remarkable political science journal he founded in the US, with personal recollections by among others Hannah Arendt, Hans Kohn and Jacques Maritain
118 Waldemar Gurian, Bolshevism. Theory and Practice (London 1932)
119 Heinz Hürten (ed.), Deutsche Briefe 1934–1938. Ein Blatt der katholischen Emigration (Mainz 1969) vols 1–2. Vol. 1 nr 52, dated 27 September 1935, p. 593
120 Waldemar Gurian, Hitler and the Christians (New York 1936) pp. 57–9
121 ‘Ist der Nationalsozialismus eine Religion?’ in Heinz Hürten (ed.), ‘Kulturkampf. Bericht aus dem Dritten Reich. Paris’. Eichstätter Materialien vol 13 (Regensburg 1988) nr 78, dated 8 August 1939, pp. 251–7
122 Thomas Morgan, A Reporter at the Papal Court. A Narrative of the Reign of Pius XI (New York 1937) p. 288
123 Feldkamp, Pius XII und Deutschland p. 113
124 R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy (London 2005) p. 417
125 Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy pp. 616–17
126 Coppa, ‘Two Popes and the Holocaust’ p. 401
127 David Dalin, The Myth of Hitler’s Pope (Washington DC 2005) pp. 70–3
128 ‘Pope Pius and the Jews. A Champion of Toleration’, Jewish Chronicle 17 February 1939 p. 16
129 Richard Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich. Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 (Cambridge 2003) pp. 67ff.
130 Ernst Christian Helmreich, The German Churches under Hitler (Detroit 1979) p. 213
131 Günter Brakelmann, ‘Nationalprotestantismus und Nationalsozialismus’ in Christian Jansen et al. (eds), Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit. Politische Verantwortung und bürgerliche Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin 1995) pp. 337ff.
132 For the details see Shelley Baranowski, ‘The 1933 German Protestant Church Elections. Machtpolitik or Accommodation’, Church History (1980) 49, pp. 298ff.
133 See especially Shelley Baranowski, ‘Consent and Dissent. The Confessing Church and Conservative Opposition to National Socialism’, Journal of Modern History (1987) 59, p. 59
134 Victoria Barnett, For the Soul of the People. Protestant Protest against Hitler (Oxford 1992) p. 35
135 Ruth Zerner, ‘German Protestant Responses to Nazi Persecution of the Jews’, in Randolf Braham (ed.), Perspectives on the Holocaust (Boston 1983) p. 63
136 Ian Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich. Bavaria 1933–1945 (Oxford 1983) pp. 164–76
137 John Conway, ‘The North American Churches’ Reactions to the German Church Struggle’ in Besier (ed.), Zwischen ‘nationaler Revolution’ und militärischer Aggression pp. 264–5
138 Adolf Keller, Church and State on the European Continent (London 1936) pp. 22–3
139 Frederick Voigt, Unto Caesar (London 1938)
140 Manchester Guardian, 26 January 1937
141 Adrian Hastings, A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (London 2001 fourth edition) p. 321
142 Sir Charles Grant Robertson, Religion and the Totalitarian State (London 1937)
143 See the sympathetic study by Owen Chadwick, Hensley Henson. A Study in the Friction between Church and State (Oxford 1983) pp. 262–3
144 Herbert Hensley Henson, Retrospect of an Unimportant Life (Oxford 1943) 2, p. 413
145 The definitive study of this memorandum is Martin Greschat (ed.), Zwischen Widerspruch und Widerstand. Texte zur Denkschrift der Bekennenden Kirche an Hitler (1936) (Munich 1987).
146 Robert S. Wistrich ‘The Last Testament of Sigmund Freud’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book (2004) 49, pp. 100–1
147 ‘German Martyrs’, Time, 23 December 1940, p. 38
Chapter 4: Apocalypse 1939–1945
1 See Paul Addison, ‘Destiny, History and Providence. The Religion of Winston Churchill’ in Michael Bentley (ed.), Public and Private Doctrine. Essays in British History Presented to Maurice Cowling (Cambridge 1993) pp. 236ff.
2 Robert Rhodes James (ed.), Winston S. Churchill. His Complete Speeches 1897–1963 (8 volumes, London 1974) 6, p. 6238; on Churchill’s oratory see David Cannadine, ‘Language. Churchill as the Voice of Destiny’ in his In Churchill’s Shadow. Confronting the Past in Modern Britain (Oxford 2003) pp. 85–113
3 Herbert Hensley Henson, Retrospect of an Unimportant Life (Oxford 1950) 3, pp. 146–8
4 See Keith Robbins, ‘Britain, 1940 and “Christian Civilization”’ in Derek Beales and Geoffrey Best (eds), History, Society and the Churches. Essays in Honour of Owen Chadwick (Cambridge 1985) pp. 279ff.
5 R. Kojec@@@y, T. S. Eliot’s Social Criticism (London 1971)
6 Jerzy Klockowski, A History of Polish Christianity (Cambridge 2000) p. 297. Two hundred and twenty Poles per thousand were killed in the war, as opposed to 124 per thousand Russians and 74 per thousand Germans
7 An exception is obviously José M. Sánchez, Pius XII and the Holocaust (Washington DC 2002) pp. 137–9
8 See John Pollard, ‘The Papacy in Two World Wars. Benedict XV and Pius XII Compared’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions (2001) 2, p. 90
9 As this book is not a history of the Holocaust, readers should consult the journals Yad Vashem Studies and the Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte for the recent historiography, and Civiltà Cattolica for relevant material on the responses of the Catholic Church. For a comprehensive account of the ongoing ‘Pius War’ see Joseph Bottum and David S. Dalin (eds), The Pius War. Responses to the Critics of Pius XII (Lanham, Md 2004) and especially the huge bibliography of William Doino
10 For this important point see Robert Graham, ‘Papst Pius XII und seine Haltung zu den Kriegsmächten’ in Herbert Schambeck (ed.), Pius XII zum Gedächtnis (Berlin 1977) pp. 144–6
11 Pierre Blet et al. (eds), Actes et Documents du Saint-Siège [hereafter cited as ADSS] (Vatican City 1965–81) 1, nrs 18–46, pp. 118–49 for this correspondence between the Vatican, its nuncios and the Powers about the May 1939 peace initiatives
12 ADSS 1, nr 113 pp. 230–8
13 Zygmunt Jakubowski, Pope Pius and Poland (New York 1942) pp. 15–16
14 Inter Arma Caritas. The Vatican Office of Information for Prisoners of War Instituted by Pius XII (1939–1947) (2 volumes Rome 2004)
15 Peter Hoffmann, ‘Roncalli in the Second World War. Peace Initiatives, the Greek Famine and the Persecution of the Jews’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1989) 40, pp. 77ff.
