Coronation of King Roger II, Palermo, Church of the Martorana

5    The Norman Conquests in Britain and Europe, 911–1154

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I: Geoffrey de Mandeville, Guy de Brionne, Henry I, Hereward, Matilda, Melus of Bari, Miles of Gloucester, Rainulf Drengot, Ralph of Hereford, Richard I of Normandy, Richard II of Normandy, Robert I of Normandy, Robert II Curthose, Robert of Bellême, Robert of Gloucester, Robert Guiscard, Robert de Mowbray, Roger I of Sicily, Roger II of Sicily, Rollo, Stephen, Taillefer, Waleran of Meulan, Waltheof, William I the Conqueror, William II Rufus, William Clito, William I Longsword of Normandy, William Bras de Fer, William fitz Osbern, William of Ypres.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Alençon 1118, Arques-la-Bataille 1052–3, Bamburgh 1095, Bari 1068–71, Bourgthéroulde 1124, Brémule 1119, Brionne 1047–50, 1124, Burwell 1144, Cannae 1018, Cerami 1063, Civitate 1053, Dinan 1064, Dol 1064, Domfront 1051–2, Dyrrachium 1081–2, Ely 1071, Exeter 1068, Faringdon 1145, Hastings 1066, Lincoln 1141, Mayenne 1063, Messina 1061, Monte Maggiore 1041, Mortemer 1054, Oxford 1142, Reggio 1060, St-Aubin-sur-Scie 1053, Standard 1138, Strymon 1185, Tinchebrai 1106, Val-ès-Dunes 1047, Varaville 1057, Venosa 1041, Wallingford 1139, 1152–3, Wilton 1142, Winchester 1141, York 1069.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

Normandy was founded in c.911 when Charles the Simple, the West Frankish king, granted lands to the Viking leader Rollo. Viking raiders threatened western Francia, and Charles needed Rollo to form a buffer, repelling further Viking incursions. The grant at St-Clair-sur-Epte may have been exaggerated in its extent – probably only Rouen and a region around it was granted. The early rulers were styled ‘counts’ rather than ‘dukes’ – but for convenience we shall refer to all Norman rulers as dukes, as they became.

Rollo and his successors established a powerful entity, which we shall call the duchy of Normandy. Rollo extended his power west to the Vire, taking in central Normandy with the Bessin. His son William Longsword took Breton lands, expanding Normandy west to the Couesnon, including the Cotentin and Avranchin. Ducal power remained weak in the west until William the Conqueror.

The Vikings were pagan invaders but the dukes converted, making Normandy an important component of the Christian west. In 996, when Richard II succeeded, there was a peasants’ revolt, suppressed by the nobility. Peasant representatives who brought their complaints to the Count of Ivry had their hands and feet cut off. Some Scandinavian influence continued but Normandy reverted to Frankish language and culture. The Frankish nobility revived in a new form. In the 11th century the dukes and nobles built castles as residences and strongholds.

Richard III died in 1027, possibly poisoned. Under Robert I, Normandy suffered disturbances with invasions by the French king and internal rebellion. Robert left his troubled duchy for a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but died during the return.

His illegitimate son, William the Conqueror, succeeded at the age of about nine. Instability continued. William’s first battle, at Val-ès-Dunes in 1047, was a victory over rebels under Guy de Brionne. In 1053 the Conqueror’s uncle, William of Arques, led another rebellion. Henry I King of France came to aid the rebels but was defeated at St-Aubin-sur-Scie. Arques surrendered and the Conqueror’s uncle was exiled. A new invasion was halted by the victory of William’s magnates against a secondary force at Mortemer in 1054. The invasion by Henry I in 1057 was beaten at Varaville.

The death of his leading enemies left William freer to pursue expansion. He established a stronger grip on western Normandy and attacked neighbouring areas. In 1063 Maine fell under Norman power. In 1064 William invaded Brittany, accompanied by Harold Godwinson. He took Dol, Rennes and Dinan and won control over eastern Brittany.

During this campaign William probably knighted Harold. Harold then, possibly under duress, swore an oath promising support. The English king, Edward the Confessor, had a Norman mother and had spent years as an exile in Normandy before becoming king. He gave Norman and French supporters positions in Church and government. He had no children and the Normans claimed, probably truthfully, that he promised the throne to William.

On Edward’s death early in 1066 Harold Godwinson took the throne, though he had no claim by blood, apart from the fact that his sister had married Edward. The Normans protested that Harold was an oath-breaker and William claimed the throne. A Scandinavian attempt to take the kingdom by Harold Hardrada was beaten off at Stamford Bridge. William planned an invasion, collecting and building a fleet. He sailed while Harold was engaged against the Scandinavians.

