LOUIS VII, THE YOUNG (LE JEUNE), KING OF FRANCE (1120–80)

Crowned in his father Louis VI’s lifetime in 1131 (after his older brother Philip died), king from 1137. He married the heiress Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1137. In 1142 he invaded Champagne against Theobald of Blois, burning the church at Vitry (which he later repented) but gaining nothing. His marriage foundered during the Second Crusade and ended in 1152. Eleanor then married Henry of Anjou (soon to be King of England), who claimed Aquitaine. Louis married twice more, to Constance of Castile and Adela of Champagne (mother of Philip Augustus). The Second Crusade was a disaster, failing to take Damascus in 1148. Henry II invaded Toulouse but avoided confrontation when Louis came to defend it in 1159. Louis and Henry made peace in 1169. Louis established greater influence in the south. He sheltered two popes (Eugenius III and Alexander III), and Becket in exile. Louis encouraged the rebellion against Henry II by his sons in 1173–4, but made peace in 1174 at Montlouis. He insisted on homage from rulers of the great principalities. He died on 18 September after a stroke and was buried at his Cistercian foundation of Barbeau. His son Philip II succeeded.

LOUIS VIII, THE LION, KING OF FRANCE (1187–1226)

King from 1223 on the death of his father, Philip Augustus. He married Blanche of Castile. Louis participated in war against Otto IV (HRE) and John of England, defeating John at La Roche-au-Moine in 1214 while Philip won at Bouvines. Without his father’s overt blessing Louis invaded England, in alliance with the Magna Carta barons, in 1216–17. His army was defeated at Lincoln in 1217 and his fleet at sea off Sandwich. Louis abandoned the invasion. As king he invaded the south of France, taking over from the Albigensian Crusade and declaring war on Henry III of England. Louis besieged and took Avignon. Amaury de Montfort surrendered the county of Toulouse to Louis who held most of southern France including Poitou. He became ill at Avignon. He was offered a wench in bed to warm him but primly refused. He never recovered, dying at Montpensier in the Auvergne on 8 November. His son Louis IX succeeded.

LOUIS IX, SAINT, KING OF FRANCE (1214–70)

King from 1226, son and successor of Louis VIII. His mother Blanche of Castile was regent in his minority. She suppressed baronial revolt and defeated an English invasion. He married Margaret of Provence. He gained more through diplomacy than war. He settled the frontiers with England and Aragón through treaties in 1258–9. His brother Alphonse became Count of Toulouse in 1249 through marriage to the heiress. His brother Charles of Anjou became ruler of the kingdom of Sicily. Louis saw off the invasions of Henry III, winning at Taillebourg and Saintes in 1242. His two crusades were unsuccessful. On the first in 1249 Damietta was taken, but lost after defeat at Mansurah in 1250 by Baybars, when Louis was captured. He was ransomed and released in 1250. He went to the Holy Land, whose defences he improved, returning to France in 1254. On his second crusade in 1270 the Emir of Tunis failed to surrender as expected. Louis became ill and died in North Africa. The boiled body was returned to Paris. The heart and entrails were buried at Monreale near Palermo by his brother Charles. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III. He was canonised in 1297.

LOUIS XI, THE SPIDER KING, KING OF FRANCE (1423–83)

King from 1461, son and successor of Charles VII. He rebelled against his father several times and was exiled in 1456. He annexed the southern territories of Cerdagne and Roussillon in 1463 and suppressed a rebellion there. He faced internal revolt in 1465 in the War of the Common Weal, surviving the indecisive Battle of Montlhéry. He made an abortive attempt to take Brittany in 1468. His chief opponent was Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Louis invaded Picardy against Charles in 1471. Louis won and caused the collapse of Burgundy, which Louis seized on the death of Charles. Louis bought off an English invasion in 1475 through the Treaty of Picquigny. He failed to gain Burgundian lands in Flanders, where he fought the indecisive Battle of Guinegate against Maximilian (HRE) in 1479. He died on 30 August and was succeeded by his son Charles VIII. Louis was buried at his own wish in the church he had built at Cléry.

LUDOVICO IL MORO (THE MOOR), SFORZA, DUKE OF MILAN (1451–1508)

Son of Francesco Sforza, ruler of Milan as regent for his nephew from 1480. ‘Il Moro’ was probably a pun on his second name Mauro allied to his dark complexion. He kept his nephew Gian Galeazzo a virtual prisoner until his death in 1494. He fought to control Milan, which he lost for a time from 1476. He assumed the title ‘Duke’ in 1494. He allied with Charles VIII of France against Naples in 1494. This involvement of the French in Italy led to Ludovico’s downfall and Milan’s loss of independence. Ludovico was expelled by Louis XII in 1499, ending his life as a prisoner at Loches. He was a patron of Leonardo. Ludovico’s son Massimiliano temporarily recovered Milan from Louis XII.

MAGNÚS I ÓLAFSSON, THE GOOD, KING OF NORWAY AND DENMARK (1024–47)

King of Norway 1035–47, Denmark 1042–7, the last Norwegian king to rule Denmark. He was an illegitimate son of St Ólaf, thought to be named Magnús after Charlemagne (Carolus Magnus). As a child he was exiled with his father through pressure from Cnut. Ólaf was killed at Stiklestad in 1030 and Magnús fled to Kiev. He returned to Norway in 1035 as king. From 1042 he ruled Denmark after the death of Harthacnut. In 1043 he defeated the Wends at Jumne (Wolin) and Lürschau Heath, where he fought in a red costume wielding his father’s axe, Hel. In 1045 he shared Norway with his uncle, Harold Hardrada. Magnús died on campaign against Sweyn Estrithsson in Denmark.

MALATESTA, SIGISMONDO (1417–68)

Illegitimate son of Pandolfo of Fano. He succeeded his uncle, Carlo, as ruler of Rimini in 1432. He was a condottiere who served Francesco Sforza. He erected several military buildings, including the castle at Rimini (Castel Sigismondo). His reputation for disloyalty came from abandoning Alfonso of Naples in 1447. He lived down to the family name of ‘evil head’, accused of murder, incest, rape and sodomy among other sins. The pope excommunicated him for ignoring the peace of 1459, calling him the ‘worst scoundrel’ who had ever lived. He was a noted patron. He was defeated by an alliance of enemies at the River Cesano in 1462. In 1463 he lost all his possessions except Rimini. Late in life he served again as a mercenary, for Venice against the Turks in Greece. He died in Rimini on 9 October and was buried in the Tempio Malatestiano. He was succeeded by his son Roberto.

MALIK SHAH, SULTAN OF PERSIA (1055–92)

Seljuk Sultan from 1072, son of Alp Arslan. His successes against Byzantium provoked the First Crusade. He conquered the Middle East, invading Asia Minor from 1073. His brother Tutush took Damascus, Jerusalem, Acre and Aleppo from the Fatimids. Malik moved far to the east, winning Transoxiana and reaching China. He made Baghdad his capital in 1091. He was succeeded by his son Mahmud I, when civil war led to the break-up of the empire, leaving a patchwork of emirates.

MANFRED, KING OF SICILY (1232–66)

King from 1258, illegitimate son of Frederick II (HRE). His mother was Bianca Lancia from the comital family of Loreto. He held the Regno from 1250 on his father’s death, nominally for his half-brother Conrad. In 1254 he took Lucera from the papacy and defeated a papal army at Foggia, winning Apulia. He intervened in Roman politics, supporting rebellion in 1257. He claimed Sicily in 1258 and was crowned. He found allies in northern Italy, including Siena. He defeated Florence at Montaperto in 1260 and took over Lucca in 1264. The papacy invited Charles of Anjou to attack Manfred in 1265. He was defeated and killed at Benevento on 26 February when, though beaten, he refused to leave the field. His daughter Constance married Pedro of Aragón.

MANIAKES, GEORGE (d.1043)

Byzantine general. He was very tall (reportedly ten feet!) – with a violent temper. As Strategos of the Theme of Teluch he tricked and killed attacking Saracens and was appointed Catapan of Lower Media. Romanus III was defeated at Aleppo but Maniakes recovered Aleppo and captured Edessa in 1032. Michael IV sent him to Sicily in 1038. Using Norman mercenaries Maniakes won victories at Rametta 1038 and Dragina 1040, taking Messina in 1038 and Syracuse in 1040 – only to be arrested for treason. Michael V released him and sent him to southern Italy in 1042. The situation deteriorated in his absence but he advanced again, ruthlessly destroying everything in his path. In his absence he heard that Romanus Sclerus had seduced his wife, which so enraged him that he stuffed the ears, nose and mouth of the messenger with dung and tortured him to death. When recalled by Constantine IX in 1043 he rebelled and was proclaimed Emperor by his troops. An imperial force blocked the way at Ostrovo in Bulgaria. Maniakes was winning when fatally wounded. His head was displayed in Constantinople.

MANUEL I COMNENUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (1118–80)

Emperor from 1143, youngest son of John II and a Hungarian mother Piroska (renamed Irene). He was a noted diplomat and womaniser. He married first the Bavarian Bertha, sister-in-law of Conrad III, and then the Frankish Maria of Antioch. He granted lands (pronoia) for military service, comparable to western feudalism. He faced a revival of Turkish power. He had to rely on Venetian naval aid, which later caused problems. Roger II of Sicily took Corfu in 1147 but was repulsed in 1149. Manuel invaded Italy in 1155, capturing Bari. He achieved little of permanence, making peace in 1158. William I of Sicily threatened Constantinople in 1156. The Turks took Edessa in 1144, provoking the Second Crusade. Manuel sought western aid against the Seljuks but the Crusade was a disappointment. Manuel allied with Amalric King of Jerusalem. He entered Antioch in 1159 but was defeated by Kilij Arslan at Myriocephalum in 1176. His general John Vatatzes recovered the situation in 1177. Manuel invaded Hungary ten times, and his overlordship was recognised from 1156. Success was completed by victory near Belgrade in 1167. He subdued Dalmatia in 1172. He became a monk before dying on 24 September. His son Alexius II succeeded.

MANUEL II PALAEOLOGUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (1348–1425)

Emperor from 1391, when he escaped from the Turks. He had to fight for the Turks as a vassal. His father John V made him Governor of Thessalonika. He married the Serbian princess Helena. From 1396 Constantinople was besieged by the Turks but saved by the appearance of Tamberlane. Hope of western aid faded with the failure of the Crusades of Nicopolis and Kosovo. In 1399 Manuel travelled west to seek aid against the Turks, visiting Venice, Paris and London. He returned in 1403. The Byzantines won at sea in 1413. Manuel rebuilt the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth. In 1423 he ceded Salonika to Venice. He faced an increasing Ottoman threat from Bayezit, Mehmet I and Murad II. By the time of his death he held little beyond Constantinople. Most of Byzantium was held by the Ottomans. Surviving fragments were held by his brothers and sons. He had a stroke in 1423 and, having become a monk, died two years later on 21 July. His son John VIII succeeded.

MARCEL, ÉTIENNE (d.1358)

Leader of popular opposition to the Dauphin Charles (VII). A wealthy cloth merchant, he became Provost of the Merchants in Paris, effectively Mayor. He made speeches critical of the crown at meetings of the Estates-General in the 1350s. In 1357 Charles agreed to a reforming ordinance. Charles declared himself regent. In February 1358 Marcel raised a mob of thousands, wearing red and blue hoods. He forced his way before Charles and ordered the execution of officials and courtiers. Charles had to confirm the ordinance, after which he fled. The Jacquerie, the French Peasants’ Revolt, erupted in May. On 31 July Marcel, suspected of dealings with the peasants and planning to hand Paris to the Navarrese, was murdered on return from examining the city’s defences.

MARGARET OF ANJOU, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1429–82)

Wife of Henry VI, tougher and more effective than her husband, daughter of René duke of Anjou and King of Naples. She married Henry in 1445. She often replaced her husband as effective commander during his illness, incapacity and imprisonment. One chronicler thought she ‘ruled the realm as she liked’. Her supporters were the dukes of Somerset and Suffolk. She removed York from the Protectorate and initiated the Wars of the Roses. She virtually commanded the victory at Ludford Bridge in 1459. When Henry was captured in 1460 she fled to Scotland. She brought an army south in 1461 to win the Second Battle of St Albans, rescuing Henry. She sought support from Scotland and France, never seeing Henry again. With the support of Warwick the Yorkists were defeated and Henry released but in 1471 Edward IV recovered power. Her son Edward was killed at Tewkesbury. Henry VI was put to death. Margaret was captured and taken to London in a cart. She remained a prisoner until 1476 when Louis XI ransomed her. She died in Anjou and was buried in Angers Cathedral.

MATILDA, THE EMPRESS (1102–67)

Daughter of Henry I and Edith-Matilda. She married Henry V (HRE) in 1114, becoming Empress. After his death she remarried Geoffrey Plantagenet, who became Count of Anjou. After the death of her brother, William the Aetheling, Henry I made Matilda his heir. There was opposition from nobles who preferred his nephew Stephen of Blois. Matilda and her husband disputed Stephen’s succession. Geoffrey conquered Normandy from Stephen in a ten-year campaign. Matilda arrived at Arundel in 1139, initiating civil war. Her prime lieutenant was her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester. Stephen was captured at Lincoln in 1141 but Matilda was never crowned queen. She left London for her safety and retreated from Winchester, where Robert of Gloucester was captured covering her flight. She rode off astride a horse in male fashion. Stephen was released in exchange for Robert. Matilda was besieged in Oxford 1142, escaping in a white cloak through the snow. The war gradually petered out. Matilda left England. Geoffrey died in 1151. Her son, Henry Plantagenet, took up the cudgels and having become Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, won the throne as Henry II. Matilda continued to have influence with her son. She died on 10 September.

MAURICE (MAURICIUS), BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.602)

Emperor from 582, an Anatolian who rose to prominence through war against Persia. Tiberius II married Maurice to his daughter Constantia and chose him as successor. Maurice is the supposed author of the military handbook, the Strategikon. He reformed the Byzantine army, reducing the buccellarii and incorporating Avar tactics. He fought against the Persians and strengthened the frontier, gaining Armenia. He faced attack from the Avars, whose advance under Baian he halted. In 592 he invaded Avar territory over the Danube, defeating Baian at Viminacium in 601. He improved the Byzantine fortifications of Ravenna and Carthage – each under a military exarch. The mob in Constantinople shouted rude verses at Maurice about his numerous illegitimate children. The cost of warfare caused rebellion under Phokas, who marched on Constantinople. Maurice agreed to abdicate but Phokas executed him and four of his sons, displaying the heads and throwing the bodies in the sea.

MAXIMILIAN I, HABSBURG, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (1459–1519)

Archduke of Austria, King of the Romans from 1486, emperor from 1493, son of Frederick III and Eleanor of Portugal. He sought to revive the glories of the imperial past. By the Perpetual Edict he tried to stop private war in Germany, with only partial success. He married Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, in 1477, bringing considerable territory to the empire, including most of the Netherlands – a move with important consequences. Maximilian defeated the French at Guinegate in 1479, fighting on foot with his Flemish infantry. His second marriage, to Anne of Brittany in 1490, was annulled. He was in constant conflict with Charles VIII and Louis XII, coming into conflict with France over Italy. He recovered part of Austria from the Hungarians, mainly former Habsburg lands. Marriages arranged with Spanish royalty brought imperial expansion in the 16th century. He granted independence to the Swiss in 1499 after defeat at Dornach. He was buried at Innsbruck and his grandson Charles V succeeded.

MEDICI, COSIMO DE’, PATER PATRIAE (1389–1464)

The first Medici ruler of Florence. From a wealthy Florentine family, he ruled Florence with popular support, disguising the disappearance of republican rule. He was exiled by the Albizzi in 1433 but returned in triumph the following year. He dealt with several attempted coups against him. He allied with Francesco Sforza of Milan, helping to make the Peace of Lodi in 1454. He died on 1 August, succeeded by his son Piero.

MEDICI, LORENZO DE’, IL MAGNIFICO (THE MAGNIFICENT) (1449–92)

Joint ruler of Florence with his brother Giuliano from 1469, son of Piero. Giuliano was killed in the Pazzi Plot in 1478. Lorenzo made peace with Naples in 1480. Florence became arguably the greatest power in Italy under Lorenzo. One son became Pope Leo X. Lorenzo was a patron of Michelangelo. He is portrayed in a famous bust by Verrocchio.

MEHMET II, THE CONQUEROR, OTTOMAN SULTAN (1430–81)

Sultan from 1451, son of Murad II, who captured Constantinople in 1453 and destroyed the Byzantine Empire. He built the Rumeli Hisar fortress in 1452 on Byzantine territory, commanding the Bosphorus. In the siege of Constantinople he used enormous cannons and employed the western engineer Urban. He had ships dragged overland into the Golden Horn. The city fell on 29 May. Mehmet, before entering the Haghia Sophia, picked up a handful of earth to sprinkle over his head in humility. Entering the imperial palace he muttered lines of a poem – ‘the spider weaves the curtains in the palace of the Caesars’. The city was pillaged for three days. He conquered Serbia by 1459 and the Balkans. He took the remaining Byzantine territories including Mistra and the Morea in 1460, and Trebizond in 1461. He faced resistance from Hunyadi and Vlad Tepes. In 1479 he invaded Italy. He also conquered the Crimea.

MELUS OF BARI (MELES/MELO) (d.1020)

A Lombard noble, among the first to employ Norman mercenaries for his rebellion against the Greeks in Apulia in 1017. Bari under Melus revolted against Byzantium in 1009. Melus took refuge in Salerno and then Capua. He met Norman pilgrims visiting the shrine of St Michael at Monte Gargano and sought their military aid. Another version has the Normans fleeing from their own duke. With their aid he won five battles against the Byzantines, demonstrating their value. Melus was defeated at Cannae in 1018. This led to the establishment of the first Norman lordship in the region by Rainulf. Melus fled to Germany where he died.