16 ADSS 6, nr 355, pp. 455–7
17 Antonio Gaspari, ‘Uncovered Correspondence of Pius XII’, Inside the Vatican (February 2003) pp. 14–16 with facsimiles of the two letters relaying the money. Palatucci’s policeman nephew Giovanni would be killed in Dachau for his role (in conjunction with the bishop) in rescuing five thousand Jews. ADSS 8, nr 348, pp. 505–7 for the letter from the Jews at Ferramonte Tarsia with its explicit acknowledgement that the pope ‘is not solely the Father and highest shepherd of Catholics around the entire world, but at the same time the fatherly protector and realiser of the humanitarian ideal of humanity as a whole’
18 These examples are taken from ADSS 8, nr 275, pp. 430–1; nr 259, pp. 413–15; nr 276, pp. 431–2; and nr 392, pp. 553–5. The quotation is from secretary of state Maglione to Osborne dated 24 November 1941 in ADSS 8, nr 207, p. 354. The British refused to relax the naval blockade to enable food to be brought into Greece
19 ADSS 1, nr. 213, pp. 315–23
20 ‘Pope condemns dictators, treaty violators, racism; urges restoring of Poland’, New York Times, 28 October 1939, front page and p. 9; the quotation from Heinrich Müller is from Saul Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich (New York 1966) p. 37 where the document is cited in full
21 The Pope’s Five Peace Points. Address of Pope Pius XII to the Sacred College of Cardinals on Christmas Eve 1939 (London 1940) p. 256 and Osservatore Romano, 26–27 December 1939 pp. 1–2; the casualty figures are from AlexanderB. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland (Lawrence, Kansas 2003) p. 234
22 José M. Sánchez, Pius XII and the Holocaust. Understanding the Controversy (Washington DC 2002) p. 51
23 August Hlond, The Persecution of the Catholic Church in German-Occupied Poland (London 1941) p. 122 for the text of this broadcast to Poles in the US; see also R. M. Macdonald (ed.), The Pope Speaks (London 1942) p. 106
24 ADSS 3, nr 96, p. 195
25 Harold H. Tittmann Jr, Inside the Vatican of Pius XII. The Memoirs of an American Diplomat during World War II (New York 2004) pp. 111–15
26 Klemens von Klemperer, German Resistance against Hitler. The Search for Allies Abroad 1938–1945 (Oxford 1992) pp. 171ff.
27 For the Foreign Office documents relating to these contacts see Peter Ludlow, ‘Papst Pius XII, die britische Regierung und die deutsche Opposition im Winter 1939/40’ Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (1974) 22, pp. 299–39
28 David Alvarez and Robert Graham, Nothing Sacred. Nazi Espionage against the Vatican, 1939–1945 (London 1997) pp. 24–33
29 John Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933–1945 (London 1968) pp. 305–7 for details of protests that would include interventions on behalf of concentration-camp inmates, hostages, Jews expelled from France, starving children in Greece, and refugees from Yugoslavia
30 Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich p. 39
31 For a good recent discussion of this see Philippe Burrin, Ressentiment et apocalypse. Essai sur l’antisémitisme Nazi (Paris 2004); various essays in Wolfgang Hartwig (ed.), Utopie und politische Herrschaft im Europa der Zwischenkriegszeit (Munich 2003) touch on some of these points without offering anything new
32 On these policies see Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance. Euthanasia in Germany 1900–1945 (Cambridge 1994) and Henry Friedländer, The Origins of Nazi Genocide (Chapel Hill 1995), although US historians invariably reverse their order of appearance
33 ADSS 6, nr 391, pp. 499–500
34 ADSS 2, nr 33, pp. 102–3
35 For a facsimile of the sermon see Joachim Kuropka, Clemens August Graf von Galen. Sein Leben und Wirken in Bildern und Dokumenten (Cloppenburg 1992) pp. 217ff.
36 ADSS 2, nr 76, pp. 230–1, 30 September 1941
37 ADSS 2, nr 84, p. 257, Pius XII to Konrad Gröber dated 1 March 1942
38 Charles Pichon, The Vatican and its Role in World Affairs (New York 1950) p. 158
39 ‘Pope is Emphatic about Just Peace. Jews’ rights defended’, New York Times, 14 March 1940
40 John Conway, ‘The Meeting between Pope Pius XII and Ribbentrop’, Canadian Journal of History (1968) 1, p. 107 and ADSS 1, nrs 254–9 for the Vatican record of these meetings
41 Osservatore Romano, 12 May 1940 pp. 13–14
42 ADSS 1, nr 312, p. 453
43 Owen Chadwick, Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War (Cambridge 1986) p. 112
44 Ronald J. Rychlak, Hitler, the War, and the Pope (Columbus, Miss. 2000) p. 140
45 ADSS 1, nr 374, pp. 508–9; see also Owen Chadwick, ‘The Papacy and World War II’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1967) 18, p. 76
46 Jonathan Steinberg, All or Nothing. The Axis and the Holocaust 1941–1943 (London 1990) pp. 17ff.
47 Robert Graham, The Vatican and Communism during World War II. What Really Happened? (San Francisco 1996) p. 91
48 Robert Conquest, Religion in the USSR (New York 1968) p. 34
49 Graham, The Vatican and Communism during World War II pp. 38–40
50 Dimitry Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime 1917–1982 (New York 1984) 1, p. 200
51 Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Occupied Russia 1941–1945. A Study of Occupation Politics (London 1981) p. 474
52 Xavier de Montclos, Les Chrétiens face au Nazisme et au Stalinisme. L’épreuve totalitaire, 1939–1945 (Paris 1983) p. 93
53 John Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope. The Secret History of Pius II (London 1999) p. 264
54 Graham, The Vatican and Communism during World War II pp. 124–7
55 W. D. Halls, Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France (Oxford 1995) pp. 37–8
56 Michèle Cointet, L’Église sous Vichy (Paris 1998) p. 25
57 Antonio Costa Pinto, ‘Le Portugal. L’état nouveau de Salazar’ in Jean-Pierre Azéma and François Bédarida (eds), Vichy et les Français (Paris 1996) pp. 674ff. is good on these comparative issues
58 Renée Bédarida, Les Catholiques dans la guerre 1939–1945 (Paris 1998) p. 53
59 Julian Jackson, France. The Dark Years 1940–1944 (Oxford 2000) p. 364
60 Susan Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews (Lincoln, Nebr. 1993) p. 54
61 Bédarida, Les Catholiques dans la guerre p. 173
62 Michael Marrus, ‘French Churches and the Persecution of Jews in France, 1940–1944’ in Otto Dov Kulka and PaulR. Mendes-Flohr (eds), Judaism and Christianity under the Impact of National Socialism (Jerusalem 1987) p. 311
63 Halls, Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France p. 109
64 Henri de Lubac, Christian Resistance to AntiSemitism: Memories from 1940–1944 (San Francisco 1990) pp. 66–70 for both texts
65 Cointet, L’Église sous Vichy pp. 203–5
66 Pierre Blet et al. (eds), Pius XII and the Second World War. According to the Archives of the Vatican (New York 1999) pp. 232–3
67 Jacques Adler, ‘The “Sin of Omission”? Radio Vatican and the Anti-Nazi Struggle 1940–1942’, Australian Journal of Politics and History (2004) 50, pp. 396–406
68 Renée Bédarida, Pierre Chaillet. Témoin de la résistance spirituelle (Paris 1988)
69 See especially Renée Bédarida, Les Armes de l’esprit. Témoinage chrétien, 1941–1944 (Paris 1977)
70 The Times dated 11 September 1942 cited by Martin Gilbert, The Righteous. The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust (New York 2003) p. 263