Landing at Pevensey William established himself on the south coast. Harold marched south to be defeated near Hastings. The conquest of England followed. William’s campaign after Hastings brought in much of the south. The climax was the submission of London and his coronation there on Christmas Day.

It took several years to complete the conquest. Castles were built as the Normans moved north. The northern earls, Edwin and Morcar, made peace. There were further rebellions and invasion attempts. Eustace of Boulogne broke with William and attacked Dover, only to be beaten off. The rebellions were serious but not united – in the north, East Anglia, Exeter, Hereford and Kent. William captured York. The 1069 rebellion by Earls Waltheof and Gospatric, Edgar the Aetheling, Scots and Danes was a major threat. They took York, which William recovered, laying waste to England north of the Humber. In 1072 he entered Scotland and Malcolm Canmore submitted. The surviving sons of Harold Godwinson rose in the west but failed. Probably the most famous rebellion was by Hereward the Wake in Ely in 1071, supported by Earl Morcar. William marched to the spot. Morcar submitted and Hereward escaped from history into legend. In 1075 some of William’s earls rebelled – Roger of Hereford and Ralph the Breton of Norwich. They were defeated. Roger was captured and imprisoned for life. Waltheof, who had survived an earlier rebellion, was accused (perhaps wrongly) of conspiracy and was executed in 1076. Thereafter William’s position was secure.

The other great Norman Conquest occurred in southern Italy, led by lesser nobles seeking their own advantage in a divided land. They included the Hautevilles from near Coutances, whose origins are obscure. A foretaste of Italian events occurred in Spain, where the Normans Roger de Tosny and Robert Crispin joined the Christian Reconquista of Iberia from the Muslims. The earliest Normans in Italy were passing through on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. They became embroiled as mercenaries in local struggles. Others came seeking gain, some exiled from Normandy. The region was fought over by Lombards, Byzantines and Muslims. The Normans proved useful mercenaries. Those employed by the Lombard, Melus of Bari, won five successive battles before defeat at Cannae in 1018.

The Normans established independent lords. The first was Rainulf Drengot who survived Cannae to become Lord of Aversa. He married the widow of the Lombard Duke of Gaeta, becoming Count of Aversa and Duke of Gaeta. His successor Richard I became Prince of Capua. In 1038 the Byzantines under George Maniakes attacked the Muslims in southern Italy. A number of Normans, including the Hauteville brothers, distinguished themselves. Normans also aided the Lombard Arduin against the Byzantines in 1041, winning at Venosa, Monte Maggiore and Monte Siricolo.

In 1042 the Norman leaders held a conference at Melfi and agreed to recognise three regional authorities – Rainulf Drengot as Duke of Apulia over Aversa, Gaeta and now Capua, Salerno and Monte Gargano; William Ironarm de Hauteville over Troia and Melfi (later overall leader as Count of Apulia); his brother Drogo de Hauteville over Venosa. The Normans took over Apulia and Calabria. The papacy awoke to the Norman threat and allied with the Byzantines. The papal army was beaten at Civitate in 1053 and peace was made, while the Byzantines withdrew from Italy. In the Norman army were late Hauteville arrivals, Richard of Aversa (nephew of Rainulf Drengot) and Robert Guiscard (half-brother to the early Hautevilles). Richard ended Lombard power in Capua, becoming Prince of Capua. Robert Guiscard became Duke of Apulia and Calabria.

Sicily was invaded in 1061 and conquered by 1091, ruled by Guiscard’s brother Roger I as count. Roger II was recognised as King of Sicily, Apulia and Calabria by the anti-pope Anacletus II in 1130, crowned in Palermo on Christmas Day. The kingdom survived until the 19th century. Roger II extended his power through the Mediterranean and coastal North Africa. In 1194 Frederick (II) (HRE), son of the Norman Queen Constance, took over. The southern Normans played a major part in the Crusades, founding the principality of Antioch.

William the Conqueror and his successors made the link between England and Normandy a significant part of medieval history. The Norman kingdom may be taken as continuing until 1154 and the death of the Conqueror’s grandson Stephen. Normandy remained an independent duchy until 1204, when Philip II of France took it from John.

The impact of the Conquest was considerable. The Normans introduced aspects of their social organisation to England, thought of as feudalism. They brought their own form of fortification, castles, especially motte and baileys. They altered the system of raising armies and their tactical use. Cavalry from the socially superior became a major part of armed forces.

The Conqueror’s son, William Rufus, succeeded on his father’s death but the older son, Robert Curthose, became Duke of Normandy, the kingdom and the duchy thus being divided. In 1088 there was rebellion against Rufus but it was suppressed. In 1096 Curthose joined the First Crusade, leaving his duchy in Rufus’ care. The arrangements for its return were never put into effect. A further rising occurred in 1099 under Robert de Mowbray earl of Northumberland. It was put down with the capture of Bamburgh Castle. Rufus was killed in the New Forest, possibly by assassination involving his brother Henry.