MERCADIER

Mercenary captain serving Richard the Lionheart from 1184, when he sacked Excideuil; he was a Provençal and leader of a band of Brabançons that caused problems in the Limousin. He fought in Richard’s war against Philip Augustus in France, at Fréteval in 1194 and Vernon 1198. In 1195 he captured Issoudun. In 1197 he took Milly-sur-Thérain and captured the bishop of Beauvais. Richard granted him lands in Périgord, previously held by Adhémar de Beynac. When Richard was fatally wounded he pardoned the crossbowman responsible, but later Mercadier (who completed the taking of Châlus) had the man flayed alive. Mercadier claimed ‘I fought for him [Richard] loyally and hard … and was placed in command of his army’.

MEROVECH, KING OF THE SALIANS (fl. c.450)

(Note: this Merovech is not to be confused with later members of the dynasty given the same name – one a son of Chilperic I, one a son of Theuderic II.)

The Merovingian dynasty that ruled Francia until 751 was named after him, though he was not the first king. He succeeded Chlodion as ruler of the Salian Franks. Their base was probably in Belgium (Toxandria, around Tournai), though some place it in Thuringia. Merovech belonged to the same family as Chlodion, though whether he was his son is uncertain – as is practically everything about his life. A legend had his mother raped by a sea monster, the Quinotaur, that fathered him – his name meant ‘son of the sea’. He was probably the unnamed Salian who came to Rome seeking aid and was described as having long, fair hair over his shoulders. The Salians aided Aëtius against Attila the Hun, and fought in the victory at the Catalaunian Plains in 451. His son, Childeric I, succeeded.

MICHAEL I, RHANGABE, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.845)

Emperor 811–13 on the defeat and death of his father-in-law Nikephorus I (when Michael escaped) and the abdication of his brother-in-law Stauracius (paralysed in the battle). Michael’s wife was Prokopia. He recognised Charlemagne as Western Emperor. On 21 June 813 the Bulgars defeated him at Versinikia. He escaped to Constantinople but was deposed by his general Leo V, who had deserted at Versinikia. Michael took the name Athanasius to enter a monastery on the Princes’ Isles, where he died on 11 January.

MICHAEL II, THE AMORIAN, THE STAMMERER, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.829)

Emperor from 820, from Amorium in Asia Minor. A critic considered ‘he was an excellent judge of mules’. Accused of plotting against Leo V, he was arrested and sentenced to death. Michael’s supporters assassinated Leo on Christmas Day and proclaimed Michael emperor, though still in manacles. He married twice, first Hekla and then Euprosyne, whom he took from a nunnery. He enlisted Bulgar aid to defeat the rebel Thomas the Slav, who besieged Constantinople in 821. Michael used Greek Fire against the enemy fleet, defeating their men on land at Keduktos in 823. At Arcadiolpolis Michael besieged Thomas, who was handed over and executed. The Saracens captured Crete and Sicily. Michael died on 2 October and his son Theophilus succeeded.

MICHAEL III, THE SOT, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (840–67)

Emperor from 842, last of the Amorians, son of Theophilus. The reason for his nickname is self-evident. Aged 15, advised by his uncle Caesar Bardas, he put his mother and regent, Theodora, in a convent and seized power. In 863 he defeated the Saracens at Poson, where Emir Omar was killed. An army for Michael defeated the Saracen Governor of Armenia. The Russians besieged Constantinople in 860. Michael invaded Bulgaria and forced Khazan Boris to make peace and accept Christianity in 864. On 24 September 867 his co-emperor, Basil I, killed Michael and took power.

MICHAEL IV, THE PAPHLAGONIAN, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1041)

Emperor from 1034, son of a eunuch. He married his mistress Zoe, widow of Romanus III. He suffered from epilepsy and dropsy. George Maniakes was sent to Sicily in 1038, capturing Messina and Syracuse in 1040. He was recalled and the gains lost. Michael led a force against Bulgar rebels in 1040. He provoked them to sortie, then beat them, capturing Bojana and Peter Deljan – who was blinded and had his nose slit. Michael died on 10 December and was buried in Constantinople. His nephew Michael V succeeded.

MICHAEL VIII, PALAEOLOGUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (1234–82)

Emperor from 1258 at Nicaea and from 1261 in Constantinople, founder of the dynasty of the Palaeologi. He recovered Constantinople for the Greeks from the Latins. He rose through military command. In 1258 he deposed and blinded Theodore II, who ruled at Nicaea, and acted as regent for his son John IV. Michael defeated a coalition including Greeks from Epirus and Latins at Pelagonia in 1259, taking over Thessaly and Epirus. He tried to regain Constantinople in 1260 but failed. He allied with the Genoese against Venice in 1261 – though later he restored Venice’s privileges. A Nicaean force entered Constantinople on 25 July 1261 and the Latin Emperor Baldwin II fled. Michael entered the city on 15 August to be crowned emperor. He blinded, deposed and imprisoned John IV. His fleet defeated the Latins at Demetrias in 1275. Michael sought reunion with the Roman Church but, for his troubles, was declared deposed – though it could not be enforced. He successfully resisted Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily, who tried to regain Constantinople for the Latins. Michael made peace with the Mongols. He allied with Aragón and encouraged the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, leading to the downfall of Charles in Sicily. Michael died of disease on 11 December while campaigning in Thrace. His son Andronicus II succeeded.

MILES OF GLOUCESTER, EARL OF HEREFORD (d.1143)

A leading baron for Matilda in the civil war against Stephen. He succeeded his father as sheriff of Gloucester, holding Gloucester Castle for Henry I. He welcomed Stephen as king but deserted to Matilda once she arrived. She spent much of her time at Gloucester, protected by Miles. He helped Robert of Gloucester to take Worcester in 1139. He captured Winchcomb, South Cerney and Hereford but failed to win Sudeley. He nullified Stephen’s early success by swift action at Wallingford, which he relieved. Miles fought at Lincoln in 1141, commanding the left wing, when Stephen was defeated and captured. In 1141 Matilda made him Earl of Hereford. The bishop of Hereford excommunicated him for attacks on the Church. On Christmas Eve 1143 Miles went hunting and was killed by a stray arrow in the chest.

MONTAGU, JOHN NEVILLE, EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND, LORD (1431–71)

Earl from 1464 to 1470, Lord Montagu from 1470, supporter of his brother Warwick the Kingmaker. Fighting for the Yorkists, he was captured at the Second Battle of St Albans and later released. He helped establish Yorkist power in the north, becoming Warden of the East March in 1463. In 1464 he defeated Lancastrian attackers at Hedgeley Moor. Then he won at Hexham and was rewarded with the earldom. He surrendered the title in 1470, when it was restored to Henry Percy. In compensation he was made Marquis of Montagu. Still resentful, in 1470 he deserted to the Lancastrians. After Edward’s return Montagu was killed on 14 April at Barnet along with his brother.

MONTFORT, SIMON DE, THE ELDER (1160–1218)

Leader of the Albigensian Crusade against Cathar heretics. He claimed the earldom of Leicester through his mother. He played little part in England but his son was the Simon de Montfort of the Barons’ Wars. Simon joined the Fourth Crusade but refused to attack Christian Zara in 1202, going on to the Holy Land. He commanded the Albigensian Crusade from 1209. He concluded a series of sieges against well-defended strongholds such as Carcassonne, Minerve and Lavaur. His greatest victory was at Muret in 1213. He claimed the county of Toulouse from 1215 in place of Raymond VI, recognised by Philip II in 1216, though lacking local support. Simon became Duke of Narbonne and Viscount of Béziers and Carcassonne. He besieged Toulouse in 1218, and was killed on 25 June by a stone from a trebuchet operated by women. His son Amaury succeeded but was unable to sustain his position.

MONTFORT, SIMON DE, EARL OF LEICESTER AND CHESTER (1208–65)

Son of Simon de Montfort the Elder who came to England in 1230. He married Eleanor sister of Henry III in 1238 and was recognised as earl in 1239. He fought in Poitou in 1242 and as Henry’s Governor in Gascony 1248–52, suppressing a rebellion in 1251. Complaints against him led to his recall. He became leader of the baronial opposition, defeating and capturing Henry III at Lewes in 1264. Simon virtually ruled England, assembling the Parliament of 1265. He became Earl of Chester. In 1265 he was defeated by Prince Edward (I) on 4 August at Evesham where he was killed. His body was dismembered and buried at Evesham Abbey, where a cult of pilgrimage developed.

MULEY HASAN (ABŪ’L-HASAN ’ALĪ), KING OF GRANADA

King from 1464. He had been at the court of Castile. He provoked the final stage of the Reconquista by attacking Zahara in 1481, which led to the Christian invasion of Granada. His son Boabdil rebelled in 1482. Muley recovered the throne after Boabdil’s capture in 1483. Muley, ill and nearly blind, abdicated in favour of his brother Muhammad in 1485, who in gratitude gave Muley a pauper’s burial!

MURAD (MURAT) II, OTTOMAN SULTAN (1402–51)

Sultan from 1421, son of Mehmet I. He increased Ottoman territory in the Balkans and Anatolia at the expense of Byzantium. By his death the fall of Constantinople looked inevitable – it survived so long because he let it. He developed the Janissaries and greater use of guns. His brother Mustafa rebelled with Byzantine aid but was defeated at Ulubat, captured and executed in 1423. Murad besieged Constantinople in 1421 but failed to take it. In 1423 he broke through the Hexamilion Wall across the Isthmus of Corinth. Serbia, Wallachia and Hungary accepted Ottoman suzerainty. One of his wives was the Serbian Maria. In 1430 he took Thessalonika, where ‘chaste virgins fell into the embraces of profligates’ and 7,000 inhabitants were enslaved. He took Salonika and conquered Albania in 1432, though it rebelled in 1443. In 1442 he aided the rebel Demetrios despot of Mesembria to besiege Constantinople, again failing. In 1444 and 1448 Murad defeated the Crusades of Varna and Kosovo – Byzantium’s last hope of rescue. In 1444 he abdicated in favour of Mehmet, his son by a slave girl. He retired to Manisa, but took power again in 1446. The Byzantine Emperor was his vassal and fought for him. Murad died at Edirne (Adrianople) of a stroke on 3 February, succeeded by his son Mehmet II.

NEVSKY, ALEXANDER, OF SUZDAL (1220–63)

Prince of Novgorod from 1236, Prince of Kiev from 1247, Grand Duke of Vladimir from 1252, a successful military leader and victor over the Teutonic Knights, son and successor of Jaroslav II of Novgorod. He fought off Mongol attacks but was prepared to compromise. He defeated the Swedes at the Neva in 1240, earning the name Nevsky. The Knights tried to extend control eastwards against the Russians. Alexander recaptured Pskov and beat the Knights at Lake Peipus in 1242, leading to their decline. He defeated the Lithuanians in 1245. He suppressed a riot in Novgorod against a Mongol census in 1258 and kept Novgorod independent. He died at Gorodets on 14 November. He was canonised by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1547.

NIKEPHORUS II, PHOKAS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.969)

Co-emperor from 959, emperor from 963. He restored the Byzantine position in the Mediterranean and by victories against the Saracens, earning the nickname ‘White Death of the Saracens’. He favoured archers, developed the wedge-shaped formation of heavy cavalry cataphracts and wrote a military handbook, the Precepts. His improved fleet recovered Crete in 960–1, clearing it of pirates. Candia (Heraklion) was besieged and taken in 961. He succeeded Romanus II in 963, marrying his widow Theophano. He took Cyprus in 965. He won back Anatolia and Syria, taking Aleppo in 962, Tarsus in 965 and Antioch in 969. He promised ‘soon I shall conquer Egypt’ but, though he forced the Fatimids to make peace, could not fulfil the promise. Later famine caused rioting in Constantinople. Nikephorus was deposed by his wife’s lover, his nephew John I. On 10 December conspirators attacked Nikephorus, slashing his face with a sword, kicking him, pulling out his hair, punching him in the face and despatching him with a sword.

NOMINOË (d.851)

Ruler of the Bretons. Louis the Pious failed to subdue him, though Nominoë did homage in 826. Louis recognised him as missus dominicus. Charles the Bald was also foiled by Nominoë who defeated him at Ballon in 845. Charles recognised him as dux in Brittany by treaty. Nominoë’s death encouraged further invasion by Charles the Bald, but the king was defeated by Nominoë’s son, Erispoë.

NORTHUMBERLAND, HENRY PERCY I, EARL OF (1341–1408)

The first Percy earl from 1377. The family had long defended England against the Scots. He deserted Richard II to aid Henry IV and was appointed Constable of England and Warden of the West March. He opposed Henry cautiously. He was not at Shrewsbury in 1403, when his son Hotspur was killed, or in the Scrope Rebellion of 1405. He sought safety in Scotland, returning with an army to be defeated and killed on 19 February at Bramham Moor.

NORTHUMBERLAND, HENRY PERCY II, EARL OF (1393–1455)

Earl from 1416, grandson of Henry Percy I, a staunch Lancastrian loyal to Henry VI. He fought at St Albans in 1455. The Nevilles, rivals of the Percies, were among the Yorkist opponents. He was captured and put to death on 28 May.

NORTHUMBERLAND, HENRY PERCY III, EARL OF (1421–61)

Earl from 1455, in succession to his father Henry Percy II, Warden of the West March for Henry VI. He was killed fighting for Henry VI at Towton on 29 March, his slow advance contributing to the defeat.

NORTHUMBERLAND, HENRY PERCY IV, EARL OF (1449–89)

Restored to the earldom in 1470. His father, Henry Percy III, was killed at Towton when Edward IV passed the earldom to John Neville. Edward IV’s brief downfall in 1470–1 led to the restoration. The Nevilles turned against Edward, so Henry became the first Yorkist Percy. His allegiance remained uncertain. He came to Bosworth at Richard III’s summons but failed to aid the king. Henry Tudor showed no gratitude and had Percy imprisoned. He was killed at Topcliffe in Yorkshire by a mob opposing the war tax. Percy’s son Henry succeeded to the earldom.

NUR ED-DIN, EMIR OF ALEPPO (1118–74)

The son of Zangi of Mosul, ruling Aleppo from 1146. He dominated Syria, taking Mosul in 1170. He married the daughter of the ruler of Damascus. He successfully resisted the Second Crusade. In 1147 he defeated the Count of Edessa and razed the city. He won at Inab in 1149, when Count Raymond was killed. He captured and blinded Joscelin of Edessa in 1150. He captured Damascus in 1154 but was beaten at Homs in 1163. He was the Lord of Shirkuh and of his nephew Saladin. Shirkuh conquered Egypt for him, taking Cairo in 1169. Nur ed-Din had differences with Saladin. He died in Damascus on 15 May and Saladin took over Egypt.

ODOACER, FLAVIUS, KING OF ITALY (433–93)

A Goth who commanded Roman troops, the first barbarian ruler of Italy. In 476 he defeated Orestes, deposing his son Romulus Augustulus, last Western Emperor. Odoacer became king in 476, with his capital at Ravenna. He annexed Dalmatia in 481 and Noricum in 488, attempting to bring the Eastern Empire under his authority too but antagonising the Eastern Emperor Zeno, who sent Theoderic against him, in 489. Odoacer beat Theoderic at Faenza and besieged him in Pavia. Diverted by other problems, Odoacer was defeated by the Ostrogoths in 490 at the Adda, taking refuge in Ravenna, which was besieged 490–3. Peace was agreed. At a subsequent banquet Theoderic had Odoacer murdered. Odoacer made Italy the only surviving section of the Western Roman Empire.

OFFA, KING OF MERCIA (d.796)

The greatest of the rulers of Mercia, king from 757, claiming descent from the continental Offa. Offa was an aetheling of the ruling family and emerged to power following a civil war in Mercia. He expanded his kingdom by conquering Lindsey, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Sussex. He may have been defeated at Otford in 776 but recovered to take over Kent. He defeated Wessex under Cynewulf at Bensington in 779, giving Mercia domination in the south and calling himself King of the English. He corresponded with Charlemagne, showing his stature in Europe. Offa defeated the Welsh, establishing the frontier known as Offa’s Dyke. Under Offa the silver penny was established as the basic coinage in England, enduring until Tudor times. He died on 26 July.

ÓLAF I, TRYGGVASON, KING OF NORWAY (c.964–1000)

King from 995, probably brought up in Russia after the killing of his father. He took part in raids in the Baltic and on expeditions to England. He was probably the victor of Maldon in 991. He allied with Sweyn Forkbeard. Ólaf converted to Christianity in England, promising not to return. He overthrew Hákon to become King of Norway, encouraging the conversion of Norway and Iceland. He was killed at Svöld, fighting an alliance of Danes and Swedes. It was said that, recognising defeat, he leaped from his ship the Long Serpent (the largest ship recorded in the sagas) and drowned. Ólaf Tryggvason’s Saga is part of the Heimskringla. There were tales that he survived.

ÓLAF II, HAROLDSSON, THE STOUT/ST ÓLAF, KING OF NORWAY (c.995–1030)

King from 1015, a descendant of Harold Finehair, son of Harold Grenske (a minor king in Norway), half-brother to Harold Hardrada. He was known as the Stout or the Fat, and after canonisation as St Ólaf. He participated in expeditions to England in 1009–11. He served Thorkell the Tall and Aethelred II of England. He was a leader of those who overran East Anglia, said to be responsible for destroying London Bridge. He turned Christian in Normandy in 1013. He won the throne of Norway by defeating Sweyn Hákonsson at Nesjar near Oslo in 1015. In c.1025 he made an agreement with the colonists in Iceland, ensuring Norwegian interest there. He forced conversion on Norway, arousing opposition. He married Astrid, illegitimate daughter of Olof Skötkonung of Sweden. He won at the Holy River against Cnut. Internal enemies allied with Cnut to oppose Ólaf who was exiled. He returned but was defeated at Stiklestad, where he was killed. He was buried secretly at Trondheim, becoming the patron saint of Norway. His sword, Hneitir, was picked up by a Swede and placed over the altar of St Ólaf’s Church in Constantinople.

ORDOÑO II, KING OF LEÓN (d.923)

King from 912, son of Alfonso III of Asturias, who divided his lands. Ordoño extended his territories and transferred the capital from Oviedo to León, giving the kingdom its name. In alliance with Navarre he was defeated by the Muslims at Val de Junqueras in 920 but successfully defended León against Muslim invasion. He advanced his control to Mérida, approaching Córdoba. His brother, Ramiro II, succeeded.

