Shamanic States of Mind
The mind is its own place, and in itself
can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven.
—John Milton, Paradise Lost
When research on spiritual states began in the 1960s, it was widely assumed that they were all the same, or at least very similar, and that, for example, diverse meditation practices were just different roads up the same mountain. However, this simple idea was simply wrong, and careful study has revealed dozens of meditative and other spiritual states.121
THE VARIETIES OF SHAMANIC STATES
What types of altered states occur in shamanism? Much writing assumes only a single ASC, but shamans employ many techniques, and each may induce its own state.
Here we will focus on states occurring during the shamanic journey, which warrant careful description and mapping for several reasons. First, the journey is a central practice of shamanism. Second, we have many detailed descriptions of it. Third, for so long the journey state has been confused with pathological states and is now being confused with meditative and yogic ones. Witness, for example, claims that “shamans, yogis and Buddhists alike are accessing the same state of consciousness”75 and that the shaman “experiences existential unity—the Samadhi of the Hindus or what Western spiritualists and mystics call enlightenment, illumination, unio mystica.”189 However, these claims are based on superficial similarities. More careful comparisons reveal major differences and show that each tradition fosters its own family of ASCs.
Even to say that there is only a single state of consciousness associated with the journey, let alone shamanism, is an oversimplification. Journeys, experiences, and states vary from one session to another and from one person to another: sometimes deep, sometimes shallow; sometimes murky, sometimes clear. In fact, even the concept of “a state of consciousness” is a static crystallization of what is, in real life, a dynamic flow of experience. However, for the sake of simplicity, we can map key features of the shamanic journey and then refer to a single characteristic journey state. Having done so, we can then compare it to pathological and meditative-yogic ones.
How can we best map shamanic journey states? We cannot use physiological measurements for the simple reason that we have almost none. However, we can use the many experiential descriptions given by shamans.
The careful description of raw experience is known as phenomenology. In the East, traditions such as yoga and Buddhism have used phenomenology to classify states of consciousness for over 2,000 years. Using a similar approach will allow us to classify shamanic states of consciousness (SSCs) and compare them to others much more precisely than in the past. With this precision, we can identify differences—for example, between shamanic and yogic ASCs—that previous researchers overlooked. To do this we need to consider the key dimensions of experience that characterize ASCs.
KEY DIMENSIONS FOR MAPPING STATES
OF CONSCIOUSNESS
1) Degree of control: There are two important types of control.
• The ability to enter and leave the ASC at will
• The ability to control experiences while in the ASC
2) Awareness of the environment: To what extent does the practitioner remain aware of the external environment?
3) Ability to communicate: How well can the subject communicate with other people?
4) Concentration: Important factors here include:
• The intensity of concentration
• Whether attention is either
a. fixed immovably on a single object such as in certain yogic samadhi states, or
b. momentary or fluid, meaning it is allowed to shift between selected objects such as in shamanic journeys
5) Degree of energy or arousal.
6) Degree of calm: This refers to more than simply low arousal, since calm also implies low levels of agitation and distractibility.
7) Emotion: The dominant emotion(s) and whether the experience is pleasurable or painful.
8) Sense of identity: This may vary widely, from the usual sense of body-based egoity, to the sense of being a soul detached from the body, to a sense of unity with all things.
9) Out-of-body experience (OOBE): Does the subject experience perceiving from a perspective apparently outside the body?
10) Nature of inner experiences: Important distinctions here include:
• Degree of organization. Do the experiences consist of a random array of thoughts and images or of coherent patterns and sequences?
• Sensory modality: Are the experiences primarily auditory, visual, or somatic?
• Intensity: Are experiences subtle and barely perceptible as in some meditations, or are they intense and even overwhelming as in panic states?
MAPPING SHAMANIC JOURNEY STATES
Having outlined major dimensions, we can map shamanic journey states as follows:
Control
A defining characteristic of shamans is the ability to control their states of consciousness, and masters are able to enter and leave the journey state at will. They also have some ability to control the type of experiences that occur. This control is not complete, since there is some spontaneity to the images and worlds that arise. Thus the shaman may decide to journey to the lower world and voluntarily control the descent. Yet the world that arises to greet her may be quite unexpected. The shaman may choose how to respond to these strange worlds and spirits, but how they respond to her may seem quite outside her control.
A familiar analogue to this is a lucid dream in which we recognize that we are dreaming. Here, too, there is partial control of experiences. Strange worlds seem to arise spontaneously, yet, like shamans, we can usually control our responses to them.205
Awareness of the Environment
Awareness of the physical environment is reduced during journeys. This is hardly surprising since the shaman is preoccupied with life and death dramas in other worlds.
Ability to Communicate
In spite of these otherworld adventures, the shaman may be able to split her awareness between those worlds and this one sufficiently to communicate with her audience. In such cases, the listeners may be treated to a blow by blow account of the shaman’s interactions with the spirits and other worlds.
Concentration
Shamans are known for their superb concentration.83 During a journey they must focus for long periods without distraction, but their attention is not fixed immovably on a single object as is a yogi’s. Rather, their attention is fluid, moving freely as their journey unfolds.
Energy/Arousal/Calm and Emotion
Since they roam between worlds, battle spirits, and intercede with gods, it is small wonder that shamans may feel energized during their exploits. Though deep peace can occur, calm is not a word that would be applied to many shamanic journeys. The emotions vary with the type of adventure and may range from dread and despair to pleasure and excitement. A similar range of reactions may occur after the journey, ranging from vitality to fatigue and depletion.
|
Dimension |
Shamanic Journey State |
|
Control • Ability to enter and leave ASC at will |
Yes: good control |
|
• Ability to control the |
Partial control |
|
Awareness of environment |
Decreased |
|
Ability to communicate |
Sometimes |
|
Concentration |
Increased, fluid attention |
|
Mental Energy/Arousal |
Increased |
|
Calm |
Decreased |
|
Emotion |
Can be pleasurable and positive (+), or painful |
|
Identity or Self-Sense |
Separate self-sense, may |
|
Out-of-Body Experience |
Yes, controlled ecstasy |
|
Nature of Experience |
Organized, coherent imagery consistent with shamanic cosmology and the journey’s purpose |
Table 1: A map of shamanic journey states.
Sense of Identity and Out-of-Body Experience
An out-of-body experience is a defining characteristic of the shamanic journey, and for this reason it is sometimes described as “ecstatic.” During the journey, shamans experience themselves as disembodied spirits able to roam vast distances at great speeds.
While their tribespeople experience themselves as earthbound and body bound, shamans escape this constricting identity and experience themselves as free spirits.
Nature of Inner Experiences
The shaman’s experiences are rich, complex, and multisensory. These experiences are coherent and purposeful, reflecting the tribal cosmology and serving the journey’s purpose.
Having mapped the shamanic journey state, we can now compare it to other states with which it has often been confused. In doing so, we need to remember that there are many other shamanic states—for example, fasting, sleep deprivation, psychedelic, and dreaming. However, comparing all of these shamanic states with all those of other traditions would require another book or even an encyclopedia. Therefore, our focus will continue to be on the journey.