Henry I succeeded in 1100 in England. His older brother Robert Curthose again opposed but was forced into an agreement after a failed invasion. Henry I dealt with Curthose’s supporter Robert of Bellême and then attacked Normandy. At Tinchebrai in 1106 Curthose was beaten, captured and imprisoned for life, dying in 1134. England and Normandy were united under Henry I until his death in 1135. Henry was opposed in Normandy by Curthose’s son, William Clito, who gained support from Louis VI of France and Fulk of Anjou. In 1118 Fulk besieged Alençon and defeated Henry when he attempted relief. Henry gained revenge at Brémule in 1119. A rebellion by Waleran of Meulan was beaten at Bourgthéroulde in 1124.

On the death of Henry I the throne went to his nephew Stephen, despite attempts to pass it to his daughter Matilda. She married Henry V (HRE), becoming empress, and then Geoffrey of Anjou. Stephen put down early rebellions and his men defeated the Scots at the Standard 1138. Matilda invaded England, leading to civil war in which neither side gained ultimate control though Stephen largely kept the upper hand. In 1141 Stephen was defeated and captured at Lincoln. He was imprisoned for a year. Matilda’s lieutenant, her half-brother Robert of Gloucester, was captured at Winchester. Robert and Stephen were exchanged. Matilda’s son, Henry Plantagenet, attempted invasions but Stephen survived until his death in 1154. By then he had agreed that Henry should inherit rather than his own son. During Stephen’s reign Henry’s father, Geoffrey of Anjou, conquered Normandy in a ten-year campaign.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALENÇON, SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1118

In which Anglo-Norman knights dismounted to fight on foot. The only detailed account is in an Angevin chronicle. Anglo-Norman chroniclers ignored it, except for a brief reference by Orderic Vitalis, probably because Henry I was defeated. Fulk V of Anjou besieged Alençon, held for Henry by his nephew, the future King Stephen. Henry came to its relief. Fulk camped within a defensible enclosure called the Park. He sent out his men group by group, including archers and knights, in three sorties. They made no serious impact until reinforcements arrived under Lisiard of Sablé. This force dismounted in a wood and attacked Henry from the flank. Henry’s ally Theobald of Blois was wounded by an arrow in the forehead. Fulk sallied from the Park in a mounted charge. Under the dual attack Henry’s force broke and fled. Alençon surrendered but Henry soon recovered.

ARQUES-LA-BATAILLE, SIEGE OF, 1052–3

The castle of Arques, near Dieppe, was besieged by William the Conqueror against his uncle, William count of Arques who built it c.1038 and rebelled in 1052. He deserted the ducal army before Domfront and shut himself in Arques. The Conqueror set up a blockade and built a belfry. He left Walter Giffard to conduct the blockade. The ducal victory at St-Aubin-sur-Scie removed hope of relief. Arques surrendered on terms late in 1053, the garrison promised their lives. They emerged with heads bowed, carrying their saddles. Count William was exiled to Boulogne. Arques was the last castle in Normandy to surrender to Geoffrey V in 1145 and resisted Philip Augustus in 1204.

BAMBURGH, SIEGE OF, 1095

Bamburgh and its castle are on the coast north of Alnwick, Northumberland. On a rock, surrounded by sea, marsh and pools, it was considered ‘impregnable’. William Rufus besieged the castle when Robert de Mowbray took refuge there after his rebellion. Rufus blockaded, buiding a counter castle named Malveisin or Yfel Nehbur (Bad Neighbour). Robert shouted from the walls to shame those who had promised him allegiance. Rufus went to Wales, leaving the siege to continue. One night Robert and 30 knights escaped to Newcastle but he was refused entry, captured and taken to Bamburgh. Rufus threatened to put out his eyes unless the castle surrendered. Countess Matilda and Robert’s steward, Morael, yielded. Robert spent the rest of his life in prison.

BARI, SIEGE OF, 1068–71

Bari was the final Byzantine obstacle to Norman control of Apulia and southern Italy, capital of the Byzantine catapan. It stands on a promontory with a harbour on the Adriatic. Robert Guiscard besieged it from 5 August 1068. Engines were brought against the walls. The defenders used precious metal plate to reflect the sun into Norman eyes. They made a successful sortie, firing the engines. A hired assassin attacked Guiscard with a poisoned javelin but his throw missed when Guiscard bent under a table to spit. The blockade became fully effective in 1071 when Guiscard’s brother Roger count of Sicily brought a fleet. The Byzantines attempted relief by sea but failed. Bari surrendered on 16 April 1071 and Guiscard entered. His peace terms were generous. It ended five centuries of Byzantine rule.