ORHAN, OTTOMAN SULTAN (1288–1362)

Sultan from 1324, succeeding his father Osman I. He established a new state in Anatolia and Thrace, posing a threat to Byzantium. In 1326 he captured Bursa, which became his capital. In 1328 he defeated Andronicus III at Pelekanos. He captured Nicaea in 1329 and Nicomedia in 1337, after a long siege. In 1344 he married Theodora, daughter of Emperor John Cantacuzenus, forming an alliance. When John fell from power in 1355 Orhan invaded Europe, establishing Turkish rule there. He captured Gallipoli in 1354 and Adrianople in 1362, settling Turks in Thrace and the Balkans. His son Murad I succeeded.

OTHMAN I (OSMAN), OTTOMAN SULTAN (1259–1324)

Sultan from 1280, founder of the Ottoman dynasty and Empire. His ancestors ruled a small territory in northern Iran, fleeing before the Mongol advance. Othman’s father Ertugrul settled in Anatolia, serving as a mercenary captain for the Seljuks. The Ottomans were ghazi leaders, commanding troops of bandits and mercenaries, fighting the infidel. Othman’s son, on his tomb, called his father ‘ghazi son of ghazis’. He was born at Sogrut in Anatolia, developing his emirate at the expense of Byzantium. He occupied Dorylaeum in c.1300. Othman captured Yenisehir, which became his capital. In 1301 he defeated the Byzantines at Baphaeum near Nicaea. In 1304 he captured Nicaea, in 1308 Ephesus, and then towns along the Black Sea coast. His final triumph was at Bursa, which he besieged from 1317. It was taken in 1326 by Othman’s son Orhan and became his capital. Othman was brought there for burial. The Ottomans rose as the Seljuks declined – the Seljuk Sultanate ending in 1308. Othman died on 6 April and Orhan succeeded.

OTTO I, THE GREAT, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (912–73)

King of the Romans from 936, emperor from 962, son of Henry the Fowler. He ruled Saxony for his father. In 930 he married Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder of England. His second wife was St Adelaide, daughter of Lothar II King of Italy. He fought two wars to keep the crown, against his half-brother Thankmar, and then his brother Henry, the latter supported by Louis IV of France. Otto won victories at Xanten 940 and Andernach 941. He gained control over Lotharingia. He invaded West Francia in 942 when peace was agreed. Bavaria revolted and Otto was defeated by Duke Bertold at Wels. In 948 he intervened in West Francia to support Louis IV. In 950 Otto invaded Bohemia and Duke Boleslav submitted. Otto made three Italian expeditions, and was crowned King of the Lombards in 952. Otto revived the Holy Roman Empire of the Carolingians, initiating its history as a German empire. His reputation was enhanced by victory over the Magyars at the Lechfeld. He died on 7 May and his son Otto II succeeded. He was buried at Magdeburg.

OTTO II, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (955–83)

Crowned emperor during his father’s lifetime in 967, succeeding Otto I in 973. He married Theophano a Byzantine princess. In the early reign he fought against Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria and Boleslav of Bohemia. After victory Otto divided Bavaria. He disputed West Francia with the Capetians. The West Franks invaded, occupying Aachen, but were beaten off. Otto invaded West Francia and besieged Paris. Illness in the army forced him to retreat but he kept control over Lotharingia. In Italy he was defeated by allied Muslims and Byzantines at Crotona 982. He died of malaria in Italy on 7 December and was buried in Rome. His son Otto III succeeded.

OTTO III, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (980–1002)

King of the Romans from 983, emperor from 996, son of Otto II and the Byzantine princess Theophano. At his father’s death he was three. His mother defeated rebellion by Henry the Wrangler. Otto took over in 994. He campaigned against the Slavs on the Elbe in 997. He made Italian expeditions in 996 and 998, in the second suppressing an anti-papal rebellion by John Crescentius. The latter and his followers were captured and hanged. Otto admired Charlemagne, whose tomb he re-opened, keeping one of his teeth. Otto died childless on 23 January, while trying to suppress rebellion in Rome. As he wished, he was buried beside Charlemagne at Aachen.

OTTO IV, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (1174–1218)

King of the Romans from 1198, emperor from 1209, son of Henry the Lion and Matilda daughter of Henry II of England. Following Henry’s downfall, Otto was made Count of Poitou by Richard the Lionheart. On the death of Henry VI, Otto contested the throne with Philip of Swabia. Otto won and Philip was assassinated in 1208. Henry VI’s son Frederick ruled Sicily. Otto invaded southern Italy in 1210 but failed. Frederick sought power in Germany and the issue was decided by Otto’s defeat at Bouvines in 1214. Frederick was elected King of the Romans in 1215. Otto retired to family lands in Brunswick. He died on 19 May and was buried in Brunswick.

OTTOKAR I, KING OF BOHEMIA (d.1230)

King from 1198. Henry VI (HRE) made him Duke of Bohemia in 1192. Ottokar sought independence and won it from Philip of Swabia. He was crowned king at Mainz – confirmed by Otto IV in 1203 and by Frederick II in the Golden Bull. Ottokar’s son Wenceslas succeeded.

OTTOKAR II, THE GREAT, KING OF BOHEMIA (d.1278)

King from 1253 in succession to his father, Wenceslas II. He allied with the Teutonic Knights against the Prussians in 1255. The Knights named their foundation at Königsberg in his honour. He won Styria from Béla IV of Hungary at Kressenbrun in 1260. During the interregnum in the empire he won Carinthia, Carniola and Istria. He fought against Rudolf of Habsburg, the successful rival for election as King of the Romans in 1273. Ottokar was defeated and abandoned some of his conquests. In 1276 Ottokar recognised Rudolf’s overlordship but then rebelled to be defeated and killed at the Marchfeld on 26 August.

OWEN GLENDOWER (GLYNDŴR), PRINCE OF WALES (1354–1415)

Rebel against Henry IV, claiming to be prince from 1400, descended from the princes of Powys and Deheubarth, but beginning life modestly. He was educated in London and fought for the English in Ireland and Scotland. He married Margaret Hanmer the daughter of an Anglo-Welsh judge. He supported Richard II but rebelled against Henry IV. He quarrelled with Lord Grey of Ruthin and raided England to be beaten at Welshpool. His allies captured Conway Castle in 1401. In 1402 he defeated and captured Lord Grey and Edmund Mortimer at Pilleth. Mortimer married Owen’s daughter. Owen captured Carmarthen Castle and Cardiff in 1403, Aberystwyth and Harlech in 1404. He allied with the French against Henry IV in 1404. He made terms with the Percies in 1405, giving him rule of a newly defined principality of Wales. Owen was defeated at Grosmont and Usk in 1405, and lost Carmarthen. Harlech Castle surrendered to the English. The Percies were defeated and Owen went into hiding. His life ended in obscurity on 20 September.

PEDRO I, THE CRUEL, KING OF LEÓN AND CASTILE (1336–69)

King from 1349 in succession to his father, Alfonso XI. He had his father’s mistress Leonor murdered in 1351 and killed his own wife in order to enjoy his mistress without complaint. He intervened in Granada in 1362, supporting Muhammad V, whom he restored. He fought a succession war against his illegitimate half-brother Enrique de Trastámara. Castile entered the Hundred Years’ War, with France supporting Enrique, and England supporting Pedro. The Black Prince invaded Castile in 1367 and won at Nájera but, after his departure, the war continued. John of Gaunt married Pedro’s daughter. Enrique gained his revenge, defeating Pedro at Montiel in 1369 and stabbing him to death, while Du Guesclin hung on to Pedro’s leg.

PEDRO III, THE GREAT, KING OF ARAGÓN (d.1285)

King from 1276, son and successor of Jaime I. He established a protectorate over Tunis in 1280. Pedro married Constance, daughter of Manfred of Sicily. He was offered the crown of Sicily in 1282 after the Sicilian Vespers. He was excommunicated but fought off a French invasion of Aragón in 1284. He died on 2 November when his son Alfonso III inherited Aragón, and his son Jaime Sicily.

PENDA, KING OF MERCIA (d.655)

The first important ruler of Mercia (the kingdom of the frontier), from 632. The dates are not certain. Penda remained pagan during the period of the conversion. He held his own against the great kingdoms. He expanded his territory. He fought against the West Saxons at Cirencester in 628, gaining lands from them before becoming king. He defeated the East Angles and installed his son Peada over them. He defeated the Hwicce and conquered their kingdom. His greatest conflict was with the English north of the Humber. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle calls him ‘the Southumbrian’. He defeated and killed Edwin and his son Osfrith at Hatfield Chase, 633, and beat and killed Oswald at Maserfeld (possibly Oswestry) in 641. Penda was defeated and decapitated by Oswy at Winwaed. His son Peada succeeded.

PEPIN (PIPPIN) I OF LANDEN, MAYOR OF THE PALACE OF AUSTRASIA (d. c.639)

(Note: this Pepin I is not to be confused with Pepin I King of Aquitaine; note also that Pepin III, the Short, is also Pepin I of Francia.)

Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia when mayors were challenging the dominance of the Merovingian dynasty. He came from a noble family with land in the Moselle valley. His daughter Gertrude married into the Arnulfing family, whose descendants were the Carolingian rulers of Francia. He was adviser to Dagobert I and Chlothar II, but became the enemy of Brunhild. It is believed that he lost influence during the later part of Dagobert’s reign.

PEPIN II OF AQUITAINE (d.864)

Son of Pepin I, self-proclaimed King of Aquitaine, grandson of Louis the Pious. Pepin II succeeded his father in 838, retaining the backing of nobles who had supported his father. By the 839 Division at Worms, Charles the Bald received Aquitaine, but was opposed by Pepin II. Charles defeated Pepin in 840. The latter supported Lothar against his brothers, but was defeated with Lothar at Fontenoy in 841. An expedition against Pepin by Charles the Bald in 844 failed to take Toulouse and Charles was defeated near Angoulême. In 845 Charles and Pepin II reached agreement. Pepin recognised Charles and was in turn accepted by him, though part of Aquitaine was separated off under the Count of Poitou. In 848 Pepin II’s position collapsed through discontent with his defence against the Vikings. Charles in contrast made strenuous efforts against them. Charles took over Aquitaine and Pepin sought refuge with the Basques. He was handed over to Charles, deposed in 852 and sent to the monastery of St-Médard at Soissons. He escaped, seeking restoration, in 854. Pepin gained some support but not complete authority. In 855 Charles the Child, son of Charles the Bald, became King of Aquitaine. Pepin continued to struggle, allying with the Bretons in 859 and with the Vikings on the Loire from 857. A hostile source claimed he had abandoned Christianity but probably only because of this alliance. He joined the Vikings and, it was said, ‘lived like one of them’. In 863, with the Vikings, he attacked Toulouse but failed to take it. In 864 he was captured by the Count of Poitou and handed to Charles. He was brought before an assembly at Pîtres and condemned to death as a traitor. He was imprisoned at Senlis where he probably died, but the nature of his death is unknown.

PEPIN II OF HERISTAL, MAYOR OF THE PALACE OF AUSTRASIA AND NEUSTRIA (d.714)

Son of Pepin I, and mayor in both Austrasia and Neustria, grandson of both Pepin I and Arnulf of Metz. He first became mayor in Austrasia. He was beaten by Ebroin in the Bois du Fays, but later defeated the Neustrians under Berchar and Theuderic III at Tertry in 687. Pepin’s authority ran through most of the Frankish lands though later pro-Carolingian writers exaggerated his dominance. There was opposition from magnates, and the Merovingians were not entirely moribund. He led campaigns against the Frisians, the Bretons and the Alemans. His illegitimate son, Charles Martel, succeeded.

PEPIN III, THE SHORT, PEPIN I KING OF THE FRANKS (c.714–768)

The illegitimate son of Charles Martel, father of Charlemagne, first Carolingian King of Francia. After Martel’s death he was mayor in Austrasia. He and his brother, Carloman, dealt with rebellions and frontier troubles, restoring the authority formerly wielded by Martel. They fought against the Aquitanians, Bavarians, Alemans and Saxons. Carloman entered a monastery for life in 746. Childeric III’s deposition in 751 brought Merovingian rule to an end. Childeric was probably set up by Carloman in the first place after an interregnum, but removed by Pepin. Childeric went into a monastery. Pepin was crowned at Soissons. In return for papal recognition, he fought the Lombards, leading an expedition to Italy in 754 when King Aistulf submitted. Pepin won control over Aquitaine and Septimania. He fought the Saxons in the north, the Goths and Saracens in the south. Throughout the 760s he fought the Aquitainians under Waiofar until they both died in 768 – Pepin in Paris.

PETER THE HERMIT (d.1115)

Leader of the People’s Crusade, born near Amiens, nicknamed ‘Little Peter’ and probably small in stature, said to look like a donkey. He was known as ‘the Hermit’ from his spartan clothes, unwashed appearance and lifestyle. An itinerant preacher in France and Germany, he inspired many to join the crusading movement. He led the People’s Crusade via Constantinople to Asia Minor. He was in Constantinople when the disaster at Civetot occurred. He went on to join the First Crusade. He fled from the siege of Antioch in 1098 but was captured and forced to return. He was chosen envoy for a failed negotiation with Kerbogha. He preached before the successful attack on Jerusalem was made. He returned to Europe in 1101 and died on 7 July.

PHILIP I, KING OF FRANCE (1052–1108)

King from 1060, son and successor of Henry I of France, crowned in his father’s lifetime in 1059. His mother was Anna of Kiev, hence his Greek name. Like several early Capetians he grew corpulent, said to be too keen on eating and sleeping to fight. He succeeded as a minor with Baldwin V count of Flanders as guardian. Philip sought independence of Flanders but was defeated by Arnold III at Cassel in 1071 (though Arnold was killed). In 1076 Philip blocked William the Conqueror’s invasion of Brittany. He encouraged Curthose’s rebellion, leading to William’s defeat at Gerberoi in 1079. Philip first married Bertha of Holland, stepdaughter of Robert the Frisian count of Flanders. In 1092 he seized Bertrade de Montfort, wife of Fulk IV of Anjou, for which he was excommunicated. He thwarted the ambitions of Rufus in Normandy in 1194. In his demesne Philip was defeated by Hugh du Puiset in 1080 but increased the royal demesne with part of the Gâtinais, Corbie and Bourges. He gained control of Montlhéry in 1104. He died at Melun on 29 July. His son Louis VI succeeded. Philip was buried, by his own wish, at the Abbey of Fleurie.

PHILIP II, AUGUSTUS, KING OF FRANCE (1165–1223)

King from 1180, son and successor of Louis VII, crowned during his father’s lifetime in 1179. He married first Isabelle of Hainault, second Ingeborg of Denmark (whom he repudiated), and third Agnès de Méran his mistress. He destroyed the Angevin Empire. He went on the Third Crusade with Richard the Lionheart. They captured Acre but he returned home soon after. He eventually brought Henry II to his knees, by allying with his sons. Philip suffered minor defeats in the war with Richard the Lionheart at Fréteval and Vernon. Against John he triumphed, capturing Château-Gaillard, taking Rouen and regaining most of the Angevin lands in France. In his conflict with the Count of Flanders, the French fleet was destroyed at Damme in 1213. This ruined plans for an invasion of England. His greatest victory was at Bouvines in 1214 where Otto IV (HRE) and his Flemish and English allies were defeated. Meanwhile John was defeated by Philip’s son Louis in the south. Louis invaded England in alliance with the Magna Carta barons, though the invasion was abandoned. Philip encouraged the Fourth Crusade. He permitted the Albigensian Crusade, leading to increased royal power in the south. Philip improved the defences of Paris and built castles throughout France. He died in Mantes on 14 July. He was buried at St-Denis. St Louis later had the tomb covered in gold and silver. His son Louis VIII succeeded.

PHILIP IV, THE FAIR (LE BEL), KING OF FRANCE (1268–1314)

King from 1285, son and successor of Philip III. In 1284 he married the heiress Joan of Navarre, claiming Navarre. He fought Edward I over Gascony, which Philip seized in 1294 but later returned. When Flanders revolted, Philip was beaten at Courtrai in 1302, gaining revenge at Monsen-Pévèle in 1304. He was blamed for a scandalous attack on Pope Boniface VIII. He attacked the Knights Templar from 1307 and the order was suppressed in 1313. He died on 30 November and was succeeded by three sons in turn – the last Capetian Kings.

PHILIP VI, KING OF FRANCE (1293–1350)

King from 1328, the first Valois King, son of Charles of Valois, nephew of Philip IV, cousin of Charles IV. He married Jeanne of Burgundy. He defeated the Flemings at Cassel in 1328. His right to the throne was challenged by Edward III of England in 1337, leading to the Hundred Years’ War. Philip banished Robert of Artois in 1332, one cause of dispute since Robert was supported by Edward. As a counter Philip sheltered David II King of Scots in 1334. Philip declared the English possession of Gascony forfeit in 1337. Philip suffered the first major defeats of the war, including Crécy in 1346 and the loss of Calais 1347. Philip died on 22 August at the Abbey of Coulombs near Dreux and was buried at St-Denis. His son John II succeeded. The dynasty endured until 1498.

PHOKAS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.610)

Proclaimed emperor by his army on the Danube in 602. The troops mutinied when ordered to winter north of the Danube, overthrew their commander Priscus, and followed the centurion Phokas. He had a scarred face but was ‘not as pleasant as he looked’. He marched on Constantinople, deposing Maurice. Phokas was illiterate. He became a ruthless tyrant, torturing and mutilating his victims, marking the further decline of Byzantium after Justinian I’s death. Maurice and his family fled, were captured and put to death. A reign of terror followed. The Persians under Chosroes II overran Armenia and Anatolia, capturing Dara, Edessa and Aleppo. The Avars advanced and were paid tribute. Narses rebelled but was defeated and burned alive. Phokas was overthrown by the rebellion of Heraclius, son of the Governor of Carthage. Phokas was killed by the mob and chopped into pieces ‘until fit for the hounds’.