71 Cointet, L’Église sous Vichy pp. 265ff.
72 Bob Moore, Victims and Survivors. The Nazi Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands 1940–1945 (London 1997) p. 59
73 Tablet, 29 August 1942, p. 103
74 Yitshak Arad, ‘Stalin and the Soviet Leadership. Responses to the Holocaust’ in John K. Roth and Elisabeth Maxwell (eds), Remembering for the Future. The Holocaust in an Age of Genocide (Basingstoke 2001) 1, pp. 355ff. The relative neglect of Soviet responses to the Holocaust seems curious when compared with the vast literatures devoted to neutrals and Western democracies
75 This is especially true of Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich pp. 117–24 which does not address the four-month interval between US receipt of the Riegner Telegram and the Allied response
76 See Gerhart M. Riegner, ‘Riegner Telegram’ in Walter Laqueur (ed.), The Holocaust Encyclopedia (New Haven 2001) pp. 562–7
77 ADSS 8, nr 300, p. 455
78 ADSS 8, nr 298, p. 453, and nr 301, p. 456
79 ADSS 8, nr 303, p. 458
80 The aide-mémoire is published in Friedländer, Pius XII and the Third Reich pp. 104–10
81 ADSS 8, nr. 342, p. 501
82 Chadwick, Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War pp. 208–11
83 ADSS 3, part ii, nr 406, pp. 636ff.
84 Tittmann, Inside the Vatican of Pius XII pp. 118ff.
85 Thomas Moloney, Westminster, Whitehall and the Vatican. The Role of Cardinal Hinsley 1935–1943 (London 1985) p. 174
86 ADSS 8, nr 496, pp. 669–70, and Carlo Falconi, The Silence of Pius XII (Boston 1970) p. 170. For a reasoned discussion of Pius see Meir Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews. German–Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy 1922–1945 (Oxford 1978) pp. 372–787 Anthony Rhodes, The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century, vol. 2: The Vatican in the Age of Dictators 1922–1945 (London 1973) p. 288
88 The most illuminating study is Martin Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives (London 1990)
89 David Dalin, The Myth of Hitler’s Pope (Washington DC 2005) pp. 131ff.
90 For a good overview see John S. Conway, ‘The Vatican, Germany and the Holocaust’ in Peter C. Kent and John F. Pollard (eds), Papal Diplomacy in the Modern Age (Westport 1994) pp. 105–20
91 ADSS 1, nr 210, p. 313, 26 September 1939
92 Montclos, Les Chrétiens face au Nazisme et au Stalinisme p. 142
93 ADSS 8, nr 199, pp. 345–7
94 Livia Rothkirchen, ‘The Vatican and the “Jewish Problem” in Slovakia’, Yad Vashem Studies (1967) 6, p. 39
95 Livia Rothkirchen, ‘Czechoslovakia’ in David S. Wyman (ed.), The World Reacts to the Holocaust (Baltimore 1996) p. 170
96 Rothkirchen, ‘The Vatican and the “Jewish Problem” ’ p. 48
97 Blet et al. (eds), Pius XII and the Second World War pp. 177–8
98 ADSS 8, nr 426, p. 598
99 Marcus Tanner, Croatia. A Nation Forged in War (New Haven 1997) pp. 141ff. for these events
100 ADSS 9, nr 130, especially annexe II Stepinac to Maglione dated 24 May 1943, pp. 222–224, listing the regime’s beneficial measures
101 Hubert Butler, Independent Spirit. Essays (New York 1996) contains several essays on Croatia, the Church and Ireland
102 Montclos, Les Chrétiens face au Nazisme et au Stalinisme p. 156
103 Tittmann, Inside the Vatican of Pius XII pp. 50–1
104 Rhodes, The Power of Rome 2, p. 326
105 Menachem Shelah, ‘The Catholic Church in Croatia, the Vatican and the Murder of the Croatian Jews’ in his Remembering for the Future (Oxford 1988) 1, p. 270
106 Stella Alexander, The Triple Myth. A Life of Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac (New York 1987) p. 81
107 Ibid. p. 85
108 As conceded by the otherwise critical Menachem Shelah, ‘The Catholic Church in Croatia’ p. 332
109 Rhodes, The Power of Rome 2, pp. 330–1
110 Shelah, ‘The Catholic Church in Croatia’ p. 334
111 ADSS 9, nr 130, annexe iii, pp. 224–9
112 The most interesting book on Romanian Fascism is Radu Ioanid, The Sword of the Archangel. Fascist Ideology in Romania (Boulder 1990)
113 Payne, A History of Fascism 1919–1945 (London 1998) pp. 392ff.
114 Raul Hilberg, Die Vernichtung der europäischen Juden (Frankfurt am Main 1990) 2, p. 817
115 Jean Ancel, ‘The “Christian” Regime of Romania and the Jews, 1940–1942’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies (1993) 7, p.21
116 ADSS 5, nr 93, pp. 240–1, letter dated 20 September 1941; see also Graham, The Vatican and Communism during World War II pp. 38–9
117 Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania (Chicago 2000) p. 246 gives the nuncio his due
118 ADSS 8, nr 531, p. 702, nuncio Bernardini to cardinal Maglione dated 29 October 1942
119 ADSS 9, nr 52, p. 128, nuncio Cassulo to cardinal Maglione dated 14 February 1943
120 ‘Declaration’ by Alexandre Safran reprinted in Jean Ancel (ed.), Documents Concerning the Fate of Romanian Jewry during the Holocaust (New York 1986) 8, pp. 599–601
121 E.g. ADSS 9, nr 219, pp. 330–2 Cassulo to Maglione detailing his interventions with Radu Lecca and the concrete improvements he had extracted from the Romanian authorities on behalf of the Jews
122 ADSS 10, nr 211, annexes i and ii, pp. 291–2; see also Theodore Lavi, ‘The Vatican’s Endeavors on Behalf of Rumanian Jewry during the Second World War’, Yad Vashem Studies (1963) 5, pp. 405–18
123 Hilberg, Die Vernichtung der europäischen Juden pp. 794–5
124 Hoffmann, ‘Roncalli in the Second World War’, see also Michael Bar-Zohar, Beyond Hitler’s Grasp. The Heroic Rescue of Bulgaria’s Jews (Holbrook 1998)
125 Tzvetan Todorov, The Fragility of Goodness. Why Bulgaria’s Jews Survived the Holocaust (London 1999) p. 128
126 Rychlak, Hitler, the War and the Pope pp. 202–4
127 John Caroll-Abbing, But for the Grace of God (Rome 1965) p. 56
128 The most balanced account is by Owen Chadwick, ‘Weizsäcker, the Vatican and the Jews of Rome’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1977) 28, pp. 179ff.
129 Susan Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust. Persecution, Rescue and Survival (London 1987) pp. 132–4 is considerably more balanced in approach than her later Under his Very Windows. The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy (New Haven 2000). On the latter see Ronald Rychlak, ‘Comments on Susan Zuccotti’s Under his Very Windows’, Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2002) 7, pp. 218ff.