BOURGTHÉROULDE, BATTLE OF, 1124

The climax of Waleran de Meulan’s revolt against Henry I in Normandy. Waleran relieved his castle at Vatteville in the north and returned towards Beaumont. Henry’s household troops collected a force from neighbouring garrisons to block Waleran near Bourgthéroulde. The royalists were under Odo Borleng (captain of household troops), William of Tancarville (Henry’s chaplain) and Ralph of Bayeux (castellan of Évreux). The young Waleran ignored advice to retreat. Odo Borleng set an example by dismounting to fight on foot though others remained on horseback. He ordered archers to the van against the enemy attack. The charge was halted and Waleran unhorsed and captured. The rebellion was over.

BRÉMULE, BATTLE OF, 1119

Victory for Henry I of England in Normandy against an invasion force under Louis VI of France, allied with Fulk of Anjou. They intended to make William Clito, Curthose’s son, duke. The battle was fought on a plain near the hill of Verclives, where Henry posted scouts. They informed him when the French emerged from the woods. He ordered some knights to dismount and fight on foot, placing himself with them. The French made an undisciplined charge that was held by the dismounted knights. Eighty French knights were killed. A second charge was also halted. Henry I was wounded in the head but saved from a worse fate by his mail hood. The French broke and Louis fled to Andely. He became lost in the woods but a peasant led him to safety. Henry was welcomed in Rouen with hymn singing and bells ringing. Normandy was safe.

BRIONNE, SIEGES OF, 1047–50, APRIL 1124

Brionne stood on the Risle in central Normandy. Guy of Burgundy count of Brionne, the Conqueror’s cousin, shut himself behind barred gates in Brionne Castle in 1047 after a rebellion against the Conqueror was ended by William’s victory at Val-ès-Dunes. Brionne had a stone walled enclosure. The Conqueror’s siege lasted three years according to Orderic Vitalis. Some historians have queried the duration but there is no alternative evidence. William built counter castles on either side of the river. There were daily sorties but the blockade began to work. Guy surrendered on terms and returned to Burgundy. The castle was razed though later rebuilt. Henry I of England besieged Brionne in 1124 following the rebellion by Waleran of Meulan. The town was damaged by fire. Henry built two counter castles and Brionne surrendered. Henry ordered the castle to be razed.

BURWELL, SIEGE OF, SEPTEMBER 1144

Burwell Castle in Cambridgeshire was built by Stephen against Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1143. Geoffrey rebelled with the Isle of Ely as his base. Burwell was built to garrison royal troops and protect Cambridge. It had an unusual rectangular plan, with stone walls and gate and a wide ditch to be filled from a nearby stream. It was never finished. In 1144 Geoffrey attacked, making reconnaissance bareheaded because of the heat. He was hit in the head by a crossbow bolt shot by a low-born archer. He was taken to Mildenhall and died a week later. The rebellion was over and the castle left unfinished.

CANNAE, BATTLE OF, 1018

Defeat in southern Italy for the Lombard, Melus of Bari, with his Norman mercenaries. He won five battles with their aid but was beaten by the Byzantines at Cannae, on the right bank of the Ofanto, four miles from the coast. It was the site of Hannibal’s victory over the Romans. The Greeks, including the Varangian Guard, were under the catapan Boiannes. Amatus described the Greeks swarming over the battlefield like bees from an over-full hive. Cannae ended the independence of Lombard Apulia. The Normans showed their military worth and some transferred to Byzantine service. One Norman who survived the battle was Rainulf Drengot.

CERAMI, BATTLE OF, 1063

Norman victory in Sicily, after which the papacy granted the Normans a papal banner. Cerami was a small settlement on the River Cerami, west of Troina near Nicosia. It was a victory for Roger I the Great Count with only 130 knights against a larger Muslim army. The enemy included troops from Sicily and Africa. They had advanced from Palermo against Roger’s stronghold at Troina. Roger, his nephew Serlo and his lieutenant Arisgot of Pozzuoli covered themselves with glory. The small Norman force withstood a charge. The battle lasted through the day but in the evening the Muslims broke and fled. It was an important step in the Norman conquest of Sicily. They were now established on the island.

CIVITATE, BATTLE OF, 17 JUNE 1053

Victory for the Normans in Italy against a papal army. The Normans were under Robert Guiscard and his brother Humphrey. Pope Leo IX sought to diminish Norman power, advancing south from Monte Cassino. His mainly Lombard army included Byzantines and Swabian infantry with two-handed swords. The Germans jeered at the shorter Normans. Negotiations failed and the Normans attacked. They fought in three divisions: Guiscard on the left and in reserve, Humphrey in the centre and Richard of Aversa on the right. The Normans had success on the flanks but the Germans held the centre. Norman cavalry on the right outflanked the enemy centre. Guiscard was unhorsed three times but fought on with lance and sword. Leo was captured afterwards. The site is near San Severo, on a plain by the River Fortore. The papacy recognised Norman possessions in Italy. Leo was released but died the following year.