PROKOP (PROCOPIUS), ANDREW, THE SHAVEN (d.1433)

Hussite general, successor to Žiška despite his own blindness. He was a Hussite priest who opposed Emperor Sigismund, winning at Ústi 1425, Tachov 1431 and Domažlice 1431. He raided Saxony and Franconia. He used the tactic of defensive wagon circles and pikemen. He lost trust and, allied with the radical Taborites, was defeated and killed by Utraquists and Catholics at Lipany on 30 May 1433.

QALAWUN, SULTAN OF EGYPT (d.1290)

Mamluke Sultan from 1279 who brought the Crusader kingdom to its knees. He won at Homs in 1281, defeating the Mongols. He captured Margat in 1285 and Tripoli in 1289. He planned to attack Acre but died en route on 10 November. His son al-Kalil succeeded.

QTUZ, SAYF ED-DIN, SULTAN OF EGYPT (d.1260)

The first Mamluke Sultan from 1259, having been general for his predecessor. He took over through a coup. He assembled a force from Egypt and Syria to defeat the Mongols at Ayn Jalut. He captured Damascus in 1260, halting Mongol advance in the Middle East. Though the Christians did not obstruct him, they gave no aid and therefore received no benefit from his victory. Qtuz was assassinated by Baybars on 24 October.

RADBOD, KING OF THE FRISIANS (d.719)

He extended the kingdom, seeking to remain independent of the Merovingian Franks. Pepin II defeated him at Dorestad in 689. The conversion of Frisia to Christianity then gathered momentum. Radbod rebelled against the Franks but was defeated by Charles Martel in 718.

RAEDWALD, KING OF EAST ANGLIA (d. c.627)

Probably the king commemorated in the Sutton Hoo burial. Bede made him the fourth Bretwalda from 616, the major king of his day. He defeated and killed Aethelfrith of Bernicia on the River Idle in 616 but his own son was killed in the battle. Raedwald accepted Christian baptism but did not ban paganism, erecting Christian and pagan altars in the same building. No body was found at Sutton Hoo but Raedwald may have been buried there, though this is supposition.

RAGNAR LOÐBRÓK (HAIRY BREECHES) (864)

Possibly the attacker of Paris in 845. During this raid over a hundred Franks were hanged and Paris was sacked on Easter Sunday. The Frankish king Charles the Bald paid the first recorded tribute to Vikings to halt the attack. Ragnar Lođbrók features prominently in sagas. It is not certain that all the exploits attributed to him are those of one man. The historian Gwyn Jones calculated that if all the stories were accepted he would be 150 by his death. Ragnar was active in Ireland, Scotland, England and Francia. He was the father of Ivar, Hálfdan, Ubbi and Björn. It was claimed that to win his wife, the Swedish princess Thora, he killed two serpents while wearing protective hairy trousers. In England Aelle King of Northumbria captured him and put him to death in a snakepit while he sang his own death lay! The dual tales of serpents and snakes arouse suspicion. His sons invaded in revenge in 865, killing Aelle in 867.

RAINALD OF CHÂTILLON, PRINCE OF ANTIOCH (d.1187)

Adventurer in the Holy Land, younger son of the Count of Gien, he joined Louis VII on the Second Crusade. He stayed to serve King Baldwin. Rainald married Constance Princess of Antioch. He allied with the Templars and proved his military ability by victory over the Armenians. He treated the Patriarch Aimery with cruelty. He invaded Cyprus in 1156 with military and financial success before withdrawing. He took Shaizar in 1157. Relations worsened with Baldwin, who allied with Byzantium against him. Rainald was captured by Nur ed-Din in a raid in 1160 and imprisoned at Aleppo until 1175. He married a second time to Stephanie of Oultrejourdain. Rainald became a lone bandit, mainly against Saladin. From 1181 Rainald attacked Muslim caravans, ignoring Christian criticism. He built a fleet to capture Aila on the Dead Sea. He attacked merchant shipping and caravans, sinking a Muslim pilgrim ship. His fleet was destroyed and Aila retaken. In 1183 he was besieged at Kerak but escaped when it fell. His activities provoked the campaign leading to Hattin, where he fought in Guy’s army. Rainald was captured and decapitated by Saladin with a sword.

RAINULF (RANNULF) DRENGOT OF AVERSA (d.1045)

The first independent Norman lord in southern Italy, hired as a mercenary by Melus of Bari. Rainulf was ‘a man adorned with all the virtues that become a knight’. He fought in the campaigns of Melus, including the disaster at Cannae. He was employed by Sergius IV of Naples, fighting to recover his territory. In 1030 Sergius rewarded Rainulf with the lordship of Aversa, where Rainulf built a castle. Rainulf married Sergius’ sister, widow and heiress of the Duke of Gaeta. Rainulf encouraged new arrivals from Normandy. He changed his allegiance to the Prince of Capua, marrying his niece, and then to the Prince of Salerno. Conrad II (HRE) recognised Rainulf as Count of Aversa in 1038. His son Richard became Prince of Capua.

RALPH THE TIMID, OF MANTES, EARL OF HEREFORD (d.1057)

Son of Drogo count of the Vexin and Godgifu, sister of Edward the Confessor. Edward brought Ralph to England, making him Earl of Hereford in 1050. Ralph married Gytha and had a son Harold. He was a possible successor to the childless Edward. He co-commanded the fleet against the Godwins in 1052. His main claim to military significance came from fighting the Welsh under Gruffydd and Aelfgar on 24 October 1055 near Hereford. Ralph had trained his men to fight on horseback in the Norman and Frankish fashion, which was ‘against their custom’, and they were beaten. His flight earned the nickname ‘the Timid’. He died on 21 December.

RAMIRO II, KING OF LEÓN (d.952)

King from 927 on the abdication of his brother Alfonso IV. He captured Madrid from the Muslims in 932. Zaragoza was lost in 937 to Abd-al-Rāhman. Ramiro gained revenge with victories at Simancas and Alhandega in 939, and Talavera in 951. His son Ordoño III succeeded after a civil war.

RAYMOND, COUNT OF POITIERS, PRINCE OF ANTIOCH (d.1149)

Raymond went to the Middle East in 1136, the year he inherited Poitiers. He married Constance heiress to Antioch and became its ruler. As uncle of Louis VII’s wife, he was expected to assist the Second Crusade but argued with Louis over its objectives and was suspected of having an affair with Louis’ wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Raymond left the Crusade to its own disasters. He defeated Nur ed-Din at Famiya in 1148 but was defeated and killed by Shirkuh the following year at Inab on 29 June, his head sent in a silver case to the Caliph of Baghdad.

RAYMOND OF ST GILLES, IV COUNT OF TOULOUSE, I COUNT OF TRIPOLI (d.1105)

Leader of the largest contingent on the First Crusade. He fought in Spain against Muslims. He was at the siege and capture of Antioch, quarrelling with Bohemond over its control. He became ill but was at the taking of Jerusalem. He was not elected as ruler of the new kingdom but became Count of Tripoli. In 1101 he captured Ankara but was defeated by the Turks at Mersivan in Anatolia. He was taken by Christian enemies and handed to Tancred who imprisoned him at Antioch, though soon released. He won outside Tripoli in 1102, establishing the new county. He took Tortosa but failed to take Tripoli itself – though he continued to attack it. A burning roof fell on his head in 1104. He never recovered, and died on 28 February, still hoping to take Tripoli.

RAYMOND VI, COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1156–1222)

Count from 1194, succeeding his father Raymond V. The papal legate Peter de Castelnau was killed in 1208 at St Gilles and Raymond was blamed as a sympathiser though not himself a Cathar. The pope called a Crusade. Raymond submitted and humiliated himself with a public flogging. The Crusade went ahead to invade southern France. Raymond joined the crusade for a time but then deserted. He and his Spanish allies were defeated by the crusaders at Muret in 1213. Raymond lost his county in 1215. He spent time in Spain. He failed to recover his county. He died in Toulouse in 1222, excommunicate, so his body remained unburied in its coffin. By the 16th century rats had eaten the coffin and the bones had vanished.

RAYMOND VII, COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1197–1249)

Count from 1215 to 1249. His father was dispossessed in 1215 when Simon de Montfort the Elder, claimed the county. Simon was recognised by Philip II. Raymond retained a reduced territory. In 1217 he was welcomed when returning to Toulouse. Simon died in 1218 when besieging Toulouse. Raymond recovered much of his territory including Carcassonne and Béziers. He defeated Simon’s son Amaury at Baziège in 1219. Prince Louis besieged Toulouse in 1219 but abandoned the attempt. Raymond was condemned by the papacy for supporting heretics. Louis VIII led a new Crusade south and conquered Toulouse. Louis IX granted Raymond the county for life in 1229. He rebelled in 1242 but his supporters were defeated. The succession was settled by the marriage of Raymond’s daughter, Joan, to Alphonse of Poitiers, Louis’ brother. Raymond died in Milau and was later buried at Fontevrault.

RECCARED I, KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (d.601)

Son of Leovigild, whom he succeeded in Spain in 586. This was arguably the high point of Visigothic power. Reccared converted from Arianism to Roman Catholicism in 587. He was instrumental in resisting Frankish invasion. Reccared in turn invaded Francia, plundering near Toulouse. He raided along the Rhône, capturing Cabaret and Beaucaire, and occupying Nîmes. He won victories over the Basques and the Byzantines.

RENAUD DE DAMMARTIN, COUNT OF BOULOGNE (1165–1227)

Renaud’s family were castellans in the Îlede-France from the 11th century. His parents were Aubry and Mabille. He was brought up at the court of Louis VII, who knighted him. He repudiated his first wife, Marie de Châtillon the king’s cousin, to marry the heiress Ida of Boulogne in 1190. Renaud was recognised as count by the king but was then involved in a quarrel at court. He allied with Richard the Lionheart and then paid homage to King John as a counter to Philip Augustus in 1199, making peace in 1201. Philip Hurepel, Philip Augustus’ illegitimate son, was to marry Renaud’s daughter Matilda (then aged one). Renaud returned to his French allegiance, receiving John’s former county of Mortain. He became embroiled in war against Philip’s cousin, the bishop of Beauvais. Renaud was accused of various crimes and sins, including attacks on the Church and parading his concubines in public. Philip demanded the return of Mortain, which Renaud refused. Philip seized Mortain and exiled Renaud, who did homage to John in 1212. He recruited allies against Philip, joining the attack on the French fleet at Damme. He opposed Philip at Bouvines in 1214, though he argued against fighting. He was among the commanders of the right. Renaud, on horseback bearing an ash lance, fought on to the end with his knights and mercenaries. He formed pikemen in a circle, two men deep. He and his knights issued from this circle to fight, withdrawing inside it for protection. Numbers told and Renaud was unhorsed and captured. Philip promised him his life but learned that Renaud was plotting against him. Renaud was imprisoned in a tower, chained to a log that had to be lifted for him to move to the toilet. Boulogne went to Philip Hurepel. After Philip Augustus’ death, Renaud’s hopes of release were dashed and he committed suicide on 21 April.

RICHARD I, COEUR DE LION (THE LIONHEART), KING OF ENGLAND (1157–99)

One of the greater military kings. King from 1189 on the death of his father Henry II. During Henry’s reign he governed Aquitaine, his mother Eleanor’s inheritance. He rebelled against his father in 1173–4, and in 1189 when allied to Philip II of France, bringing Henry to a humiliating submission. He and Philip led the Third Crusade in 1190. Richard travelled via Cyprus, which he conquered and later passed to Guy of Lusignan. In Cyprus he married Berengaria of Navarre. In the crusade Acre was taken and the Muslims defeated at Arsuf in 1191 and Jaffa in 1192. However, Richard turned back before reaching Jerusalem. He made an agreement with Saladin. During his return he was captured and imprisoned by Henry VI (HRE). He was ransomed and released in 1194. His brother John created problems in England but Richard resumed power and pardoned John. During his imprisonment Philip II had made gains in France. Richard fought to recover the losses. He built the castle of Château-Gaillard. He won minor engagements at Fréteval in 1194 and Gisors in 1198. The gains were negated by his sudden death when besieging Châlus-Chabrol. He received a fatal crossbow wound, dying in his mother’s arms on 6 April. His body was buried at Fontevrault, his heart at Rouen. His brother John succeeded.

RICHARD I, DUKE OF NORMANDY (932–96)

Son of William Longsword, whom he succeeded in 942. As a boy he was sent to learn the Scandinavian tongue at Rouen. He married Gunnor, of Viking descent. His daughter Emma married Aethelred II of England in 1002, paving the way for the Norman Conquest. Richard was ‘a tall man, handsome and strongly built, with a long beard and grey hair’. He faced a coalition of enemies from 954, including King Lothar and the Counts of Anjou and Flanders. He defeated them at Rouen and called in Viking aid. Vikings were still allowed to use Norman ports. Richard was a supporter of the Capetian family. A peasant revolt in Normandy in 996 was suppressed by the nobility.

RICHARD II, KING OF ENGLAND (1367–1400)

King 1377–99, called Richard of Bordeaux from his birthplace, son of the Black Prince who died in 1376, so that Richard succeeded his grandfather Edward III in 1377. His uncle, John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster, dominated the minority. The imposition of a Poll Tax led to the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, when Richard’s courage defused the situation. He married Anne of Bohemia in 1382. He was opposed by the Appellants, who removed his Chancellor Michael de la Pole and defeated royalist forces at Radcot Bridge in 1387. He recovered power with the aid of John of Gaunt. Richard made an agreement with France in 1396. He was not a successful military commander, having gained nothing in France and led a failed expedition to Ireland. The banishment of Henry Bolingbroke led to the latter’s return to seek his inheritance. Richard surrendered to Henry and was imprisoned. He abdicated and Bolingbroke became Henry IV. Richard was probably put to death in February at Pontefract Castle. He was buried in the Dominican Priory at King’s Langley in Hertfordshire. Henry V later moved the body to Westminster Abbey.

RICHARD II, DUKE OF NORMANDY (996–1026)

Son of Richard I. His sister Emma married Aethelred II in 1002 and then Cnut in 1017. Aethelred’s exiled sons by Emma, Edward (the Confessor) and Alfred, were brought up at the Norman court. The Normans assisted their attempts to recover the English throne, which Edward later succeeded in doing. Richard maintained links with the Vikings, still allowed to use Norman ports. They aided him against the Count of Blois-Chartres in 1013–14. In the 1020s Richard joined a coalition against that count. He supported the Capetian dynasty. He liked to work in the tower at Rouen and was ‘in the habit of looking down over the city walls, the fields and the river’. He married the Breton, Judith, and then the Norman Papia. His sons by Judith, Richard and Robert, succeeded in turn.

RICHARD III, KING OF ENGLAND (1452–85)

King from 1483, son of Richard duke of York. He became Duke of Gloucester in 1461. On the death of his brother, Edward IV, Richard seized the throne rather than protecting the rights of his nephews, the Princes in the Tower. His supposed deformities, including a hunchback, probably came from Tudor propaganda rather than fact. In 1472 he married Anne Neville, daughter of Warwick the Kingmaker. The manner of his nephews’ death is uncertain but Richard was probably responsible. He resented Edward’s marriage to their mother, Elizabeth Woodville. Under Edward he had played a major part in the victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury. He accompanied Edward to France in 1475. He defended the Scottish border. As king he suppressed the 1483 rebellion and executed Buckingham. Richard’s son Edward died in 1484. When Henry Tudor invaded in 1485 Richard was defeated and killed at Bosworth on 22 August, due largely to baronial treachery. His naked corpse was exposed to public view in Leicester for two days before burial. During the Dissolution of the Monasteries his remains were removed from their tomb and thrown in the River Soar.

RIDWAN, EMIR OF ALEPPO (d.1113)

Emir from 1095, son and successor of Tutush. He ruled this region of northern Syria at the time of the First Crusade. He and his brother Duqaq were bitter enemies. Ridwan suffered losses from the Crusade. He failed to relieve Antioch and was defeated there in 1098. He recovered part of the principality of Antioch. He won at Ma’arrat al-Numan and assisted in the victory at Mersivan in 1101. He increased his power by defeating and killing Kilij Arslan of Rum at the River Khabur in 1107. He was prepared to compromise with either side and his death made Christian Edessa more vulnerable.

RIENZI (RIENZO), COLA DI (NICHOLAS) (1313–54)

A populist leader in Rome, claiming to be a bastard of Henry VII (HRE) but said to be the son of an innkeeper and a laundress. He opposed the papacy’s move to Avignon from Rome but his chief enemy was the nobility. He roused support by public speeches, seeking self-rule for Rome, acting as a dictator with the title of Tribune. Rome briefly became a self-governing republic. He suppressed a rising by the Colonnas in 1347 but was forced to flee. He took refuge with Charles IV (HRE) who handed him to the pope. Rienzi was imprisoned at Avignon in 1352. Innocent VI restored him as Senator in Rome under Alborñoz in 1353. A rising against the regime in 1354 led to Rienzi’s death, torn to pieces, on 8 October. He became a hero of those seeking Italian unity, subject of a Wagner opera.

ROBERT I, THE BRUCE, KING OF SCOTS (1274–1329)

Earl of Carrick from 1292, king from 1306, son of Robert Bruce the Elder and Marjorie Countess of Carrick. He fought for Edward I against William Wallace. He sought the throne and killed his rival, Red John Comyn, in 1306. He was defeated by the English under Aymer de Valence at Methven in 1306. He took refuge in Ireland, returning in 1307. He defeated the Earl of Argyll at Loch Etive to control most of Scotland. He aimed against Stirling and brought Edward I north to die en route. In 1314 he defeated Edward II at Bannockburn, a major step to independence. His brother Edward invaded Ireland from 1315, where Robert joined him in 1317 – though the venture failed. Robert captured Berwick in 1318. He warded off an English invasion in 1322 by victory at Byland. He died on 7 June, possibly of leprosy. His son David II succeeded.