130 Rychlak, Hitler, the War and the Pope p. 217
131 ADSS 10, nr 117, p. 191, and nr 133p. 206
132 Jenö Levai, Hungarian Jewry and the Papacy. Pope Pius XII did Not Remain Silent (London 1968) pp. 21–2
133 A. C. F. Beales, The Pope and the Jews (London 1945) pp. 35–6
134 Hoffmann, ‘Roncalli in the Second World War’ p. 86
135 ADSS 10, nr 270, p. 357, and nr 273, p. 359
136 For numerous examples of Christian religious houses helping Jews see Eugene Levai, Black Book on the Martyrdom of Hungarian Jewry and Levai, Hungarian Jewry and the Papacy pp. 44–5 (this latter title uses the anglicised version of the Hungarian author’s name cited above in note 132)
137 For these statistics see Martin Gilbert, The Righteous p. 405
138 István Deák, ‘The Pope, the Nazis and the Jews’, New York Review of Books, 23 March 2000, pp. 44–9. It is to be sincerely hoped that people like Deák will devote as much space to reviewing the large number of recent books defending Pius XII as they do to those attacking him, although one is not optimistic that the New York Review of Books will facilitate this on such a generous scale
Chapter 5: Resistance, Christian Democracy and the Cold War
1 G. Quazza, ‘The Politics of the Italian Resistance’ in S.J. Woolf (ed.), The Rebirth of Italy 1943–1950 (London 1972) p. 28
2 See the penetrating discussion in Hans Maier, ‘Christliche Widerstand. Der Fall des Dritten Reiches’ in his Politische Religionen. Die totalitären Regime und das Christentum (Freiburg im Breisgau 1995) pp. 62ff. See also the still useful Luigi Sturzo, ‘The Right to Rebel’ in his Politics and Morality. Essays in Christian Democracy (London 1938) pp. 195–212. Sturzo was exiled for his rebellion against the Church’s accommodations with Fascism
3 Renée Bédarida, Les Catholiques dans la guerre 1939–1945 (Paris 1998) p. 126
4 Georges Bernanos, Plea for Liberty. Letters to the English, the Americans, the Europeans (New York 1944)
5 See Harry Roderick Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France (Oxford 1978) pp. 28ff.
6 W. D. Halls, Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France (Oxford 1995) pp. 204–5
7 François and Renée Bédarida (eds), La Résistance spirituelle 1941–1944. Les Cahiers clandestins du témoignage chrétien (Paris 2001) pp. 117–56 and 213–21 for the texts
8 A. Shennan, Rethinking France. Plans for Renewal 1940–1946 (Oxford 1989)
9 Maurice Larkin, France since the Popular Front. Government and People 1936–1996 (Oxford 1997) p. 109
10 Michael Kelly, ‘Catholics and Communism in Liberation France, 1944–47’ in Frank Tallett and Nicholas Atkins (eds), Religion, Society and Politics in France since 1789 (London 1991) pp. 187ff.
11 See the excellent discussion in R. E. M. Irving, Christian Democracy in France (London 1973) pp. 57–65
12 Georges Bidault, Resistance. The Political Autobiography of Georges Bidault (London 1965) pp. 15–17
13 Jean-Marie Mayeur, Des partis catholiques à la Démocratie chrétienne xix–xx siècles (Paris 1980) p. 173
14 For the above see James McMillan, ‘France’ in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1965 (Oxford 1996) pp. 59ff. and Irving, Christian Democracy in France (London 1973)
15 Quazza, ‘The Politics of the Italian Resistance’ p. 17
16 Richard A. Webster, The Cross and the Fasces. Christian Democracy and Fascism in Italy (Stanford 1960) p. 165
17 Peter Hebblethwaite, Paul VI. The First Modern Pope (London 1993) p. 194
18 Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy 1943–1980 (London 1990) pp. 16–17
19 F. Chabod, L’Italia contemporanea 1918–1948 (Turin 1961) p. 125
20 James Edward Miller, The United States and Italy 1940–1950. The Politics and Diplomacy of Stabilization (Chapel Hill 1986)
21 Hebblethwaite, Paul VI p. 193
22 Ennio di Nolfo, Vaticano e Stati Uniti 1939–1952 (Milan 1978)
23 Anthony Rhodes, The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century, vol. 3: The Vatican in the Age of the Cold War 1945–1980 (London 1992) pp. 144ff.
24 Mayeur, Des partis catholiques p. 177
25 John Pollard, ‘Italy’ in Buchanan and Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1965 p. 87
26 R. E. M. Irving, The Christian Democratic Parties of Western Europe (London 1979) p. 58
27 Elisa Carrillo, Alcide de Gasperi. The Long Apprenticeship (Notre Dame 1965) p. 84
28 Mario Einaudi and François Goguel, Christian Democracy in Italy and France (Notre Dame 1952) p. 31
29 Francesco Traniello, ‘Political Catholicism, Catholic Organization, and Catholic Laity in the Reconstruction Years’ in Frank Coppa and Margherita Repetto-Alaia (eds), The Formation of the Italian Republic (New York 1989) p. 45
30 Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871–1982 (London 1984) p. 317
31 Norman Kogon, A Political History of Italy. The Post-war Years (New York 1983) p. 29
32 Peter Hebblethwaite, ‘Pope Pius XII. Chaplain of the Atlantic Alliance?’ in Christopher Duggan and Christopher Wagstaff (eds), Italy in the Cold War. Politics, Culture and Society 1948–58 (Oxford 1995) p. 73
33 For this see Hans Woller, ‘Die Entscheidungswahlen vom April 1948’ in Woller (ed.), Italien und die Grossmächte 1943-1949 (Munich 1988) pp. 85–6
34 Hebblethwaite, ‘Pope Pius XII’ p. 72
35 Rhodes, The Power of Rome 3, p. 163
36 Piero Bevilacqua, ‘Custom’ in Omar Calabrese (ed.), Modern Italy. Images and History of a National Identity (Milan 1984) 3, p. 192
37 Schwering cited by John L. Allen, Cardinal Ratzinger. The Vatican’s Enforcer of the Faith (London 2000) p. 30
38 Frederic Spotts, The Churches and Politics in Germany (Middetown, Conn. 1973)
39 Hans-Peter Schwarz, Adenauer, vol. 1: Der Aufstieg 1876–1952 (Munich 1994) pp. 440–1
40 Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress, A History of West Germany (Oxford 1989) 1, p. 148
41 See the important study by Jean Solchany, ‘Vom antimodernismus zum antitotalitarismus. Konservative Interpretationen des nationalsozialismus in Deutschland 1945–1949’, Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte (1996) 44, pp. 373–94
42 Rainer Bendel, Lydia Bendel-Maidl and Andreas Goldschmidt, ‘Vergangenheitsbewältigung in theologischen Schriften Joseph Bernharts, Romano Guardinis und Alois Winklhofers’, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte (2000) 13, pp. 138–77
43 Schwarz, Adenauer 1, p. 514
44 For the full text see Konrad Repgen’s thoughtful discussion in his ‘Die Erfahrung des Dritten Reiches und das Selbstverstandnis der deutschen Katholiken nach 1945’ in Victor Conzemius, Martin Greschat and Hermann Kocher (eds), Die Zeit nach 1945 als Thema kirchlicher Zeitgeschichte (Göttingen 1988) pp. 127–79
45 John Conway, ‘How Shall the Nations Repent? The Stuttgart Declaration of Guilt, October 1945’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1987) 38, p. 621; see also Gerhard Besier and Gerhard Sauter, Wie Christen ihre Schuld bekennen. Die Stuttgarter Erklärung 1945 (Göttingen 1985)
46 Spotts, The Churches and Politics in Germany p. 304
47 Geoffrey Pridham, Christian Democracy in Western Germany (London 1977) p. 23
48 For the foundation of the CDU/CSU see Noel D. Cary, The Path to Christian Democracy. German Catholics and the Party System from Windthorst to Adenauer (Cambridge, Mass. 1996) pp. 147ff.