DINAN, SIEGE OF, 1064

Besieged by William the Conqueror during his expedition to Brittany, when it resisted. The Bayeux Tapestry shows a wooden keep on a motte while the Normans fire it with torches. The Bretons handed over the keys as a symbol of surrender.

DOL, SIEGE OF, 1064

Besieged by William the Conqueror during his expedition to Brittany, his first objective. Riwallon of Dol rebelled against Conan II count of Brittany and appealed to William for aid. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the castle as a wooden keep on a motte. Conan besieged Riwallon in Dol and the Conqueror came to its relief. The Tapestry shows Conan escaping by rope. Chronicles however make it clear that the count left before William arrived. The castle was saved. Conan recovered and exiled Riwallon.

DOMFRONT, SIEGE OF, 1051–2

Domfront Castle, built by William of Bellême, stands on a rock over the Varenne near Avranches, on the border with Maine. A large ditch cut off the only approach. William the Conqueror besieged Domfront, held for Geoffrey Martel of Anjou, in the late summer of 1051 and through the winter. While it continued he attacked Alençon, which he took, ordering the citizens who had reminded him of his bastardy to have their hands and feet chopped off. At Domfront William built four counter castles. During the siege William found time to go hawking. Martel attempted relief but had to retreat. The blockade worked and Domfront surrendered on terms. Later Henry I of England built a new keep, now in ruins.

DYRRHACHIUM (DURAZZO/EPIDAMNOS), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1081–2

Dyrrhachium (Durazzo to Italians, Epidamnos to Greeks) was the capital of Illyria, and is modern Durrês in Albania. Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemond besieged it in 1081 in the Norman attempt at Mediterranean expansion against Byzantium. Guiscard left Otranto with a fleet and army in May 1081. A Venetian fleet allied to the Byzantines to defeat the Normans in June, after the Normans suffered damage in a storm. Guiscard could not blockade from the sea as intended. The siege was an attempt by the Normans to gain safety within. The defence was led by George Palaeologus. The Normans built a belfry, countered by a wooden tower and later destroyed by fire. The defenders used catapults, pitch and Greek Fire. The Normans suffered illness and starvation. Alexius I Comnenus came to the relief. The battle was fought on 18 October. Against the odds the Normans won through using archers and cavalry against the Varangian Guard (including Anglo-Saxon exiles). Guiscard’s wife Sigelgaita participated in the ensuing battle, brandishing a spear and helping to rally the troops. Alexius was wounded in the forehead but escaped to Ochrid. The Byzantines retreated and Dyrrhachium surrendered on 21 February 1082. Guiscard returned to Italy. Bohemond continued to Larissa where he was defeated by the Byzantines.

ELY, SIEGE OF, 1071

William the Conqueror besieged the rebel Hereward the Wake. Ely was a fen island, difficult to approach. The Danes allied with Hereward, who took over Peterborough Abbey and Ely in 1070. William negotiated with the Danes, who agreed to leave. He blockaded Ely with ships on the Ouse and built a causeway via Aldreth with logs and stones. The rebels were joined by Morcar earl of Northumbria but fled. Morcar submitted and was imprisoned for life. Hereward escaped.

EXETER, SIEGE OF, 1068

Besieged by William the Conqueror. Harold Godwinson’s mother, Gytha, took refuge there after Hastings. The citizens refused to swear fealty to William or pay tax, shutting the gates against him. The Conqueror brought an army, including English troops, to besiege Exeter for 18 days. Negotiations failed. One defender on the wall bared his posterior and farted at the attackers. William blinded a hostage in the view of the defenders. He lost a considerable number of men. The walls were mined. Exeter surrendered on terms. The king forbade looting. He built Rougemont Castle inside Exeter for a garrison under Baldwin de Meules. Gytha escaped before the surrender to Flatholme. In 1069 there was a local rising for an invasion by the sons of Harold Godwinson but Exeter remained loyal to William.

FARINGDON, SIEGE OF, 1145

Captured by Stephen in the civil war with Matilda. Faringdon Castle was built by Matilda’s supporter Robert of Gloucester for his son Philip. It controlled Malmesbury and threatened Oxford, demonstrating the Angevin intention of advancing east. Stephen assembled a force at Oxford, including London militia. He besieged Faringdon, building a counter castle. Stone-throwing engines were set up and attacks made daily. Archers ringed the walls to shoot in arrows. Robert was not inside and made no attempt at relief. The royalists tried scaling but failed. The defenders were persuaded to surrender on terms. Matilda’s hopes for triumph were crushed though her son Henry continued the fight. Possibly because his father failed to save Faringdon, Philip of Gloucester went over to Stephen.