ROBERT I (THE MAGNIFICENT/THE DEVIL), DUKE OF NORMANDY (d.1035)

Father of William the Conqueror, son of Duke Richard II, the weakest link in a chain of great dukes. He was described as having a good physique with ‘an honest face and handsome appearance’. He married Cnut’s daughter, Estrith, but repudiated her. His mistress Herlève, reputedly a tanner’s (or undertaker’s) daughter from Falaise, bore his son William. There was a rumour that he poisoned his brother Richard III, who died a year after inheriting the duchy. Robert became duke in 1027. There was much disturbance in the duchy under him. A number of castles were built. In 1033 he organised a fleet at Fécamp for the sons of Aethelred II, Edward (the Confessor) and Alfred, against England. A storm ruined its chance. His support helped Edward to gain the throne later. Robert went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land but died at Nicaea when returning.

ROBERT II THE PIOUS, KING OF FRANCE (970–1031)

King from 996, crowned during his father Hugh Capet’s reign in 987. His reign established the Capetian dynasty. His nickname came from an interest in Church affairs. The belief that French kings could heal by touch began with Robert. He married three times, to Suzanna of Italy (repudiated), Bertha of Burgundy (separated) and Constance of Arles (divorce attempted). Constance was the mother of his successor. Robert made an unsuccessful attack on Baldwin IV of Flanders in 1006 after the latter took Valenciennes. Robert turned royal interest on the south. He gained the duchy of Burgundy for his son Henry in 1015. He died on 20 July and his son Henry I succeeded.

ROBERT II, CURTHOSE, DUKE OF NORMANDY (1052–1134)

Son of William the Conqueror, duke from 1087. He helped complete the conquest of England, establishing the castle at Newcastle in 1080. He rebelled against his father in 1078, allying with the King of France. In 1079 Curthose defeated his father at Gerberoi, where Curthose had been besieged before making a sortie. Curthose unseated his father and wounded him. Later they were reconciled. On the Conqueror’s death Robert succeeded to Normandy, but not England, which he sought unsuccessfully to take from Rufus. Curthose joined the First Crusade in 1096. He led an important charge at Ascalon in 1099, capturing the Egyptian banner. He returned without seeking territory in the Holy Land. He married Sybil of Conversano. He tried to recover England from his youngest brother, Henry I, who succeeded in his absence. Robert invaded England in 1102 but agreed terms. In 1106 he lost the battle and Normandy to Henry at Tinchebrai. Henry imprisoned him for life. Robert’s son, William Clito, remained a threat to Henry I until his death in 1128. Robert was kept at Wareham, Devizes and finally Cardiff, where he died probably on 3 February. He was buried at Gloucester, where his effigy is in the cathedral.

ROBERT OF BELLÊME, EARL OF SHREWSBURY

A noted rebel against the sons of William the Conqueror, son of Roger of Montgomery and Mabel of Bellême, he inherited their lands in England and Normandy. He became Earl of Shrewsbury on the death of his brother Hugh in 1098. He brought warhorses from Spain to England and was a great castle builder, responsible for Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, Arundel and Tickhill, noted for their broad moats. Orderic Vitalis says he was a ‘resourceful engineer’ who designed Gisors. At Bréval he employed an ingenious invention as a siege engine. He held 34 castles and was lord of thousands of men. He was noted for harshness – putting out eyes, hacking off hands and feet, and torturing. He opposed Henry I in support of Robert Curthose and lost his English lands as a result. He then rebelled in Normandy but made peace and fought for Curthose at Tinchebrai in 1106, escaping from the defeat. He made terms with Henry but supported Curthose’s son William Clito. Possibly acting for Louis VI of France he fell into Henry I’s hands, was brought to trial and chained in a dungeon. He was imprisoned at Cherbourg and then Wareham. He was alive in 1131 but when he died is unknown. Robert’s son William Talvas continued to oppose Henry.

ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER (OF CAEN, FITZROY), EARL OF GLOUCESTER (c.1090–1147)

Eldest illegitimate son of Henry I. His mother was probably Sibyl, daughter of Robert Corbet, a burgess of Caen. Robert was made Earl of Gloucester by his father in 1122, marrying the Gloucester heiress of Robert Fitz Hamon. Robert was slow to recognise Stephen as king but eventually came to his court. Robert’s declaration for his half-sister Matilda in 1138 marked the start of civil war. Robert, ‘the chief of the king’s enemies’, gave Matilda her best hope. He brought her to England, landing at Arundel, and remained a loyal supporter. He commanded for her in the war against Stephen from 1139 with notable successes, including Lincoln in 1141 when Stephen was defeated and captured. The Rout of Winchester was a victory for Stephen’s supporters, when Robert was captured. Stephen and Robert were exchanged and released. Robert undertook a mission to bring Matilda’s husband Geoffrey of Anjou into the war, but failed. Robert took Wareham and defeated Stephen at Wilton in 1143. Robert’s death marked the end of Matilda’s hopes of victory. She abandoned the country, leaving her claim to her son Henry. Robert died at Bristol on 31 October. His son William succeeded to the earldom.

ROBERT GUISCARD (THE WARY/WILY), DE HAUTEVILLE, DUKE OF APULIA (c.1025–1085)

Norman duke in Italy, of humble origin, the son of a lesser knight, Tancred de Hauteville in Normandy, by his second wife Fredesendis. He was one of the many Hautevilles to go to southern Italy, arriving in 1047. He began in Calabria as a landless brigand leader. Anna Comnena described him as cunning and brave, tall, well built, with ruddy complexion and fair hair, his eyes sparkling. He gained lands to become the major Norman leader. He married Aubrée from a southern Norman family. He repudiated her for Sigelgaita, sister of the Lombard ruler of Salerno. Robert received the castle of Scribla but abandoned it for San Marco Argentano. He fought the papal army at Civitate in 1053, leading the left wing. He expanded Norman control in southern Italy, taking Calabria and Apulia. At Melfi in 1059 the pope recognised Robert as Duke of Apulia and Calabria and ‘future Duke of Sicily’. He took Amalfi in 1073 and Salerno in 1076, the last major Lombard principalities. All Byzantine territories in the region fell to him. Bari was besieged and taken by 1071. He led the invasion of Sicily from 1060 and the capture of Palermo in 1072. Thereafter he concentrated on the mainland, delegating Sicily to his brother Roger. He expanded Norman power in the Mediterranean, mainly at the expense of Byzantium. He captured Dyrrachium (now in Albania) in 1082 and Corfu in 1084. In 1084 he rescued Gregory VII from Henry IV (HRE), sacking Rome and selling citizens into slavery. In Cephalonia he caught typhoid, from which many of his men died. He was taken to Cassiopi in Corfu and died on 17 July. His tomb was at Venosa, his favoured abbey. The tomb, now gone, carried an inscription to ‘Guiscard, the terror of the world’.

ROBERT DE MOWBRAY (MONTBRAY), EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND (d. c.1125)

Rebel against William Rufus in 1088 and 1095, son of Roger de Mowbray. William the Conqueror made him Earl of Northumberland in c.1085. He was ‘a man of great bodily stature, strong, dark and shaggy, bold and crafty, with an austere and melancholy countenance’ who hardly ever smiled when he spoke. His castles included Bamburgh. With his uncle, the bishop of Coutances, he seized Bristol Castle in 1088. From there he raided Gloucestershire, Somerset and Wiltshire and sacked Bath. The rebellion was suppressed and Mowbray was exiled to Normandy, allowed to return in 1093, when Malcolm Canmore King of Scots raided England. Robert ambushed him near the River Alne, where Malcolm was killed. In spring 1095 Robert again rebelled. He had seized four Norwegian ships, whose owners appealed to Rufus. Robert was summoned to court and his refusal to come initiated the rebellion. Rufus marched north. Mowbray seized Newcastle. Rufus besieged Tynemouth, which surrendered after two months (some historians believe it was Newcastle not Tynemouth). Rufus approached Mowbray in Bamburgh, leaving troops to continue the siege. Mowbray tried to escape but only to his own monastery at Tynemouth, where he held out six days before being wounded and captured. Robert was taken before the walls of his castle, where his wife Matilda still held out. They threatened to put out his eyes unless she surrendered, which she did. He was kept in Windsor Castle for the rest of his life, another 30 years.

RODRIGO I (RODERIC), KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (d.711)

King during the Arab invasion of Spain, previously dux of Baetica. He was at war with Agila, son of the king, when the Arab invasion began. Rodrigo won broader but not complete support. Possibly his political enemies invited in the Arabs. Rodrigo became king in 710 and immediately faced serious invasion from Africa, while rebel Visigoths and Basques threatened the north. The Arab invaders under Tāriq defeated and killed Rodrigo at the Transductine Promontories (or Guadalete). The Arabs took Toledo and the Visigothic kingdom collapsed, leaving most of Iberia in their hands within ten years.

ROGER I, DE HAUTEVILLE, THE GREAT, COUNT (c.1040–1101)

Leading figure in the Norman conquest of Sicily, youngest son of Tancred de Hauteville. He arrived in Italy in 1056. He was tall and well built with a cheerful, open manner. He married Judith daughter of the Count of Evreux, Eremberga daughter of the Count of Mortain, and Adelaide daughter of Manfred. Roger’s older brother Robert Guiscard established him at Mileto. The invasion of Sicily with Guiscard began in 1060. Roger won at Cerami in 1063 and Miselmeri in 1068. Palermo was captured in 1072. Guiscard saw himself as the overall ruler, appointing his brother Count of Sicily while retaining suzerainty – but Guiscard did not return to Sicily. The completion of the conquest was Roger’s work. He allied with Muslims, whom he used as mercenaries. Taormina was taken in 1079 and Syracuse in 1086. With the fall of Noto, Sicily was in Norman hands by 1091. In 1090–1 Roger invaded and conquered Malta and Gozo. After the death of Guiscard, Roger extended his power on the mainland, becoming the dominant Norman ruler in the south. His position was recognised by the papacy. He died on 22 June and was buried in Santa Trinita at Mileto. His son and successor was Roger II.

ROGER II, KING OF SICILY (1095–1154)

King from 1130, son of Roger the Great Count by his third wife Adelaide. He succeeded his older brother as Count of Sicily in 1105. Adelaide defended his position until he came of age. He became Duke of Apulia in 1127. Roger was recognised as king by Anacletus II and crowned on Christmas Day. Anacletus lost his struggle against a rival pope, but Roger retained the crown though having to suppress numerous revolts. He was opposed by Pope Innocent II and Lothar III (HRE), who made Rainulf of Alife Duke of Apulia. Roger was defeated at Nocera in 1132 and Rignano in 1137. In 1139 he gained revenge by winning the Rout of Galuccio. Innocent II was captured and, in return for release, recognised Roger. Sicily was a cosmopolitan state, with the right to worship for Greek Orthodox, Muslims and Christians. Sicily became a Mediterranean naval power. During the Second Crusade Roger attacked Byzantium, recovering Corfu and raiding Corinth and Athens. He conquered lands in North Africa. In 1146–7 he captured Tripoli, Tunis and Algeria, taking Bona in 1153. He died at Palermo on 26 February, probably of heart disease. The body was taken to Cefalu and then Palermo. His tomb survives. He married three times and his only surviving son, William I, succeeded.

ROGER DE FLOR (RUTGER VON DER BLUME) (d.1305)

Captain of the Catalan Company, a German by birth. His father was falconer to Frederick II. Roger joined the Knights Templar and was at the siege of Acre in 1291. He sold escape places on his ship, for which he was expelled from the Templars. He became a leader of pirates and then mercenaries. The Catalan Company (of mercenaries) was employed by Pedro of Aragón in 1281 in North Africa and Sicily, and by Byzantium in 1302 – when its leader, Roger, was made a megas dux. He married the emperor’s niece Maria. Roger rose in the middle of his wedding night to stop a fight between his men and the Genoese. The Catalan Company inflicted defeats on the Turks. Failure of pay led to mutiny. Roger’s fleet occupied Chios, Lemnos and Lesbos. His men killed the son of Byzantium’s Alan mercenary commander, George Gircon. Michael IX negotiated but, when Roger came to Adrianople, Gircon murdered him on 6 April. The Catalan Company attacked Byzantine territory, taking the Latin duchy of Athens.

RÖGNVALD, EARL OF MØRE

Earl of Møre in Norway and founder of the earldom of Orkney. He passed Orkney to his brother Sigurđ, the first earl. Rögnvald was killed in a dispute with Hálfdan son of Harold Finehair. According to saga he cut Harold’s hair (the origin of the nickname). Harold gave Orkney and Shetland to him. Rögnvald’s illegitimate son, Torf-Einar, later succeeded to Orkney. A second son was possibly Rollo (Hrólfr), founder of Normandy.

ROLAND (HRUODLAND) (d.778)

Hero of Roncesvalles, better known in literature than history through the Chanson de Roland. He figures in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. The fictional story is that Roland died bravely at Roncesvalles. The historical event was recorded in two contemporary sources. Charlemagne’s army was returning from an expedition to Spain. In a pass through the Pyrenees the rearguard was attacked by Basques (not Muslims), who inflicted a damaging defeat. Roland was Praefectus or Count of the Breton March, responsible for the Breton border. He came from a noble Frankish family in which this position was hereditary.

ROLLO OF NORMANDY (ROLF THE GANGER/GÖNGU-HRÓLFR) (c.860–c.928)

The Viking leader who founded the duchy of Normandy though not himself called duke. His nickname (the ganger) was said to come from being too big to ride so that he always had to walk. He may have been the son of Rögnvald of Møre, exiled from Norway by Harold Finehair. Rollo probably joined raids on Scotland, Ireland and England. He led a war-band to attack the Frankish coast. His group settled on the Seine. In 911 the West Frankish King, Charles the Simple, agreed the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with Rollo, probably granting the area around Rouen in return for defending Francia against Viking attacks and converting to Christianity. Rollo was defeated at Chartres and could not bargain from strength, so Dudo’s version of the event should not be accepted without question – where he seized the king’s foot and pulled him over. The territory granted was probably Upper Normandy. Rollo was baptised in 912. Normandy’s capital, Rouen, is named after him. He and his descendants extended their territories and established the duchy of Normandy (the land of the Northmen). His son, William Longsword, succeeded. William the Conqueror was a direct descendant.

ROMANUS I, LECAPENUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.948)

Co-emperor from 920 to 944 with Constantine VII, admiral for Leo VI, co-emperor and effective ruler for Leo’s son Constantine VII, who married Romanus’ daughter. Romanus was the son of Theophylact the Unbearable – an Armenian peasant and soldier. In 921 Symeon the Bulgar was defeated. Symeon’s son and successor, Peter, married Romanus’ granddaughter and Serbia became subject to Byzantium. Byzantine power recovered in the east. The Saracens were pushed back, Melitene and Manzikert captured. Romanus’ naval experience paid dividends. In 924 at Lemnos he defeated a Saracen fleet under Leo of Tripoli, and in 941 the Russians were beaten in the Bosphorus. In 944 Romanus was deposed and entered a monastery at Proti, having himself scourged for his sins before 300 monks. He tried to promote his numerous sons but without success. He died on 15 June and was buried beside his wife in the monastery in Constantinople that he had founded.

ROMANUS II, PORPHYROGENITUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (939–63)

Emperor from 959, son of Constantine VII. When his first wife died, Romanus married Theophano, an innkeeper’s daughter. Nikephorus Phokas, his general, recovered Crete from the Saracens in 960–1. Another general, Nikephorus’ brother Leo, defeated the Saracens under Sayf ad-Dawlah at Kulindros. Romanus’ brief reign saw considerable success. He died on 15 March in a hunting accident. Theophano married Nikephorus Phokas. Both Romanus’ sons survived to be emperors – Basil II the Bulgar Slayer and Constantine VIII.

ROMANUS III, ARGYRUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1034)

Emperor from 1028. Constantine VIII wanted Romanus to succeed him and marry his daughter Zoe. On threat of blinding, Romanus put his wife of 40 years in a nunnery, and agreed. Constantine died three days after the marriage. Romanus came from a family of Anatolian landowners. He was a judge and administrator but was interested in the science of warfare (though completely ignorant of it). In 1030 he campaigned against the Emir of Aleppo but was defeated. In 1031 George Maniakes defeated the emir and recovered Edessa. Both husband and wife took lovers. Romanus drowned while swimming on 11 April, though murder was suspected. Zoe married her lover who succeeded as Michael IV.

ROMANUS IV, DIOGENES, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (d.1072)

Emperor from 1068 through marriage to Constantine X’s widow Eudocia. His family had estates in Cappadocia. His father, accused of treachery, jumped to his death from a cliff. Romanus was a general and Governor of Sardica for Constantine X. He defeated the Pechenegs but Constantine accused him of conspiracy, recalled him and sentenced him to death – commuted to exile. Eudocia chose him to replace Constantine. Romanus made efforts to save Byzantium. He organised expeditions against the Seljuk Turks, winning at Sebastia and Heraclea. In 1071 he was defeated and captured by Alp Arslan at Manzikert, one of the greatest disasters in Byzantine history. The Seljuks took Armenia and most of Asia Minor. Romanus was released on agreeing to cede lands and pay tribute. In 1071 Bari, the last Byzantine territory in southern Italy, fell to the Normans. Before Romanus returned to Constantinople after Manzikert, Michael VII was proclaimed emperor. Romanus raised a force but was defeated, captured, blinded, and sent to the monastery at Proti, where he died on 24 October.

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS, ROMAN EMPEROR (d. c.510)

The last Western Emperor, though the replaced Julius Nepos survived in Dalmatia until his murder in 480. His father, the commander Orestes, raised Romulus to the purple in 475. Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes. Romulus was deposed by Odoacer in 476 but allowed to retire to southern Italy.

RUDOLF I, HABSBURG, KING OF THE ROMANS (1218–91)

The first Habsburg ruler of Germany. His election in 1273 ended the interregnum in Germany. He sought but failed to achieve imperial coronation. He opposed Ottokar II of Bohemia. In 1276 he besieged Vienna, forcing Ottokar to do homage. The latter was defeated and killed at the Marchfeld in 1278. Vienna became the Habsburg capital of lands including Austria. In 1285 Rudolf suppressed the rising of Dietrich Holzschuh, who claimed to be Frederick II reincarnated. Rudolf died on 15 July and was buried at Speyer.