49 Spotts, The Churches and Politics in Germany p. 172
50 For an excellent discussion of Christian Democracy see Kees van Kersbergen, ‘The Distinctiveness of Christian Democracy’ in David Hanley (ed.), Christian Democracy in Europe. A Comparative Perspective (London 1994) pp. 31–47
51 Schwarz, Adenauer 1, p. 773
52 Heinrich-August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte vom ‘Dritten Reich’ bis zur Wiedervereinigung (Munich 2000) 2, pp. 147–51
53 Paul Preston, Franco (London 1993) pp. 329–30
54 Juan Linz, ‘Staat und Kirche in Spanien’ in Martin Greschat and Jochen-Christoph Kaiser (eds), Christentum und Demokratie im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart 1992) p. 66
55 Frances Lannon, Privilege, Persecution, and Prophecy. The Catholic Church in Spain 1875–1975 (Oxford 1987) pp. 215–16
56 Stanley Payne, Spanish Catholicism. An Historical Overview (Madison, Wis. 1984) p. 184
57 Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime 1936–1975 (London 1987) pp. 382–3
Chapter 6: The Road to Unfreedom: The Imposition of Communism after 1945
1 Robert Conquest, an eyewitness to these events in Bulgaria, is characteristically clear-minded about matters of fact and chronology; see his Reflections on a Ravaged Century (London 1999) pp. 153–9. For a benign interpretation of the imposition of ‘people’s democracy’ upon eastern Europe see most obviously Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991 (London 1994) p. 238 who claims that only after the Italian 1948 elections did the Communists ‘follow suit’ by ‘eliminating’ non-Communists from coalition governments of the ‘people’s democracies’. In fact, the chronology is completely the reverse. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent. Europe’s Twentieth Century (London 1998) pp. 253ff. gives a similarly selective account of how the Communists actually achieved power. To take one example, from many, Mazower tells readers that the Hungarian Smallholders Party won the 1945 elections to ‘illustrate’ the alleged ‘hesitancies’ of Soviet strategy; he does not inform us that two years later the Party’s general secretary was abducted by the NKVD while walking home and disappeared, or that prime minister Ferenc Nagy was told to stay abroad, lest anything happen to his infant son at home, a threat that ensured Nagy’s resignation. It is clearly not good form in some circles to mention the sordid nature of Communist rule
2 Milovan Djilas, Tito. The Story from the Inside (London 1981) p. 176
3 See Maria Schmidt, ‘Ungarns Gesellschaft in der Revolution und im Freiheitskampf von 1956’, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte (2004) 17, pp. 102–3 which is a sober discussion by a leading expert on Communist Terror based at the former terror headquarters in Budapest
4 Jozsef Cardinal Mindszenty, Memoirs (London 1974) p. 31
5 Mazower, Dark Continent pp. 255–6 implies such a universal retreat, citing the example of Hungary and general troop statistics; but see R. J. Crompton, Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (London 1994) p. 244 for the February 1947 peace treaty that specifically sanctioned the Red Army’s continued presence
6 John Micgiel, ‘“Bandits and Reactionaries”. The Suppression of Opposition in Poland’ in Norman Nymark and Leonid Gibianskii (eds), The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 (Westview, Conn. 1997) pp. 97–8
7 Stephane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism. Crimes. Terror. Repression (Cambridge, Mass. 1999) p. 408. Interestingly, this international bestseller by several leading experts was rejected by a British publishing industry that is otherwise so eager to publish anything about the Nazis
8 Schmidt, ‘Ungarns Gesellschaft’ pp. 102–3
9 For examples see Jerzy Holzer, Der Kommunismus in Europa. Politische Bewegung und Herrschaftssystem (Frankfurt am Main 1998) p. 87
10 On this important theme see George Schöpflin, Politics in Eastern Europe 1945–1992 (Oxford 1993) pp. 68–9
11 Bradley Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution. The Trial of Josef Tiso in the Czechoslovak Environment’ in István Deák, Jan T. Gross and Tony Judt (eds), The Politics of Retribution in Europe. World War II and its Aftermath (Princeton 2000) pp. 261–3
12 Anthony Rhodes, The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century, vol. 3: The Vatican in the Age of the Cold War 1945–1980 (London 1992) p. 65
13 Marcus Tanner, Croatia. A Nation Forged in War (New Haven 1997) p. 179
14 Stella Alexander, The Triple Myth. A Life of Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac (Boulder 1987) pp. 126–7
15 For the details of the US response see Peter C. Kent, The Lonely Cold War of Pius XII (Montreal 2002) pp. 168–73
16 József Fuisz, ‘Beitrag der Religionsgemeinschaften zum Aufstand 1956’, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte (2000) 17, p. 117