HASTINGS, BATTLE OF, 14 OCTOBER 1066

Victory for William the Conqueror over Harold Godwinson, the major battle in the conquest of Anglo-Saxon England by the Normans. William invaded in the autumn, landing at Pevensey. Harold defeated a northern invasion by Harold Hardrada at Stamford Bridge. On news of Norman arrival he marched south, hoping to surprise William, but the latter was prepared. Harold fought without troops who could have taken part had he waited longer. The traditional site is the hill of Battle town, because the Battle Abbey Chronicle says Harold was killed where the altar of the abbey was built. The earliest sources are less clear, making Caldbec Hill the possible site. The English formed ranks on foot. The Normans had cavalry and infantry, including well-armed men and archers. William opened with the archers, who failed to break the English line. Cavalry charges were difficult because of the ground and failed to break through. A rumour William had been killed led him to remove his helmet and prove he was alive. The Normans made feigned retreats, drawing troops after them and turning on them, thus depleting the English ranks. William made a last push and the English broke. Harold was killed by an arrow in the eye. Two of his brothers were killed. The English retreated but some made a stand, an event that is difficult to unravel from the sources – the Malfosse incident. A stand was made near a deep slope or ditch and some Norman cavalry came to grief, but it did not alter the outcome of the battle. The English never recovered from Hastings. William secured his position in the south east and was crowned in London by the end of the year.

LINCOLN, BATTLE OF, 2 FEBRUARY 1141

In which King Stephen was defeated and captured, giving the Empress Matilda her best opportunity to rule England. The royal castle of Lincoln was seized by the half-brothers Ranulf earl of Chester and William de Roumare by a ruse in 1140. The citizens of Lincoln appealed against the rule of the half-brothers. At Christmas Stephen besieged Lincoln. The citizens let him in but the rebels held the castle. Stephen used throwing engines against them. Robert earl of Gloucester, for Matilda, attempted relief, including Welsh allies. The battle was fought on a Sunday. Stephen was advised to retreat before a larger army but chose to fight. Robert crossed the Witham and Stephen emerged to fight to the west of the city. Baldwin fitz Gilbert made a pre-battle speech for Stephen. Stephen and some of his knights dismounted to fight on foot, with cavalry on each wing. Some Angevins dismounted and fought on foot. The royal cavalry saw off the Welsh infantry on the flanks but was routed by enemy cavalry. Stephen’s lieutenants on the wings, including six earls and William of Ypres, escaped. Stephen fought on with a sword until it broke, and then an axe handed him by a citizen, which also broke. Stephen was felled by a rock on the head. The victors killed many citizens. Stephen was imprisoned, later in irons, until exchange brought his release.

MAYENNE, SIEGE OF, 1063

Geoffrey de Mayenne’s castle, on a rock over the Mayenne, was besieged by William the Conqueror to complete his conquest of Maine. William intervened in the succession dispute over Maine on behalf of his son. Geoffrey favoured a rival. The castle was south of Domfront near the border. William brought up cavalry and infantry. He used fire, shot into the castle to panic the garrison. Two boys also entered the castle to start a fire. The garrison surrendered next day. Geoffrey kept his lands and castle though the Conqueror placed a garrison there.

MESSINA, SIEGE OF, 1061

A major step in the early stage of the Norman conquest of Sicily. Muslim Messina stood on the east coast, an obvious target for invaders from the mainland. Count Roger made two unsuccessful attempts against the city in autumn 1060 and early 1061. In 1061 the Norman fleet was defeated and the army forced from retreat to flight. In May 1061 Roger returned, expecting aid from Robert Guiscard. Roger crossed with an advance force at night to find the walls deserted. A supply train for Messina was intercepted. Roger attacked without waiting for aid and took the city. Many Muslims departed. The Normans strengthened the fortifications and put in a garrison.

MONTE MAGGIORE, BATTLE OF, 4 MAY 1041

One of three battles in 1041 won for the Lombards against the Byzantines in southern Italy by Normans. The site was that of Cannae but the mountain name is generally used in this case. The Normans emerged victorious under William de Hauteville (Ironarm), who was suffering from fever and watched from a hill. Excitement overcame him and he charged into the fray. The victory was due to the impact of Norman cavalry. The Normans took much loot.