RURIK (RIURIK) (d. c.880)

The main Viking leader in Russia, probably from Sweden, possibly brother or nephew of Harold Klak – who was active in Frisia and Jutland in the 850s. The later Russian Primary Chronicle said the tribes of northern Russia asked for a Scandinavian leader from the Rus in c.860–2. Three brothers came, including Rurik who became ruler of Novgorod. By another version he came first to (Staraya) Ladoga and later founded Novgorod. His brothers died within two years. Rurik ruled the state based on Kiev that is seen as the beginning of the state of Russia. His relative Oleg and then his son Igor succeeded.

SALADIN, SALĀH AL-DĪN YŪSUF (1138–93)

Founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, reuniting Syria and Egypt, and winning Hattin. He reduced the size and strength of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was a Kurd, son of Ayyub, serving Nur ed-Din under his uncle, Shirkuh. Saladin had a reputation for fairness and honourable conduct. He assisted the conquest of Egypt, in 1169 becoming vizier under the Fatimid ruler on behalf of Nur ed-Din. He brought the Fatimid dynasty to an end. After the death of Nur ed-Din, Saladin took over Syria. He won Damascus in 1174 and Aleppo in 1183. He suffered a surprise defeat by the Franks at Montgisard in 1177. His greatest victory was at Hattin in 1187 over King Guy, as a result of which the kingdom of Jerusalem came near to collapse – much of it (including Jerusalem) conquered by Saladin. This provoked the Third Crusade. The Christians recovered Acre and defeated Saladin at Arsuf. They concluded a truce whereby Saladin kept Jerusalem. He suffered from a long illness, dying on 1 March. He left 17 sons and one known daughter.

SALISBURY, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (1400–60)

Earl from 1429 through marriage to the heiress Alice Montacute, son of Ralph earl of Westmorland. He was appointed Warden of the West March. He fought in France in 1431–2 and 1436–7. He fought for Henry VI against the Yorkists, but he changed sides through hostility to the Percies. He fought a private battle with them at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire in 1454. He was dismissed as Chancellor in 1455 and joined the Yorkists in their victory at the First Battle of St Albans. He commanded the Yorkist victory at Blore Heath in 1459. He escaped from the defeat at Ludlow to Calais and participated in the Yorkist invasion of 1460, taking London. He opposed York taking the crown but remained Yorkist. He fought in the Yorkist defeat at Wakefield in 1460 and was beheaded the following day, New Year’s Eve. His son was Warwick the Kingmaker.

SANCHO III, EL MAYOR (THE GREAT), KING OF NAVARRE (d.1035)

King from 1000, son and successor of García II. He made Navarre the major Iberian Christian power. In alliance with León he defeated al-Mansur at Calatañazor in 1002. With the collapse of the Caliphate he demanded parias as tribute from the Muslim taifa states. In 1028 he conquered Castile and united most of Christian Spain, setting the political pattern for centuries by dividing his lands between his sons, Castile with part of León to Ferdinand I, Aragón to Ramiro I, and Navarre to García III.

SFORZA, FRANCESCO, DUKE OF MILAN (1401–66)

Duke from 1450, establishing the Sforza dynasty, son of the condottiere Attendolo – who gained the name Sforza (the force) through his exploits. Francesco fought as a condottiere for Milan and Venice, taking over his father’s men. He served Filippo Maria Visconti, marrying his daughter Bianca in 1443. He commanded the victories over Venice at Soncino in 1431 and Caravaggio in 1448. On Filippo’s death he served for Venice against Milan, which he then took over after a siege, becoming Duke. He agreed the Peace of Lodi with Venice and Florence in 1454. He won Genoa in 1463. He died on 8 March and his son Galeazzo Maria succeeded.

SHIRKUH, ASAD ED-DIN (d.1169)

Kurdish general serving Nur ed-Din, uncle of Saladin. He had damaged eyesight and was considered fat. He killed Raymond of Antioch in single combat in 1149 at Inab. Saladin served his military apprenticeship under Shirkuh, including the conquest of Egypt despite Christian opposition. Shirkuh beat a Frankish and Egyptian force at Hermoupolis in 1167, taking Cairo in 1169. He ruled Egypt as vizier in 1169, a promotion that caused a difference with Nur ed-Din. Shirkuh maintained a Fatimid figurehead in al-Adid. Shirkuh died on 23 March from over-eating and was succeeded in Egypt by Saladin.

SIGISMUND, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR (1368–1437)

King of Hungary through marriage from 1387, King of Bohemia from 1419, King of the Romans from 1410, King of the Lombards from 1431, the last Luxembourg emperor from 1433. He was the son of Charles IV. Sigismund was defeated by the Hussites at Prague in 1419, Lutitz and Kuttenberg in 1421 and Nebovid and Nemecky Brod in 1422. Sigismund was responsible for executing Hus. He joined the Crusade of Nicopolis in 1396, retreating before the concluding battle. He recovered Bosnia, Herzegovina and Serbia from the Turks. He was one of the few emperors to visit England, coming in 1416 in the reign of Henry V. He died in Bohemia on 9 December and was buried at Nágy Varad in Transylvania.

SIGTRYGG ÓLAFSSON (SILK BEARD), KING OF DUBLIN (d.1042)

King from 989, son and successor of Ólaf Kvaran. In 997 Ireland was divided between native kings, Brian Boru and Maél Sechnaill. Sigtrygg ruled Dublin, issuing his own coinage (which oddly shows him beardless). He came under the power of Brian Boru. He allied with Leinster against Brian but was defeated in 999. He submitted and was recognised as subking, marrying Brian’s daughter. Brian had married Sigtrygg’s widowed mother. In 1012 Sigtrygg rebelled. Brian failed to take Dublin in a siege. Sigtrygg organised a coalition against Brian leading to the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, though Sigtrygg was not present. Brian was killed, despite being the victor, but Maél Sechnaill claimed overlordship of Dublin. In 1036 Sigtrygg abdicated in favour of his nephew. He was murdered during a second visit to Rome.

SIMNEL, LAMBERT (1475–1525)

Nominal leader of the 1487 rebellion against Henry VII. The Earl of Kildare protected him in Ireland, where he was presented as the Earl of Warwick in an effort to have the real earl released. Lambert was probably the son of an Oxford tradesman, trained by the priest Richard Simons to impersonate Warwick. Simnel was crowned in Dublin as ‘Edward IV’ and used as ‘leader’ of the 1487 rebellion. The invaders landed at Furness in Lancashire and were defeated at Stoke. Simnel was captured and employed in the royal kitchen, later being promoted.

SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, SECOND DUKE OF (1406–55)

Minister of Henry VI, Earl and Marquis of Dorset, Earl of Somerset from 1444, Duke from 1448. He fought in the closing stages of the Hundred Years’ War and was appointed Captain General and Governor of Anjou and Maine. He failed to hold Normandy and his surrender of Rouen was condemned. Henry VI made him Constable of England and Captain of Calais. When the Duke of York triumphed in 1454 he arrested Somerset. Henry VI’s recovery brought Somerset’s release. He commanded for Henry at St Albans in 1455 on 22 May. He took refuge in a house and was killed trying to escape.

STEPHEN, OF BLOIS, KING OF ENGLAND (c.1096–1154)

King from 1135, son of Stephen-Henry count of Blois and Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. He came to England and was given lands by his uncle, Henry I. He married the heiress Matilda of Boulogne in 1125. On the death of Henry I, with the recognition of most of the nobility, he succeeded in England and Normandy. He faced baronial rebellions in England but they were suppressed. A Scottish invasion was defeated on Stephen’s behalf at the Standard in 1138. Matilda (daughter of Henry I) claimed England. Her second husband, Geoffrey of Anjou, invaded Normandy and conquered it by 1145. Stephen resisted Geoffrey but gave priority to England. Matilda came to England in 1139, initiating civil war. In 1141 Stephen was captured at Lincoln and imprisoned. He was released in exchange for Robert of Gloucester, captured at Winchester. Stephen kept the upper hand. His fenland campaign against Geoffrey de Mandeville ended in success. After the death of Robert of Gloucester, Matilda left England. Her son, Henry, continued the war. By 1153 Stephen’s wife and eldest son Eustace had died and he agreed at Winchester that Henry succeed. Stephen died in the Augustinian Priory at Dover of a ‘flux of haemorrhoids’ on 25 October and was buried alongside his wife at his foundation, Faversham Abbey. Stephen’s younger son, William, kept the family lands and Henry II took England.

STEPHEN IV DUŠAN (UROS), KING AND EMPEROR OF SERBIA (1309–55)

King from 1336, emperor from 1346, Serbia’s greatest medieval ruler. His father, Stephen III, conquered Macedonia after victory at Velbuzd in 1330. Stephen IV killed his father to seize power. He took advantage of civil war in Byzantium to conquer Epirus, Albania, Bulgaria, Thessaly and part of Bosnia. He called himself ‘lord of almost the whole Roman Empire’ – his territories greater than those of Byzantium. He aimed to become Byzantine emperor. He built a fleet against Byzantium. He took Adrianople and was threatening Constantinople at his death. He adapted Byzantine landholding methods to raise troops for Serbia. His son Stephen V succeeded but could not retain the whole empire.

STILICHO, FLAVIUS (365–408)

Vandal general for the emperor Honorius. His father fought for the Romans at Adrianople in 378. Stilicho was employed by Theodosius I and fought at Frigidus in 394. He was made magister militum, and guardian for the young Honorius in the west. His daughter married the emperor. The division between Eastern and Western Empires grew. Stilicho defeated Alaric’s Visigothic confederacy, when it invaded Italy, at Pollentia in 402 and Verona in 403. Alaric survived and came to terms. A monument was raised in the Roman Forum to commemorate the victory at Pollentia, but later Stilicho’s name was erased from it. He resisted the Germanic invasion by Radagaisus. He failed to prevent the Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians and Alans from crossing the Rhine in 406–7. Stilicho’s troops mutinied and he was accused of letting barbarians into the empire. Honorius ordered his execution at Ravenna. His bodyguard wished to save him but he stopped them, offering himself for decapitation.

STRONGBOW, RICHARD FITZGILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF PEMBROKE, KING OF LEINSTER (d.1176)

Earl from 1148 in succession to his father; king from 1171. He lost the earldom on the accession of Henry II in 1154. Strongbow led a private invasion of Ireland, capturing Dublin and Leinster in 1170–1. He married Aoife, daughter of Dermot King of Leinster, and succeeded him in 1171. He defeated the Irish High King Rory O’Connor at Castleknock. Henry II went to Ireland in 1171–2, forcing Strongbow to submit but restoring his earldom.

SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE, DUKE OF (1396–1450)

Earl of Suffolk in succession to his father Michael; duke from 1448. He married Alice Chaucer. He fought in France for Henry V and John duke of Bedford. Under Henry VI he became Steward of the Royal Household. He received military command but failed to distinguish himself. He planned the attack on Fougères in 1449 and was largely responsible for the subsequent loss of Normandy. He was impeached in Parliament, though the accusations were exaggerated – including that he seduced a nun. Henry VI intervened to banish Suffolk. Privateers, who shared popular antagonism to him, caught him at Dover. On 2 May he was dragged into a boat and beheaded across the gunwale with a rusty sword. His son John regained the dukedom in 1463.

SULEIMAN AL-ARABI, GOVERNOR OF BARCELONA

The Muslim Abbasid governor who appealed to Pepin the Short for aid. He led an embassy to Paderborn to appeal to Charlemagne. Suleiman was threatened by the growing power of the Umayyads. He promised to allow Frankish entry to his cities. Charlemagne went to Spain in 778. Some places surrendered, but Zaragoza refused entry. Suleiman had taken over Zaragoza, but the citizens shut their gates. Charles abandoned his attempt to take the city. Roncesvalles occurred during the return to Francia.

SWEYN I HAROLDSSON (FORKBEARD), KING OF DENMARK (d.1014)

King from 987, son of Harold Bluetooth from whom he seized the Danish throne. He led raids against England in 991 and 994 with Ólaf Tryggvason. He opposed his former comrade in Norway. Sweyn’s ally, Jarl Erik of Lade, defeated Ólaf at Svöld in 1000. As king Sweyn took over Hedeby and dominated the Wends. He led expeditions to England in 1003 and 1006. In 1013 he came to defeat Aethelred II, who fled. He controlled England but died in February 1014 at Gainsborough in Lincolnshire. In Denmark his son Harold succeeded but his most famous son was Cnut the Great.

SWEYN II (SVEIN/SVEN) ESTRITHSSON (ÚLFSSON), KING OF DENMARK (d.1074)

King from 1047, nephew of Cnut, son of Jarl Úlf. As a young man he was hostage for his father’s loyalty in England. He served the King of Sweden. He claimed Denmark through his mother, Estriđ, sister of Cnut and daughter of Sweyn Forkbeard. Sweyn was appointed to rule Denmark under Magnús the Good in 1042 but rebelled and was defeated. He allied with Harold Hardrada on his return to Scandinavia but Magnús won Harold over by offering half of Norway. When Magnús died, Sweyn gained control of Denmark. Harold fought against him, and Sweyn was defeated but not overthrown. Harold recognised Sweyn’s rule. In 1069 Sweyn joined the English opponents of William the Conqueror. He raised an army, claiming England as successor to Cnut. He took York in 1070 but his invasion failed. He made peace with the Conqueror and returned to Denmark. Adam of Bremen was at Sweyn’s court. He described Sweyn’s intelligence and good memory and says Sweyn told him about Vinland. Five of his sons succeeded in turn, one of whom was St Cnut.

SYAGRIUS (d.486)

A Gallo-Roman magnate, ‘King of the Romans’ during the collapse of the Western Empire, son of Aegidius, a Roman general who established a ‘kingdom’ at Soissons. Count Paulus acted as regent before Syagrius took over. He ruled Frankish subjects. Syagrius inherited this kingdom in c.465. He was rather a soldier of fortune than a territorial king. He defeated a rival called Syrivald. The extent of his authority is unknown, but was probably not great. He fought against Childeric I, King of the Salian Franks, and was defeated by his son Clovis I in 486. He sought refuge in the Visigothic kingdom of Alaric II at Toulouse. Clovis demanded that Syagrius be handed over. He was delivered in chains, imprisoned, and killed secretly.

SYMEON, BULGAR KHAN (d.927)

Khan from 893 when Khan Boris abdicated for his son Vladimir, whom he then blinded and deposed in favour of the younger son Symeon. Symeon allied with the Pechenegs against the Magyars who were forced from Bulgaria. He took over Serbia. Symeon threatened Byzantium, demanding tribute after a series of victories culminating with Anchialus in 917. He conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania. He was crowned Byzantine Emperor by the patriarch and married his daughter to Constantine VII. A coup placed Romanus I on the Byzantine throne in 919, ending the marriage and the tribute. Symeon attacked Constantinople until Constantine recognised him as Tsar of Bulgaria. His forces were beaten when invading Croatia. He died on 27 May. Symeon’s son Peter succeeded and married the granddaughter of Romanus I.

TAILLEFER (INCISOR-FERRI)

Only known from (probably) later sources. The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio (Song of the Battle of Hastings) is probably the earliest source to mention him but probably does not date before 1100. He appeared in 12th-century sources including Wace’s Roman de Rou and works by Gaimar, Benoit and Henry of Huntingdon. He is described in the Carmen as a minstrel who juggled with his sword before the assembled armies at Hastings. When an Englishman approached him, Taillefer pierced his shield with a lance and cut off his head with the sword, displaying the head to the Normans who ‘all rejoiced’ and were encouraged for the battle. Some historians accept this as fact; others see the man and the incident as fictional.

TAMBERLANE (TAMERLANE/TAMBERLAINE/TIMUR LENG/TIMUR THE LAME), MONGOL KHAN (1335–1405)

Khan of Jaghatai (Turkestan/Uzbekistan) with its capital at Samarkand, from 1369, who won a vast Mongol-Turkish Empire. He was a Muslim who encouraged the spread of Islam. He was born at Kesh near Samarkand, of Mongol descent, but Turkish in speech and culture. He was noted for ruthlessness, often massacring the populations of captured cities. He conquered Transoxiana, Persia, Iraq, India, Syria, Armenia and Georgia. In 1395 he defeated the Mongol Golden Horde under Toktamish at Terek. In 1398 he sacked Delhi. In 1400 at Aleppo he won Syria from the Mamlukes. In 1401 he took Baghdad, defeating and capturing Bayezit I at Ankara in 1402 and winning Anatolia. Tamberlane died at Otrar on 19 February when returning to the east to invade China. His Empire fragmented but his descendants ruled India and Persia.

TANCRED, PRINCE OF GALILEE AND ANTIOCH (1077–1112)

A Norman from southern Italy, grandson of Robert Guiscard, nephew of Bohemond of Taranto, whom he accompanied on the First Crusade. Tancred found difficulty in reconciling a warrior’s life with Christian beliefs. The Crusade was a welcome solution. He captured Tarsus and was at the taking of Antioch and Jerusalem, and the Battle of Ascalon in 1099. He gained Tiberias and Nazareth, which became part of the principality of Galilee. When Bohemond was captured Tancred ruled Antioch from 1101. He took Cilicia from Byzantium. In 1103 he besieged and captured Lattakieh – though the Byzantines regained much of their territory. From 1104 to 1109 Tancred was regent of Edessa. He remained regent of Antioch after Bohemond’s release, when the latter returned west. After Bohemond’s death in 1111 Tancred succeeded to Antioch. He probably died of typhoid. His nephew Roger succeeded.

TASSILO III, DUKE OF BAVARIA (742–c.794)

Cousin and opponent of Charlemagne, son of Odilo who died in 748. Bavaria was an independent duchy under the Agilolfings. Tassilo’s mother, Hiltrud, was the sister of Charlemagne’s father Pepin the Short. Tassilo, aged six, was overlooked for the succession. With Pepin the Short’s support he later became duke and swore an oath of vassalage to Pepin at Compiègne. When Tassilo reached manhood he tried to restore Bavaria’s independence, refusing to send troops for Pepin’s campaign to Aquitaine. Tassilo married Liutperga, daughter of King Desiderius, and allied with Lombardy. To the east of Bavaria were pagan Avars and Slavs. Tassilo conquered the Slavs of Carinthia and assisted the spread of Christianity. Charlemagne sought to impose closer control. He used his influence with the papacy to demand allegiance from Tassilo. Tassilo had come to Worms when requested in 781, but when summoned in 787 he refused. Charlemagne then invaded Bavaria with a three-pronged attack, massing the army on the border. Tassilo was forced to surrender and swear vassalage. Charles returned Bavaria to him but Tassilo plotted against him. At an assembly in Ingelheim in 788, Charles arrested him, accused him of treason and sentenced him to death. Tassilo asked mercy. Charles forced him to renounce his rights to Bavaria and sent him into a monastery (probably Jumièges in Normandy). Charlemagne ruled Bavaria directly. A Council at Frankfurt in 794 confirmed Tassilo’s deposition. Tassilo appeared at the assembly, admitted his faults and begged forgiveness before returning to his monastery. The date of his death is unknown.