17 Kent, The Lonely Cold War of Pope Pius XII p. 113
18 Mindszenty, Memoirs pp. 10–11
19 Rhodes, The Power of Rome 3, p. 30
20 Mindszenty, Memoirs p. 81
21 Jan Siedlarz, Kirche und Staat im kommunistischen Polen 1945–1989 (Paderborn 1996) pp. 51ff.
22 Adam Michnik, The Church and the Left (Chicago 1993) p. 61
23 Michael C. Steinlauf, ‘Poland’ in David S. Wyman (ed.), The World Reacts to the Holocaust (Baltimore 1996) pp. 110–14 seems fair-minded on these complex issues
24 George Weigel, The Final Revolution. The Resistance Church and the Collapse of Communism (New York 1992) pp. 107ff. contains an astute appreciation of Wyszýnski
25 Michnik, The Church and the Left pp. 61–2
26 The accord is reproduced in Siedlarz, Kirche und Staat pp. 77–9
27 Kent, The Lonely Cold War of Pius XII pp. 174–6
Chapter 7: Time of the Toy Trumpets
1 Philip Larkin, Collected Poems (London 2003) p. 58
2 Callum Brown, The Death of Christian Britain. Understanding Secularization 1800–2000 (London 2001) pp. 172–3
3 Adrian Hastings, A History of English Christianity 1920–2000 (London 2001 fourth edition) pp. 454–5
4 Hugh McLeod, ‘The Sixties. Writing the Religious History of a Crucial Decade’, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte (2001) 14, pp. 40–1
5 Hastings, A History of English Christianity pp. 551–2; see also Steve Bruce, God is Dead. Secularization in the West (Oxford 2002) pp. 66ff., and Bruce, Religion in Modern Britain (Oxford 1995) pp. 32–44 for various statistical tables
6 Larkin, Collected Poems p. 146
7 On this see the brilliant discussion by Karl-Dietrich Bracher, The Age of Ideologies. A History of Political Thought in the Twentieth Century (London 1984) p. 213
8 As noted by Robert Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century (London 1999). Conquest spent four years fighting Hitler; witnessed the Communist takeover in Bulgaria as a foreign service officer, and then spent decades researching the reality of the Soviet Union
9 Dominic Sandbrook, Never Had it So Good. A History of Britain from Suez to the Beatles 1956–1963 (London 2005) p. xii
10 G. I. T. Machin, Churches and Social Issues in Twentieth-Century Britain (Oxford 1998) pp. 187–8
11 Gerald Parsons, ‘Between Law and Licence. Christianity, morality and “permissiveness”’ in Parsons (ed.), The Growth of Religious Diversity. Britain from 1945 (London 1994) p. 243
12 Philip Allen, ‘A Young Home Secretary’ in Andrew Adonis and Keith Thomas (eds), Roy Jenkins. A Retrospective (Oxford 2004) pp. 64ff. Allen was the permanent under-secretary of state in the Home Office at the time
13 Roy Jenkins, A Life at the Centre (London 1991)
14 Graham Dale, God’s Politicians. The Christian Contribution to 100 Years of Labour (London 2000) p. 176
15 Arthur Marwick, The Sixties. Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the United States c. 1958–c. 1974 (Oxford 1998) p. 265
16 Jenny Pollock, ‘Landmark Social Housing Left to Crumble’, Guardian, 28 May 2001 gives the general flavour of life in Sheffield’s Park Hill flats; anyone driving into the southbound Blackwall Tunnel can see the Goldfinger Tower looming to the right
17 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991 (London 1994) p. 330
18 Cynthia Lennon, John (London 2005)
19 ‘Religious belief “falling faster than church attendance”’, Daily Telegraph, 20 August 2005 reporting on a new study of 10,500 households conducted by the University of Manchester. Reasonably enough, an Anglican spokesman objected that parents were not the sole means for the transmission of religious faith, the Alpha courses having been successful in recruiting young middle-class people
20 Brown, Death of Christian Britain pp. 176–80
21 David Lodge, How Far Can You Go? (London 1980) p. 133
22 Sandbrook, Never Had it So Good pp. 245ff.
23 Bruce, God is Dead pp. 192–4
24 As courageously explained by Trevor Phillips, the Chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality in Britain (September 2005)
25 See John Wolffe, ‘How Many Ways to God? Christians and Religious Pluralism’ in Parsons (ed.), The Growth of Religious Diversity pp. 31–3
26 See the interesting discussion by John Wolffe, ‘The Religions of the Silent Majority’ in Parsons (ed.), Growth of Religious Diversity pp. 318ff.
27 Bruce, God is Dead p. 80
28 Bruce, Religion in Modern Britain p. 95 for the beginnings of these cults in the late 1960s and early 1970s
29 Bruce, God is Dead p. 81
30 Tom Stransky, ‘The Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity’ in Adrian Hastings (ed.), Modern Catholicism. Vatican II and After (London 1991) pp. 182–3
31 There is a vast literature on Vatican II. For our purposes see the discussion in Hubert Jedin (ed.), History of the Church, vol. 10: The Modern Age (London 1981) pp. 96–150
32 See John McDade, ‘Catholic Theology in the Post-Conciliar Period’ in Hastings (ed.), Modern Catholicism pp. 422ff. which is knowledgeable and fair-minded
33 Frank Coppa, The Modern Papacy since 1789 (London 1998) p. 223
34 Peter Hebblethwaite, Pope Paul VI. The First Modern Pope (London 1993) p. 380
35 Ibid. p. 437
36 Mary Vincent, ‘Spain’ in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe 1918–1965 (Oxford 1996) p. 125. Vincent makes the telling point that 90 per cent of Spanish bishops had been ordained before 1936 and that most were over seventy-five years of age. The clergy were the youngest in the world
37 Norman B. Cooper, Catholicism and the Franco Regime (London 1975) p. 27
38 Stanley Payne, Spanish Catholicism. An Historical Overview (Madison, Wis. 1984) pp. 189–91
39 Cooper, Catholicism and the Franco Regime pp. 36–7
40 Stanley Payne, The Franco Regime 1936–1975 (London 1987) pp. 588–90
41 See the important discussion in Juan Linz, ‘Staat und Kirche in Spanien’ in Martin Greschat and Jochen-Christoph Kaiser (eds), Christentum und Demokratie im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart 1992) pp. 80–142 Olivier Compagnon, ‘Latein Amerika’ in Jean-Marie Mayeur (ed.), Die Geschichte des Christentums, Religion, Politik, Kultur, vol. 13: Krisen und Erneuerung (1958–2000) (Freiburg 2002) p. 507
43 There is a fair-minded discussion of Ratzinger’s point of view in John L. Allen’s Cardinal Ratzinger, The Vatican’s Enforcer of the Faith (London 2000) pp. 131ff.
44 This discussion owes much to Christopher Rowland (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Liberation Theology (Cambridge 1999)
Chapter 8: ‘The Curse of Ulster’: The Northern Ireland Troubles c. 1968–2005
1 Toby Harnden, ‘Bandit Country’. The IRA & South Armagh (London 1999) pp. 239ff., and Kevin Myers, ‘An Irishman’s Diary’, Irish Independent, 21 September 2005. I am indebted to Professor Desmond King of Nuffield College Oxford, a Quaker from the Irish Republic, for this and other references to Irish newspapers which I do not see. He is not responsible for my views on them. Also Thomas Hennessey, A History of Northern Ireland 1920–1996 (London 1997) pp. 82ff.
2 Alvin Jackson, Ireland 1798–1998 (Oxford 1999) p. 388
3 Jeremy Warner ‘Outlook’, Independent, 18 October 2005
4 On this see the excellent Hubert Butler, ‘The Artukovich File’ in his Independent Spirit. Essays (New York 1995) pp. 465ff.