MORTEMER, BATTLE OF, FEBRUARY 1054

A victory for William the Conqueror against an invasion of Normandy by Henry I of France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou. William blocked the route of the main force. A second army reached Mortemer on the border, led by Henry I’s brother Odo. Magnates from Upper Normandy, on William’s behalf, faced this force, under William de Warenne and Walter Giffard. The invaders lacked discipline, being allowed to loot and rape. The Normans attacked by surprise and routed them. Guy of Ponthieu was captured and submitted. William ordered a herald, Rodulf de Tosny, to shout the result from a treetop at night. He began, ‘I bring you dreadful news …’ The king and count retreated. William’s success was a blow for his enemies in Normandy.

OXFORD, SIEGE OF, SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER 1142

The Empress Matilda was besieged by Stephen in the civil war. Oxford was a westerly outpost for Matilda. Her presence posed a threat. Stephen countered by besieging Oxford from 29 September. The castle possessed a high tower. Matilda’s garrison shot arrows over the river. Stephen crossed by a ford, leading the way by swimming. He charged and burst into the town, which was fired. The blockade of the castle continued for three months. Siege engines battered the defenders. Robert of Gloucester planned a relief but Matilda escaped before Christmas. In one version she escaped by a rope, but probably she slipped through a postern gate with four knights. She crossed the frozen Thames in a white cloak, tramping through the snow to Abingdon. She rode to Wallingford and safety. The Oxford garrison surrendered. It was an exciting escape but a blow to Matilda’s cause.

REGGIO, SIEGE OF, 1060

The Byzantine capital was the last Byzantine stronghold taken by the Normans in Calabria, captured by the Hauteville brothers, Robert Guiscard and Count Roger. Roger built siege engines the previous winter. The garrison surrendered on terms and went to Scilla where they resisted the Normans before going on to Constantinople. The conquest of Calabria paved the way for the invasion of Sicily.

ST-AUBIN-SUR-SCIE, BATTLE OF, 25 OCTOBER 1053

Victory for William the Conqueror’s men over Henry I of France. Henry invaded Normandy to support rebellion by William of Arques. The Conqueror besieged Arques and Henry I attempted relief. Henry camped at St-Aubin. In the battle the Norman cavalry made a feigned flight to draw the enemy on before turning upon them. The Normans ‘who seemed to be fleeing, turned round and began violently to cut down the French’. The Conqueror used the tactic at Hastings. Enguerrand II count of Ponthieu, brother-in-law of the Count of Arques, was killed fighting for Henry. Henry retreated from Normandy. Arques surrendered and the count was exiled.

STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, 22 AUGUST 1138

The English for King Stephen against Scottish invaders. David I king of Scots was Empress Matilda’s uncle. Dissident English barons took refuge at his court. This was the third Scottish invasion of England in 1138. Stephen was occupied in the south and a northern army countered the threat, summoned by Thurstan, archbishop of York, and led by magnates Walter Espec and William of Aumale. A force of royal household knights under Bernard of Balliol and reinforcements from the midlands joined the northern army. The English used a carroccio, a cart with a pole carrying northern church banners. At its top was a silver pyx containing the host. This was the Standard. The site was a plain north of Northallerton, Yorkshire. David made the error of allowing the Galwegian claim to take the van. The English chose a defensive position on a hill, probably Standard Hill but possibly Red Hill. Some English knights dismounted to fight on foot, interspersed with archers – a similar formation to that used in the Hundred Years’ War. The Galwegian infantry charged and was ‘destroyed by arrows’, looking like ‘hedgehogs with spines’. Prince Henry of Scots led a cavalry charge from the flank but it was held. The Scots broke and the English pursued. The battle lasted two hours. A modern track, Scotpits Lane, reflects the tradition of bodies buried after the battle. The victory eased Stephen’s worries about his northern frontier.

STRYMON (STRUMA), BATTLE OF THE, 7 NOVEMBER 1185

Marking the end of William II of Sicily’s ambitions regarding the Byzantine Empire. He was encouraged by dissension within the empire when Isaac Angelus succeeded. A fleet and an army under the Sicilian Baldwin approached Constantinople. The Greek commander, Alexius Branas, made a surprise attack, routing the Norman advance force at Mosynopolis. Negotiations followed but the Greeks attacked the main army at the Strymon (which runs through Greece and Bulgaria) and routed it. Many drowned in the river. The Norman generals, Baldwin and Richard of Acerra, were captured. The Norman fleet was attacked by Thessalonians and much damaged.