TELL, WILLIAM

Legendary figure of the Swiss resistance to Austrian Habsburg control, supposed to have shot an apple from his son’s head with a crossbow – a similar tale appears in Norse and English legends. He represents the Swiss infantrymen who won independence. In 1307 he is said to have killed Hermann Gessler, Austrian Governor of the Tyrol. There are comparisons with Robin Hood, and similar uncertainty over whether the hero lived. The Ballad of William Tell dates from 1465.

THEODORE ANGELUS DUKAS COMNENUS, DESPOT OF EPIRUS (d.1254)

Despot 1215–30, claiming to be Byzantine Emperor as great-grandson of Alexius I. The despotate was founded by Michael Comnenus Dukas when the Byzantine Empire fragmented after the Latin capture of Constantinople. Theodore was Michael’s half-brother and succeeded. Michael won parts of Greece and Thessaly. Peter of Courtenay was elected as Latin Emperor. On his way to Constantinople Peter tried to take Durazzo from Theodore but was defeated and captured in 1217. Peter was imprisoned and never heard of again. Theodore took over most of Macedonia and captured Thessalonika in 1224, which became his capital. He claimed to be emperor but could not impose his authority beyond his own territories. In 1230 he invaded Bulgaria but was defeated and captured by John Asen at Klokotnitsa. Asen married his daughter Irene, despite having blinded Theodore for plotting against him. Theodore was exiled to a country estate but continued to plot and was imprisoned to die in captivity. His son Demetrius took over Thessalonika but the despotate was broken up.

THEODERIC I, KING OF THE VISIGOTHS (418–51)

Beaten by the Romans at Toulouse in 439. He allied with Aëtius against Attila and was killed at the Catalaunian Plains.

THEODERIC, KING OF THE OSTROGOTHS, THE GREAT (455–526)

King from 471 after the collapse of Attila’s empire when the Ostrogoths inhabited the Danube region. His position was strengthened by the death of one rival, Theoderic Strabo (the Squinter), and by the killing of another, Recitah. Theoderic spent years as a hostage in Constaninople and imbibed Roman ways. He was twice named as magister militum. The Byzantine emperor, Zeno, encouraged him to invade Italy, and made Theoderic patricius. Theoderic invaded in 489, defeating Odoacer at Sontius and Verona in 489, but beaten at Faenza in 490. He allied with the Visigoths and Burgundians, and finally beat Odoacer at Adda in 490. Odoacer continued to resist but made peace in 493. Theoderic invited him to dinner and killed him with his own sword. Theoderic acted as King of Italy and settled the Ostrogoths there. He undertook a programme of restoration, including in Rome. He established his capital at Ravenna. His authority extended to north of the Alps. He was an Arian Christian and put to death the philosopher Boethius. He thought he recognised a murder victim in the face of a cooked fish presented to him, took to bed with shock, and died.

THEODOSIUS I THE GREAT (FLAVIUS), EASTERN EMPEROR (346–95)

Emperor from 379, reviving the empire after Adrianople in 378. Son of a general who suppressed revolt in Britain, he was a Spaniard who rose through military ability. Theodosius defended Moesia for Valentinian. He commanded for Gratian and became co-emperor in the east. Theodosius was a baptised Christian who opposed paganism and heresy. He rebuilt Constantinople including the Harbour of Theodosius. He massacred 7,000 citizens of Thessalonika after his captain had been killed. Theodosius defeated Maximus at Aquileia in 388. He reunited the Roman Empire, defeating Eugenius and Arbogast at the Frigidius (Vipacco) in 394. Theodosius was the last ruler of a united Roman Empire. He allowed the Visigoths to settle in Thrace in return for military service. He employed barbarian troops and, during the Hun threat to Persia, partitioned Armenia with Persia, stabilising the frontier. Theodosius died on 17 January in Milan and was taken to Constantinople for burial. The empire was divided between his sons Arcadius in the east and Honorius in the west.

THEODOSIUS II, BYZANTINE EMPEROR (401–50)

Emperor from 408, supposed son of Arcadius but possibly of a lover of his mother. He was seven at his father’s death. Anthemius and Theodosius’ older sister Pulcheria governed in the minority. Theodosius married Athenais, renamed Eudocia, a Greek philosopher’s daughter. Under Anthemius the Theodosian Walls were built to defend Constantinople, enclosing seven rather than four hills. Theodosius sent an expedition to support Valentinian III as Western Emperor in 425. In 431 he sent Aspar to North Africa, where he was defeated by Gaiseric. The Byzantine navy had some success against the Vandals. Theodosius paid tribute to halt Attila the Hun in 441. Theodosius died on 28 July, falling from his horse when hunting.

THORKELL HAVI (THE TALL) (d. c.1023)

Leader of armies invading England. He may have led Baltic Jómsvikings but the evidence is unreliable. Thorkell’s background remains shadowy. He was a mercenary serving various masters, probably a man of standing in Scandinavia. He and his brother Hemming arrived in England in 1009 with mainly Danish troops. He caused trouble in East Anglia, the midlands and the south-east. Ólaf Haroldsson served under him. In 1010 Thorkell defeated Ulfketel the ealdorman of East Anglia at Ringmere in Norfolk. He led the sack of Canterbury in 1111 when Archbishop Aelfheah was captured, though Thorkell distanced himself from the killing of Aelfheah. In 1212 Thorkell served Aethelred II. In England he made a fortune from pay and tribute. He helped to defend London against Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013. After the death of Aethelred, he joined Cnut and was rewarded in 1016 with the earldom of East Anglia. Thorkell rebelled and was outlawed. In 1023 they made peace and Thorkell became Cnut’s regent in Denmark. He probably died soon after.

THÓRÓLF LOUSEBEARD

Too good a name to omit, foster father of Astrid, Ólaf Tryggvason’s mother, and exiled with her. He was captured by pirates and killed because they thought him too old to work. Ólaf later killed Thórólf’s murderer with a blow from a hand-axe to the head.

TOTILA (OR BADUILA), KING OF THE OSTROGOTHS (d.552)

King from 541, who recaptured Rome and defended Italy against Justinian. He only desisted from destroying Rome on Belisarius’ plea. Totila survived but was defeated and killed at Busta Gallorum by the Byzantine general, Narses.

TUDOR, JASPER, EARL OF PEMBROKE AND DUKE OF BEDFORD (1430–95)

Uncle of Henry VII, a staunch Lancastrian, son of Owen Tudor and Katherine of France, born at Hatfield, the first Tudor Earl of Pembroke from 1452. He fought for Henry VI at St Albans in 1455. Through his Lancastrian allegiance he twice lost the earldom and twice regained it. He fought against Edward IV at Mortimer’s Cross and was exiled. He continued to support Henry VI and then his nephew Henry Tudor. He invaded with Henry Tudor, fighting at Bosworth. Henry made him Earl of Bedford in 1485. Jasper married Katherine Woodville, sister of Edward IV’s Queen. He became Lieutenant in Ireland and helped govern Wales for Henry. He died in December.

VISCONTI, FILIPPO MARIA, DUKE OF MILAN (1392–1447)

Duke from 1412. He married Beatrice daughter of Facino Cane, the mercenary who controlled Milan under Giovanni Visconti. Cane and Giovanni died in 1412, when Filippo inherited Milan and Cane’s mercenaries. Beatrice was put to death in 1418 for adultery, probably unjustly. The lost Lombard lands were regained. Filippo took over Genoa in 1421 and defeated the Swiss at Arbedo in 1422. He employed various condottieri, including Francesco Sforza, Carmagnola (Francesco Bussone) and Niccolò Piccinino. He fought against the other major northern Italian powers, Venice and Florence, from 1423. Some earlier gains, including Genoa, were lost. He won Bologna in 1438, holding it until 1443. His daughter married Francesco Sforza, the mercenary who succeeded him. Filippo died on 13 August.

VISCONTI, GIAN GALEAZZO, DUKE OF MILAN (1351–1402)

Perhaps the greatest of the Visconti, ruler of Milan jointly from 1378, alone from 1385, first Duke from 1395 – when he bought the title from Wenceslas King of the Romans. He ruled Milan with his uncle, Bernabò, from 1378 after the death of his father Galeazzo II. He married Isabelle de Valois, becoming Conte de Virtù, and then Caterina, his cousin. In 1385, through a coup, he imprisoned Bernabò for life. He employed various condottieri, including Jacopo dal Verme. In 1387 he took Verona and Vicenza, and in 1388 Padua. Milan became dominant in northern Italy, taking over Lucca, Pisa, Siena and Bologna. He defeated Rupert of Bavaria’s invasion at Brescia in 1401, and Florence at Casalecchio in 1402. He died of plague on 3 September, when his son Giovanni succeeded.

VORTIGERN

According to Bede, Vortigern was a Romano-British leader based in Kent who invited in the English to aid him against the Picts and Scots, the English then turning against him to begin the Anglo-Saxon conquest. Bede and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle treat Vortigern as an individual but historians believe ‘Vortigern’ is a title meaning ‘overlord’ rather than a name. His descendants Vortimer and Guorthemer might also be vortigerns. It then becomes easier to reconcile accounts referring to a number of vortigerns. It is thought that our Vortigern equates with Gildas’ ‘proud tyrant’. Others though believe it could be a personal name, appearing in Celtic areas as Foirtchernn and Foirtgirn. In Nennius, Vortigern ruled from 425 and invited in the English in 428. Some believe the date is also wrong and should be decades later in 449. What we can conclude is that an individual British ruler whose title or name was Vortigern invited Saxons to help him militarily, and was later overthrown by them. Power in Vortigern’s kingdom passed to Hengest and Horsa in the mid-5th century.

WAIOFAR, DUKE OF AQUITAINE (d.768)

Duke from 745, son of Hunald I. He allied with Pepin the Short’s half-brother, Grifo, against Pepin. Grifo was killed in Aquitaine in 753. Waiofar was accused of taking church land in Aquitaine. Waiofar attacked territories outside his own lands, including Narbonne in 751. From 760 Pepin made seven destructive expeditions against Aquitaine. Pepin took control in the border regions of Berry, the Auvergne and the Touraine. He attacked the strongholds of Escorailles, Chantelle, Turenne and Carlat. Waiofar dismantled some fortifications and retreated south. Waiofar’s uncle, Remistian, joined Pepin but returned to Waiofar. Remistian was captured in 768 and hanged at Bourges. Waiofar had local support but was forced to seek refuge in the forest of Ver and killed in Périgueux by his own men – possibly with Pepin’s connivance. Pepin became ill during the campaign and died on return to Paris. Aquitainian resistance continued under Waiofar’s son Hunald II.

WALERAN, COUNT OF MEULAN, EARL OF WORCESTER (1104–66)

Waleran of Meulan led a rebellion in Normandy against Henry I. He was the son of Robert I de Beaumont, inheriting Meulan from him in 1118. He was the first-born of twins, his brother being Robert II de Beaumont earl of Leicester, who inherited the English lands. In the rebellion against Henry he attacked Vatteville but was defeated at Bourgthéroulde in 1124. He was captured and imprisoned though later released. With the succession of Stephen, Waleran was appointed Earl of Worcester in 1138. In the early years of Stephen’s reign Waleran defended Normandy against Geoffrey V of Anjou. He joined Matilda in 1139 and was a rival in the west to Robert of Gloucester. Waleran fought for Stephen at Lincoln in 1141 but fled and escaped. He made his peace with Matilda in 1141. In Normandy he made terms with Geoffrey in 1141. Waleran went on the Second Crusade with Louis VII of France in 1147, escaping from a shipwreck. He shifted his allegiance to Louis, aiding him against Henry Plantagenet. Waleran lost influence in Normandy. In 1153 his nephew, Robert de Montfort, captured him. His earldom was confiscated. Henry II pardoned Waleran by 1162. Before his death he became a monk at Préaux.

WALLACE, WILLIAM (1272–1305)

His family were men of the Stewarts near Paisley. He rebelled against Edward I in 1297, defeating the English under Earl Warenne at Stirling. He was knighted in 1298. Edward I defeated him at Falkirk in 1298. He escaped and continued to resist, going to France for aid. He was defeated in a skirmish in 1303. He was betrayed and captured in 1305, executed on 23 August at Smithfield.

WALTER I DE BRIENNE, DUKE OF ATHENS AND THEBES (d.1311)

Duke from 1309 during Latin rule in Constantinople, succeeding his cousin Guy II. In 1310 he employed the Catalan Company to conquer Thessaly. In 1311 the Company rebelled when he failed to pay them. He offered land for military service, which was not acceptable. Walter was defeated and killed on 15 March at Kephissos in Boeotia. The Catalans ruled the duchy until 1388. Walter’s son Walter II tried to recover the duchy but failed.

WALTER THE PENNILESS (SANSAVOIR) (d.1096)

A leader of the People’s Crusade, from Poissy. ‘Penniless’ is a misnomer (or joke?), for he was a knight from the family of the Lords of Poissy whose cognomen was Sansavoir. He initiated the crusading trek to Hungary and Constantinople. He advised caution. When this was ignored he still fought at Civetot against the Turks on 26 October, and was killed.

WALTHEOF, EARL OF THE EAST MIDLANDS AND BAMBURGH (d.1076)

Son of Siward of Northumbria who died in 1055. Waltheof did not succeed to the earldom because he was young. He was created earl of a group of east midland shires in 1065. He did not oppose the Norman Conquest and kept his earldom. When William returned to Normandy in 1067, Waltheof went with him as a hostage. In 1069 he joined the northern rebellion. He made his peace with William, whose niece Judith he married in 1070. In 1072 he became Earl of Bamburgh. He was accused of involvement in the rebellion of 1075, though possibly innocent. The rebels were defeated and Waltheof imprisoned at Winchester. A year later, on 31 May, he was executed, permitted to say the Lord’s Prayer but breaking down in tears before completing it. The executioner would not wait and cut off his head with a sword, when it was said the severed head completed the final words. The body was reburied at Crowland in 1092. Legends grew, miracles were reported, and the site became a cult centre.

WARBECK, PERKIN (1474–99)

Nominal leader of a rebellion against Henry VII in 1497, probably born in Flanders and taken up by exiled Yorkists. He claimed to be Edward earl of Warwick, Edward IV’s nephew. Henry VII brought Warwick from the Tower and displayed him in public. A Breton merchant took Perkin to Ireland in 1491 where he impersonated Richard duke of York, the younger of the Princes in the Tower. Perkin was taken around Europe seeking aid against Henry. He married Katherine Gordon, a cousin of James IV of Scots. He received promises but little aid. Twice invasions were attempted but failed. On the third try in 1497 he landed in Cornwall but support evaporated. Perkin was captured when taking refuge in Beaulieu Abbey. At first he was treated leniently but then tried for treason and hanged at Tyburn on 29 November.

WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (THE KINGMAKER) (1428–71)

Son of Richard Neville earl of Salisbury. The nickname ‘Kingmaker’ was given in the 16th century. He gained the earldom in 1449 through marriage to the heiress Anne Beauchamp. With his father he joined the Yorkists, opposing Henry VI and the Percies. He fought at the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, leading the attack that surprised the Lancastrian rear. He was appointed Captain of Calais and gained a naval reputation. He fled when York failed in 1459 but assisted Edward IV to become king, regaining his earldom. Warwick captured Henry VI at Northampton in 1460. Warwick was wounded in the leg by an arrow at Ferrybridge but fought in the victory at Towton in 1461. His earldom was restored. He was defeated by Queen Margaret at the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461. With Edward’s success Warwick became powerful in the north but felt inadequately rewarded. He opposed Edward’s marriage to Elizabeth Woodville. He allied with Clarence who married his daughter. Warwick rebelled, joining the Lancastrians in exile. His daughter Anne married Henry VI’s son. Warwick invaded with the Lancastrians in 1470 when Henry VI was restored. Edward returned the following year. Warwick was defeated and killed on 14 April at Barnet.

WENCESLAS II (WENZEL), KING OF BOHEMIA AND POLAND (1271–1305)

King of Bohemia from 1278, of Poland from 1300, son of Ottokar II. He established Bohemia as a major central European power. He took the crown of Hungary for his son 1301–4. His father was killed in battle and Wenceslas faced civil war in Bohemia. The three kingdoms separated again through the efforts of Albert of Austria. Wenceslas died on 21 June. His son Wenceslas III succeeded.

WENCESLAS IV (WENZEL), KING OF BOHEMIA AND OF THE ROMANS (1361–1419)

King of Bohemia from 1378, King of the Romans as Wenceslas I from 1376. He was of the House of Luxembourg, son of Charles IV who died in 1378. Wenceslas was reputed a drunkard. He was twice defeated by Bohemian coalitions, but each time recovered. He fought a civil war in Germany with Rupert of Wittelsbach and was deposed in Germany in 1400. He was rivalled by his brother Sigismund, elected King of the Romans 1410 and allowed to hold the position by Wenceslas from 1411. Wenceslas sold the duchy of Milan to Giangaleazzo Visconti for 100,000 florins. Radical Hussites were provoked into attacking the Town Hall in Prague, throwing councillors out of the window. It was said Wenceslas died of shock on 16 August on hearing the news, suffering a stroke and roaring like a lion. He was buried in Prague.