5 On this see Frank Furedi, ‘The Age of Unreason’, Spectator, 19 November 2005 pp. 40–2. It is worth recalling that Furedi was a founder-guru of the Revolutionary Communist Party
6 Marianne Elliott, The Catholics of Ulster. A History (London 2000) pp. 442ff.
7 See Liam Clarke and Kathryn Johnston, Martin McGuiness. From Guns to Government (Edinburgh 2003)
8 David McKittrick and David McVea, Making Sense of the Troubles (London 2000) p. 25
9 Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London 1993) p. 385
10 Nigel Lawson, The View from No. 11. Memoirs of a Tory Radical (London 1992) pp. 669–70
11 Martin Dillon, God and the Gun. The Church and Irish Terrorism (London 1997) p. 140
12 For a succinct statement by (English-based) academic republicans of why this was not a religious conflict see John McGarry and Brendan O’Leary’s textbook Explaining Northern Ireland. Broken Images (Oxford 1995) pp. 171–213
13 A. T. Q. Stewart, The Narrow Ground. Aspects of Ulster 1609–1969 (London 1977) is a truly brilliant example of how local history can elucidate the big issues
14 On this see Steve Bruce, God Save Ulster! The Religion and Politics of Paisleyism (Oxford 1986) pp. 7ff.
15 Stewart, The Narrow Ground pp. 113–22 in particular
16 David Officer, ‘“For God and Ulster”. The Ulstermen on the Somme’ in Ian McBride (ed.), History and Memory in Modern Ireland (Cambridge 2001) pp. 160–83
17 Ruth Dudley Edwards, The Faithful Tribe. An Intimate Portrait of the Loyal Institutions (London 2000) p. 196
18 Marcus Tanner, Ireland’s Holy Wars. The Struggle for a Nation’s Soul 1500–2000 (New Haven 2001) p. 324
19 Roy Foster, Modern Ireland 1600–1972 (London 1989) p. 584
20 See Dudley Edwards in her comprehensive and vivid history of the Orange Order, The Faithful Tribe p. 339
21 Elliott, The Catholics of Ulster p. 391
22 For a good discussion of this see Bruce, God Save Ulster! pp. 90–1
23 See Paul Bew, Peter Gibbon and Henry Patterson, Northern Ireland 1921–1994. Political Forces and Social Classes (London 1995) pp. 116–17
24 See David McKittrick et al., Lost Lives. The Stories of the Men, Women and Children Who Died as a Result of the Northern Ireland Troubles (Edinburgh 2004). This is probably the most worthwhile book ever written about Northern Ireland
25 For this important connection see Richard English, Armed Struggle. The History of the IRA (London 2003) pp. 90ff.
26 McKittrick and McVea, Making Sense of the Troubles pp. 40–1
27 Conor Cruise O’Brien in the Irish Independent, 8 June 1991
28 Conor Cruise O’Brien, States of Ireland (New York 1972) p. 205
29 Ed Maloney, A Secret History of the IRA (London 2002) p. 77
30 Sean O’Callaghan, The Informer (London 1998) p. 242
31 Dillon, God and the Gun p. 129
32 English, Armed Struggle p. 123
33 His dubious role is ably discussed in Clarke and Johnston, Martin McGuiness pp. 67–80
34 ‘£85m for Bloody Sunday lawyers’, Daily Mail, 3 December 2005 p. 50
35 For these statistics see McKittrick et al., Lost Lives p. 1534
36 Clarke and Johnston, Martin McGuiness pp. 203–4
37 See Dean Godson, Himself Alone. David Trimble and the Ordeal of Unionism (London 2004) p. 826
38 McKittrick et al., Lost Lives p. 229
39 Ibid. pp. 301–4
40 Ibid. p. 800
41 Roy Mason, Paying the Price (London 1999) pp. 164–5
42 Dillon, God and the Gun p. 174
43 O’Callaghan, The Informer pp. 110–11
44 Dillon, God and the Gun pp. 122–3
45 Mason, Paying the Price p. 211
46 Anthony Howard, Basil Hume. The Monk Cardinal (London 2005) p. 325
47 Godson, Himself Alone p. 165. Godson’s book is a masterly account of the most recent phase of the ‘peace process’
48 Paul Routledge, John Hume. A Biography (London 1997) pp. 207ff.
49 Ibid. pp. 230–1
50 Chris Ryder and Vincent Kearney, Drumcree. The Orange Order’s Last Stand (London 2002) gives the worm’s-eye view in great detail
51 Ibid. p. 503
52 I owe this insight to Dean Godson, ‘You’ll never guess who’s to blame for 7/7’, The Times, 13 December 2005p. 16
Chapter 9: ‘We Want God, We Want God’: The Churches and the Collapse of European Marxist–Leninism 1970–1990
1 Michael Simmons, The Reluctant President. A Political Life of Vaclav Havel (London 1991) pp. 119ff.
2 Tony Judt, Post-war. A History of Europe since 1945 (London 2005)
3 Lech Walesa, A Path of Hope. An Autobiography (London 1987) p. 96
4 Norman Davies, Heart of Europe. A Short History of Poland (Oxford 1986) p. 11
5 See Leszek Kolakowski’s obituary of John Paul II in the Independent, 4 April 2005 pp. 34–5
6 For biographical information on John Paul II see George Weigel’s brilliant Witness to Hope. The Biography of John Paul II (New York 1999) and the many obituaries published in April 2005
7 Sabrina P. Ramet, Nihil Obstat. Religion, Politics, and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia (Durham, NC 1998) p. 133
8 Timothy Garton Ash, The Polish Revolution. Solidarity 1980–1982 (London 1983) p. 23
9 See the fascinating study by Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols against the Symbols of Power. The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland (University Park, Pa 1994) pp. 38ff.
10 John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War (London 2005) is notably fair-minded about Reagan, Thatcher and John Paul II and the West’s victory in the Cold War
11 Ibid. p. 221
12 George Weigel, The Final Revolution. The Resistance Church and the Collapse of Communism (Oxford 1992) p. 51
13 The most conspicuous example being Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Ideologies (London 1994) pp. 460ff.
14 See above all John Clark and Aaron Wildavsky, The Moral Collapse of Communism. Poland as a Cautionary Tale (San Francisco 1990)
15 Walesa, A Path of Hope pp. 60ff.
16 Clark and Wildavsky, The Moral Collapse of Communism p. 117
17 Weigel, The Final Revolution p. 131
18 Gaddis, The Cold War p. 221
19 Weigel, Witness to Hope pp. 404–7
20 Roger Boyes, The Naked President. A Political Life of Lech Walesa (London 1994) pp. 136–7
21 Jonathan Luxmoore and Jolanta Babiuch, The Vatican & the Red Flag. The Struggle for the Soul of Eastern Europe (London 1999) p. 259
22 John Follain, ‘Was Kremlin behind plot to kill the Pope?’, Sunday Times, 3 April 2005 p. 16
23 Ramet, Nihil Obstat p. 55
24 Robert F. Goeckel, ‘Der Weg der Kirchen in der DDR’ in Günther Heydemann and Lothar Kettenacker (eds), Kirchen in der Diktatur. Drittes Reich und SED-Staat (Göttingen 1993) pp. 158–9
25 Roger Engelmann, ‘Der Volksaufstand vom 17 Juni 1953’, Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte (2002) 17, pp. 44–62
26 Wayne C. Bartee, A Time to Speak Out. The Leipzig Citizen Protests and the Fall of East Germany (Westport 2000) p. 52
27 Heinrich-August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen. Deutsche Geschichte vom ‘Dritten Reich’ bis zur Wiedervereinigung (Munich 2002) 2, pp. 156ff.