WIDUKIND

Saxon military leader, Charlemagne’s toughest opponent. His family was probably Westphalian nobility, possibly ducal. He allied with the Danes, related by marriage to the Danish royal family. From 777 he raided Frankish territory with attacks on monasteries and churches. In 778 he raided along the right bank of the Rhine from Deutz to Koblenz, attacking Charles’ forces at Hesse. Widukind made attacks whenever Charlemagne was elsewhere. The frequency of Charles’ expeditions against the Saxons is testimony to Widukind’s threat. In 782 on the Weser he defeated a Frankish army led by three of Charles’ officials. After Charlemagne’s revenge in the massacre at Verden, Widukind escaped – it was said by reversing the shoes on his horse to mislead pursuers. He took refuge with the Danes. Charles won further victories but Widukind remained at large. He finally made an agreement with Charles in 785, agreeing to baptism at Attigny. He retained his lands but no more is heard of him, though he lived on in Saxon legend.

WILLIAM I, THE CONQUEROR, KING OF ENGLAND, WILLIAM II DUKE OF NORMANDY (c.1027–87)

Duke from 1035, King from 1066, known as the Bastard and the Conqueror, born in Falaise, the illegitimate son of Robert I duke of Normandy and Herlève – daughter of either a tanner or an undertaker. William succeeded as a minor and faced opposition. Some Norman nobles and the King of France protected his position. William’s first major victory was against rebels at Val-ès-Dunes in 1047. In 1051–2 he captured Domfront and Alençon. The King of France became hostile but was defeated at St-Aubin-sur-Scie 1053. William captured Arques. Normandy was invaded in 1054 and 1057, but William won at Mortemer and Varaville. The deaths of Henry I of France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou in 1060 left William freer. He took over Maine in 1063 and campaigned in Brittany in 1064. When Edward the Confessor died and Harold II took the throne, William accused him of treachery and invaded England, landing at Pevensey. Harold was defeated and killed at Hastings. By the end of 1066 he controlled the south-east of England, crowned in London on Christmas Day. Numerous castles were built in England, including stone ones at Colchester and London. He suppressed a series of rebellions, taking Exeter in 1068. Rebellion in 1069 led to the harrying of the North. Rebellion in East Anglia in 1071 was suppressed though Hereward escaped punishment. There was rebellion by the earls in 1075, leading to the execution of Waltheof. William defeated invasions from the sons of Harold Godwinson, and Scandinavia in 1069. William imprisoned his own half-brother, Odo of Bayeux, in 1083 for plotting against him. In 1072 William invaded Scotland, when Malcolm Canmore submitted. William married Matilda of Flanders, by whom he had nine children. He quarrelled with his oldest son Robert Curthose who rebelled. Robert defeated and unhorsed his father at Gerberoi 1079. The Conqueror injured himself on the pommel of his saddle when attacking Mantes. He was taken to Rouen where he died on 9 September. His body would not fit the stone sarcophagus and burst when forced in. He was buried at his foundation of St-Étienne, Caen. His sons Robert Curthose (Normandy) and William Rufus (England) succeeded.

WILLIAM I, THE LION, EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND, KING OF SCOTS (1143–1214)

Son and successor of Henry earl of Northumberland from 1152, king from 1165 in succession to his brother Malcolm IV. He invaded England in alliance with Henry II’s sons in 1173. He experimented with military weapons, though with little success. When he threw fire from an engine at Wark in 1174, the wind blew the flames back in the Scots’ faces. When he used an early trebuchet the stone tumbled from the sling and killed one of his men. He was captured at Alnwick. By the Treaty of Falaise in 1174 he recognised the overlordship of the King of England. He married Ermengarde de Beaumont in 1186. He repressed rebellions in Scotland, extending royal power north of the Moray Firth. He died on 4 December at Stirling and was buried in Arbroath Abbey. His son Alexander II succeeded.

WILLIAM I, LONGSWORD, DUKE OF NORMANDY (c.924–942)

Duke of Normandy from 927 (more properly Count of Rouen), son of Rollo the founder of Normandy and Poppa. He extended Normandy’s boundary. By 933 he gained western Normandy to the Couesnon from the Bretons, adding the Cotentin and Avranchin – recognised by Ralph, King of the West Franks in 933. William claimed to be Duke of Brittany. In 933–4 the Scandinavian Rioul rebelled and was defeated. William married Liégarde, the Christian daughter of the Count of Vermandois. He was murdered on 17 December on the Somme island of Picquigny, through the treachery of the Count of Flanders. This led to a pagan revival. His illegitimate son Richard I succeeded.

WILLIAM II, RUFUS, KING OF ENGLAND (c.1058–1100)

Son and successor of William the Conqueror in 1087. His nickname means ‘the Red’ either from his complexion or his hair. He was also called Longsword. William fought for his father against Curthose at Gerberoi in 1079 and was wounded. On the Conqueror’s death, Curthose became Duke of Normandy and felt England should be his. There were rebellions in England in 1088 and 1095, which were suppressed. Rufus sought to win Normandy in 1094 but failed. In 1096 Curthose raised money from Rufus to finance his participation in the First Crusade. Rufus was left in control of Normandy, recovering Maine in 1098. Rufus was killed on 2 August by an arrow when hunting in the New Forest. His brother Henry, who succeeded him, was suspected but without conclusive evidence. The body was taken to Winchester for burial. Rufus had not married and had no children to succeed him.

WILLIAM V, THE GREAT, DUKE OF AQUITAINE, COUNT OF POITOU (d.1029)

Son and successor of William IV, duke from 990, virtually an independent ruler from his capital at Poitiers, treating as equals kings of France, Holy Roman Emperors and rulers of Spain and Italy. His second marriage, to Prisca daughter of the Duke of Gascony, united Gascony with Aquitaine. His first wife was Adelmode of Périgueux, his third, Agnès of Burgundy. He accepted the crown of Italy for his son but gave it up. He imposed the Peace of God on lords engaging in private war. He sought to limit the power of his vassals by control of castles, leading to conflict with Boso II count of La Marche. William VI, and four sons in turn, succeeded.

WILLIAM IX, THE YOUNG, DUKE OF AQUITAINE AND GASCONY, COUNT OF POITOU (d.1126)

Duke of Aquitaine from 1086 as a minor, son of William VIII, a patron of troubadours and a poet. He married Philippa of Toulouse in 1094. He went on Crusade in 1101–2 when he was defeated at Heraclea in Asia Minor, though escaping to Jerusalem. Castellans of Poitou sought independence of Aquitaine, building castles. He fought his vassals the Lords of Parthenay and Lusignan, and his neighbour Fulk IV of Anjou. He became Lord of Toulouse through marriage, but only until 1119. In 1120 he was defeated in Gascony. He invaded Spain, reaching Granada in 1125. His son William X succeeded.

WILLIAM CLITO, COUNT OF FLANDERS (1102–28)

Son of Robert Curthose and Sybil of Conversano. Clito equates to ‘Aetheling’ or Prince. He was ‘dogged by misfortune from his earliest years’. His mother was probably poisoned. He resented the conduct of his uncle, Henry I, who defeated and imprisoned his father and then seized Normandy – which Clito saw as his inheritance. He was protected in exile by the King of France and participated in rebellions and invasions of Normandy against Henry. He accompanied Louis VI on the 1118 campaign leading to Brémule when the French were defeated but Clito escaped. The 1124 Norman rebels supported Clito but were defeated at Bourgthéroulde. The marriage of Henry’s daughter, Matilda, to Geoffrey of Anjou was intended to block an alliance between Clito and Anjou. Clito married the half-sister of Queen Adela of France in 1127. Louis VI gave him lands including the Vexin. After the murder of Charles the Good in 1127 Louis made William Count of Flanders, reclaiming the Vexin. Clito lived another 16 months. He hunted down the murderers of Charles but his hold on Flanders was uncertain. He alienated some by punishing the murder suspects, Bruges by the removal of privileges, other cities by ignoring their liberties. At the siege of Aalst in Flanders Clito, after fighting bravely, wounded himself grasping a lance. The arm turned black to the elbow (probably gangrene). Five days later on 27 July, after becoming a monk, he died. He was buried in the abbey of St-Bertin at St-Omer. His epitaph described him as ‘an honoured knight’.

WILLIAM DE CHAMPLITTE, PRINCE OF ACHAEA (d.1209)

Ruler of the principality of Achaea or the Morea, established after the Latin capture of Constantinople. William was of French nobility. He and Geoffrey de Villehardouin captured the territory, consisting of most of the Peloponnese, in 1204–5. The capital was at Andravida, the principality divided in 12 baronies. Among its new castles was Mistra near Sparta. Women could inherit and rule, and Achaea had six female rulers. The principality passed to the Villehardouin family, surviving until 1341 when it surrendered to Byzantium. It passed to Thomas Palaeologus in 1432. The despotate of Morea fell to the Turks in 1460.

WILLIAM DE HAUTEVILLE, BRAS DE FER (IRONARM), COUNT OF APULIA (d.1045)

Eldest son of Tancred de Hauteville, the first to go to Italy in c.1035. He was employed by the Lombard Pandulf of Capua and then by the Byzantines. He unhorsed and killed the Muslim Emir of Syracuse in single combat at Troina, earning the nickname ‘Ironarm’. On the mainland he assisted Lombard victories in 1041, commanding at Monte Maggiore on 4 May, despite a fever. At Melfi in 1042 he took the title Count of Apulia. He married Guida, daughter of the Lombard Duke of Sorrento. His brother Drogo succeeded.

WILLIAM FITZ OSBERN, EARL OF HEREFORD (d.1071)

Steward of Normandy, Viceregent in England for William the Conqueror, called ‘the bravest of the Normans’, related to the ducal family. His father Osbern was William’s steward, murdered in his service. His territorial base was in central Normandy. He was a significant supporter of William before 1066, one of the few named in contemporary sources as fighting at Hastings. He received the Isle of Wight and the county of Hereford in 1067. After the northern rebellion Fitz Osbern was castellan at York. Philip I of France summoned him to represent the Conqueror against Flanders. He took only ten men and was killed on 20 (or 22) February at Cassel. His body was returned to Normandy for burial at Cormeilles.

WILLIAM OF HOLLAND, GERMAN ANTI-KING (1227–56)

Count of Holland, opponent of Frederick II in Germany, supported by Pope Innocent IV, the son of Count Florence IV. He married the daughter of the Duke of Brunswick. He was elected anti-king against Frederick to replace Henry Raspe in 1247 and re-elected in 1252. He fought a civil war against Frederick and his son Conrad IV until the latter’s death in 1254. William died on 28 January, fighting the Frisians, when his horse sank into a frozen marsh.

WILLIAM OF YPRES (d.1162)

The military lieutenant of King Stephen. He was not created earl but held the position in Kent. The illegitimate son of Philip of Ypres, grandson of Robert the Frisian count of Flanders, he twice sought to become Count of Flanders but failed. He was captured and imprisoned, then exiled in 1133. He became a mercenary captain for Stephen count of Boulogne. His birth and military ability earned him a senior position. For Stephen as king William defended Normandy. In the civil war against Matilda he captured Devizes Castle in 1139. He led the left wing for Stephen at Lincoln and escaped. With Stephen captured William acted for him with Stephen’s wife, Queen Matilda. They forced the Empress Matilda to flee from London and defeated her troops at Winchester, leading to Stephen’s release. William became blind, playing no part in the war against Henry Plantagenet but was one of the few to suffer under Henry II. His lands in England were confiscated and he retired to his castle of Loo in Flanders to spend his last years.

WILLIAM THE MARSHAL, EARL OF PEMBROKE, REGENT OF ENGLAND (1147–1219)

Regent from 1217 to 1219 for Henry III, son of the royal Marshal, John fitz Gilbert, a famous knight and subject of the Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal. He rose through success in tournaments, accumulating wealth (the medieval equivalent of a football star). He fought in the 1173–4 rebellion, first for Young Henry and then for the king. He unhorsed Richard the Lionheart in 1189 but Richard permitted his marriage to the heiress of Richard de Clare (Strongbow) that brought his earldom. He helped defeat Prince Louis’ invasion, defeating the French at Lincoln in 1217. He died on 14 May possibly of cancer of the bowel. His English lands went to his son William. He was buried in the Temple in London, which retains his effigy.

YAGHI-SIYAN, EMIR OF ANTIOCH (d.1098)

Made Seljuk Emir of Antioch in 1087 by Sultan Malik Shah and thus emir at the time of the First Crusade. The Seljuks were conquerors in the region and not popular with a population of mainly Greek, Syrian and Armenian Christians. Yaghi-Siyan defended Antioch, when besieged by the crusaders, improving the fortifications. When the crusaders were treacherously let in on 3 June, Yaghi-Siyan escaped on horseback but fell fainting from his horse to be decapitated by an Armenian shepherd, who presented the head to the Franks.

YORK, RICHARD PLANTAGENET, DUKE OF (1411–60)

Son of Richard earl of Cambridge who opposed Henry VI to initiate the Wars of the Roses. He succeeded his uncle as duke in 1415. He married Cecily Neville, sister of Richard earl of Salisbury. He was knighted by Henry VI in 1426. York became Governor in France in 1436, and also in Normandy from 1440. He captured Pontoise in 1437. In 1447 he reluctantly became Lieutenant in Ireland. In 1450 he tried to control the royal Council but failed. In 1452 he took arms against the king but submitted without fighting. When Henry lost his mind in 1454 York became Captain of Calais and Protector of England. Henry’s recovery ended the Protectorate. York took to arms in 1455, defeating the royalists at St Albans, where Henry was captured. The Protectorate was revived but Henry recovered and dismissed York. In 1459, lacking support, York fled to Ireland and was attainted as a traitor. After Warwick’s success at Northampton, York prepared to assume the crown but was defeated and killed on 30 December at Wakefield. His sons became Edward IV and Richard III.

YŪSUF I, ABŪ YA’QŪB, ALMOHAD CALIPH (d.1184)

Caliph in Spain and North Africa from 1163, son and successor of ’Abd al-Mu’min. He recovered the Muslim position in Spain, taking Córdoba in 1164. In 1179 he attacked Lisbon but failed to take it. He attacked Portugal in 1184 but died from a wound. His son Abū -Yūsuf succeeded.

YŪSUF IBN-TĀSHFĪN, EMPEROR OF MOROCCO (1030–1106)

Emperor from 1061, founder of the Almoravid Empire. In 1068 he founded Marakesh as his capital. He invaded Spain in 1086 on appeal from the taifa ruler of Seville. He defeated Alfonso VI of Castile at Zalaka. In 1090 he took Granada and Málaga, in 1091 Córdoba and Seville, establishing a Spanish sector to his empire. Of the taifas only Zaragoza with aid from El Cid resisted successfully, while the Cid took Valencia which Yūsuf recovered after the Cid’s death. Yūsuf died on 2 September and his son ’Alī succeeded.

ZANGI (ZENGI), IMAD AL-DIN, ATABEG OF MOSUL (1100–46)

Atabeg from 1127, under Alp Arslan, said to be the son of the captive Frankish Ida of Austria. His father was Aqsonqor emir of Aleppo. Zangi won control of much of northern Syria. In 1137 he besieged and took Montferrand from the Franks, in 1138 Homs. He failed to take Muslim Damascus in 1130, 1135 and 1139. He declared Holy War against the Franks, taking Edessa in 1144 and massacring the garrison – the kingdom of Jerusalem’s first major loss. The Caliph made Zangi King of Mosul in place of Alp Arslan. On campaign against Damascus he was murdered on 14 September by a Frankish eunuch he had rebuked for drinking wine. His son, Sayf ad-Din, succeeded in Mosul while another son, Nur ed-Din, held Aleppo. The dynasty survived until 1262.

ZENO THE ISAURIAN (TARASICODISSA), EASTERN EMPEROR (d.491)

Emperor from 474. He was employed by Leo I as a commander of Isaurian troops from Anatolia. He led the Excubitors, the imperial guard, the Army of Thrace, and later the Army of the east. He changed his name from Tarasicodissa Rousoumbladeotes to Zeno and married Leo’s daughter Ariadne. Leo had no sons and, with Zeno, killed rivals for the throne, including Aspar. Zeno was co-emperor with his own son Leo II (grandson of Leo I) – aged seven and shortly to die. Zeno made peace with Gaiseric the Vandal. He fought off three coups. The Western Empire ended but Zeno maintained the Eastern Empire, persuading Theoderic and the Ostrogoths to move on and invade Italy. Zeno died in an epileptic fit on 9 April and was buried in Constantinople. A later tale had him buried alive, his calls from the tomb ignored.

ZOE CARBONOPSINA (BLACKEYES), BYZANTINE EMPRESS

Mistress of Leo VI, whom he married when she became pregnant. Her uncle was the Admiral Himerius. It was a fourth marriage for Leo, not normally allowed in Byzantium. Leo died in 912 and his brother Alexander banished Zoe. Alexander died in 913 and Zoe returned to replace Nicholas as regent for her son Constantine VII. She stopped the marriage between Constantine and the Bulgar Symeon’s daughter, leading to an invasion of Byzantine territory. Zoe allied with the Pechenegs, encouraging them to attack the Bulgars but they were defeated at Anchialus in 917. The Byzantines defeated the invading Saracens near Tarsus and in Italy near Capua. In 920 Romanus Lecapenus put Zoe in a convent, where she was known as Sister Anna, and his daughter married Constantine.

ZOE PORPHYROGENITA, BYZANTINE EMPRESS (979–1050)

Empress from 1028, daughter of Constantine VIII. Constantine forced Romanus Argyrus to marry her before his death in 1028, when she was 50 and Romanus 61. She took Michael the Paphlagonian as a lover. Romanus III died in 1034, possibly killed by Zoe. Next day she married Michael, who became Michael IV but died in 1041. Zoe’s adopted son became Michael V. In 1042 he forced her into a convent but popular protest led to the release of Zoe and her sister Theodora, enclosed in a convent for 15 years. They reigned together for three months. In 1042 Zoe married, her husband becoming Constantine IX. She was the more popular, and there was a revolt against him in 1044. Under Romanus III, George Maniakes emerged as a general, recovering the situation. Zoe takes some credit for his successes during the reigns of Romanus and the two Michaels that include defeating the Emir of Aleppo, capturing Edessa, taking towns in Sicily, and campaigning against the Bulgars.