28 Alan L. Nothnagle, Building the East German Myth. Historical Mythology and Youth Propaganda in the German Democratic Republic 1945–1989 (Ann Arbor 1999) p. 105
29 Gerhard Besier, Der SED-Staat und die Kirche. Der Weg in die Anpassung (Munich 1993) pp. 301–11
30 Gerhard Besier, Der SED-Staat und die Kirche 1969–1990. Die Vision vom ‘Dritten Weg’ (Frankfurt am Main 1995) pp. 511ff.
31 Christian Joppke, East German Dissidents and the Revolution of 1989. Social Movement in a Leninist Regime (London 1995) pp. 88–9
32 Bartee, A Time to Speak Out pp. 110ff.
33 Gerhard Besier and Stephan Wolf (eds), Pfarrer, Christen und Katholiken. Das Ministerium für Staatssicherheit der ehemaligen DDR und die Kirchen (Neukirchen-Vluyn 1992)
34 Winkler, Der lange Weg 2, p. 494
Chapter 10: Cubes, Domes and Death Cults: Europe after 9/11
1 Joseph Conrad, The Secret Agent (London 1907, edition cited 1963) p. 269
2 On this architectural angle see Roger Scruton’s important The West and the Rest. Globalization and the Terrorist Threat (London 2002) p. 101.
3 See Brian Moynihan’s outstanding report ‘Hardline Holland’ in the Sunday Times, 27 February 2005 pp. 34–42
4 See The 9/11 Commission Report (New York 2004) pp. 1–14 for details of the hijackings, and Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York 2002) and Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies. Inside America’s War on Terror (New York 2004) for details of the official responses. My own responses to 9/11 are in ‘The Age of Anxiety’, Sunday Times, 22 September 2001, News Review pp. 1–2 and in reviews for the same paper, the Evening Standard and the Literary Review of many books on Islamist terrorism and the war in Iraq
5 John L. Esposito, Unholy War. Terror in the Name of Islam (Oxford 2002) p. 92 for the cases of Farag Foda and Naguib Mahfuz. Western television is, of course, more than prepared to broadcast programmes suggesting that these threats are in the mind, e.g. Adam Curtis, The Power of Nightmares, BBC2 (2005)
6 Francis Harris and Anton La Guardia, ‘Al Qa’eda in rift over murder of Muslims’, Daily Telegraph, 8 October 2005 p. 17 reporting Pentagon intercepts of a lengthy letter from Ayman al-Zawahiri concerned about al-Zarqawi’s murderous campaign against the Shia
7 Jason Burke, Al-Qaeda. The True Story of Radical Islam (London 2003) p. 15 disaggregates a number of groups that governments deliberately conflate into Al Qaeda
8 This is the subject of an important book by Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism. A Short History of Anti-Westernism (London 2004)
9 Ibid. p. 115
10 As ably discussed by Burke, Al-Qaeda pp. 54–5
11 From a large literature see ‘Memories of Sayyid Qutb. An Interview with John Calvert’, Worldpress.org (September 2005); John Calvert, ‘Sayyid Qutb in America’, Newsletter 7 (March 2001) of the International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World; and John Calvert ‘Sayyid Qutb. The Face of the Modern Islamist’, www.blissstreetjournal.com/sayyid_qutb.htm
12 Fred Halliday, ‘Saudi Arabia 1997. A Family Business in Trouble’ in his Nation and Religion in the Middle East (London 2000) pp. 169ff.
13 Bruce Lawrence (ed.), Messages to the World. The Statements of Osama bin Laden (London 2005) pp. 4–15, ‘The Betrayal of Palestine’ dated 29 December 1994
14 See Chris Mackey and Greg Miller, The Interrogators. Inside the Secret War against Al Qaeda (London 2004) p. 322 for the story of Prisoner 237
15 John Simpson, A Mad World, My Masters. Tales from a Traveller’s Life (London 2000) pp. 82–4
16 The poem is available under the entry for Theo van Gogh at www.crimelibrary.com. I recently filmed at this location
17 That being the subtext of the Atman Foundation round table in October 2005 where this line was articulated by various senior Spanish and Moroccan politicians. The presence of Tariq Ramadan, a known Al Qaeda apologist, ensured that the conference was boycotted by the PPE and Israel. Only one participant, a British Muslim, Imam Sayyid of Brighton, explicitly condemned Islamist terrorism, although I managed to condemn the recent nuclear threats of Iran’s president Machmud Achmadinedschad via Iran’s ambassador to Madrid
18 For a good discussion of this see Patrick Sookhdeo, ‘Will London Burn Too?’, Spectator, 12 November 2005 p. 16
19 As reported by Melanie Phillips, ‘This Lethal Moral Madness’, Daily Mail, 14 July 2005 p. 15
20 See the informed and unhysterical book by Peter Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy. The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Post-war Europe (New York 1989)
21 As brilliantly portrayed in Michel Houellebecq’s Platform (London 2003)
22 Buruma and Margalit, Occidentalism especially pp. 27–9
23 ‘The fundamental laws of this country’, Daily Telegraph, 14 July 2005 p. 29 sets out four points that would separate the law-abiding from ‘irreconcilables’
24 The most interesting work on US relations with Europe is Niall Ferguson’s Colossus. The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London 2004) and Timothy Garton Ash, History of the Present. Essays, Sketches and Despatches from Europe in the 1990s (London 1999)
25 Peter Berger, ‘Religion and the West’, National Interest (Summer 2005) p. 113
26 Stephen L. Carter, The Culture of Disbelief (New York 1993) pp. 97–8
27 The most impressive book on US conservatism is John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Right Nation. Why America is Different (London 2004) which has a fine discussion of think-tanks
28 As volunteered by BBC Radio 3’s presenter Philip Dodds in the context of his being invited by the (Roman Catholic) director-general of the BBC Mark Thompson to report on how the corporation’s news and current affairs programmes handle religion
29 Simon Jenkins, ‘An election dominated by holy rows?’, The Times, 23 March 2005 p. 19
30 Daniel Hannan, ‘Accidental Hero’, Spectator, 13 November 2004 pp. 21–2
31 Marcel Gauchet, The Disenchantment of the World. A Political History of Religion (Princeton 1997) p. 163
32 Celia Bromley-Martin, ‘Being Honest about Europe’s Roots’, Inside the Vatican (2003) 11, pp. 10–11
33 ‘Dutch plan culture and language test for immigrants’, Daily Telegraph, 5 February 2005 p. 14
34 Charles Moore, ‘Islam is not an exotic addition to the English country garden’, Daily Telegraph, 21 August 2004
35 Channel 4 and Channel 5 in Britain seem to be as obsessed with sexual deviancy as the BBC is obsessed with that old standby of the imaginatively challenged, the Nazis.
36 Ruth Dudley Edwards, ‘So Who Will Stop the PC Zealots?’, Daily Mail, 12 November 2005 pp. 16–17
37 See the important article by James Pierson in the Weekly Standard, 3 October 2005
38 See Brian Appleyard’s outstanding essay ‘Beyond Belief?’, Sunday Times, 27 March 2005, News Review pp. 1–2
39 A theme bravely explored by John Cornwell, Breaking the Faith. The Pope, the People and the Fate of Catholicism (London 2001) pp. 166ff.
40 Jytte Klausen, The Islamic Challenge. Politics and Religion in Western Europe (Oxford 2005)