TINCHEBRAI, BATTLE OF, 1106

The first Anglo-Norman battle when trained cavalry dismounted to fight on foot, a victory for Henry I over his brother Robert Curthose. Curthose invaded England, seeking the throne, and failed. Henry replied by invading Normandy in 1105. He besieged Tinchebrai Castle, held by William count of Mortain for Curthose. William appealed to Curthose who attempted relief. Henry constructed a counter castle. The battle was fought on level ground. Henry formed two lines of infantry with dismounted men, himself in the second. He placed cavalry on the wings, with relief cavalry under Helias of Maine out of sight. Curthose dismounted some men but led a cavalry charge, which was held. The relief force attacked on the flank and broke the enemy. Curthose was captured and never released. Henry became Duke of Normandy.

VAL-ÈS-DUNES, BATTLE OF, JANUARY 1047

Victory for William the Conqueror and Henry I of France, who aided the young William against Norman rebels under Guy of Burgundy, William’s cousin. Guy claimed the duchy, supported by Norman magnates. The rebels assembled in western Normandy and crossed the Orne to fight on flat ground near Caen. There were cavalry clashes. Ralph Taisson deserted the rebels to join the king. Henry I was unhorsed but survived. The young William fought well. The rebels fled, many drowning in the river. Loose horses galloped over the field. Guy of Burgundy escaped to Brionne Castle, which later surrendered. The battle saved the duchy for William.

VARAVILLE, BATTLE OF, AUGUST 1057

Defeat by William the Conqueror of Henry I of France and Geoffrey Martel of Anjou. They invaded Normandy, destroying and pillaging. They were crossing a ford of the Dives when the Conqueror attacked. Henry succeeded in crossing but tidal water prevented half the army from following. William assembled an army at Falaise. He attacked the stranded force with archers and knights, decimating it. The invaders retreated, not to return. The victory aided William’s rise to dominance in western France, making possible his invasion of England.

VENOSA, BATTLE OF, 17 MARCH 1041

In 1041 the Lombard, Arduin, established Norman knights at Melfi in southern Italy. Within days they captured Venosa. That year three battles were fought and won against the Byzantines, the first near Venosa at the confluence of the Olivento and Ofanto. The Byzantines, under Catapan Doceanus, challenged the Normans to fight or leave. When the messenger had finished, the Norman Hugh Tuboeuf punched his unfortunate horse between the eyes, felling it. The rider fainted and was sent back on a new horse with the reply. The battle was fought next day. Many Greeks and Varangian Guards were killed, some drowning in the river. The Byzantines withdrew.

WALLINGFORD, SIEGES OF, 1139, 1152–3

A stronghold on the Thames, built inside a Saxon burh, vital in the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, held by Brian fitz Count, a supporter of Matilda. Stephen besieged it in 1139. The king built two counter castles, leaving a garrison while he moved west. Miles of Gloucester, for Matilda, attacked the besiegers and defeated them. Wallingford remained an easterly salient for Matilda. She rode to Wallingford after escaping from Oxford in 1142. When Henry took over from his mother, Stephen besieged Wallingford in 1152, building two counter castles. In 1153 the Londoners gave Stephen aid. Brian fitz Count sallied but failed to break out. Stephen moved on, leaving Roger of Hereford to continue the siege but Roger deserted to the enemy. Henry Plantagenet now besieged the besiegers in their counter castle at Crowmarsh, guarding a bridge over the Thames, the last major clash of the war. Henry captured a wooden tower and beheaded 60 archers, but without gaining a decisive victory. Stephen approached and faced Henry over the river. A truce was agreed; the war was virtually over.

WILTON, BATTLE OF, 1142

A defeat for Stephen in the civil war with Matilda. The king built a castle here against Robert of Gloucester, a salient into Matilda’s territory. Robert of Gloucester, for Matilda, besieged Wilton. The king led a sortie that became a battle. The site is now in the grounds of Wilton House. Stephen placed cavalry on each wing. Robert’s force was in three divisions. The Angevin cavalry charged, forcing back the royalists. Stephen fled. His steward, William Martel, delayed the enemy while Stephen escaped, but was himself captured. Stephen surrendered Sherborne Castle in return for William’s release. Wilton was ravaged by the victors.

WINCHESTER, THE ROUT OF, 14 SEPTEMBER 1141

A victory for Stephen in the civil war against Matilda, while Stephen was a captive. His brother Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, was besieged in his castle at Wolvesey in Winchester from 31 July by Empress Matilda. Henry escaped to join Stephen’s queen, the other Matilda, who brought a relief force under William of Ypres, including London militia. There was a double siege – Angevins besieging Wolvesey while themselves surrounded by royalists. On 2 August royalists fired the city. On the first Sunday in September an intended Angevin retreat turned into flight. Robert of Gloucester fought a rearguard action. He saved Matilda but was captured. The Londoners sacked Winchester. Miles of Gloucester escaped by abandoning his armour to avoid identification. Empress Matilda escaped, riding astride to Ludgershall and then by litter to Devizes. Her cause had suffered a major blow. Robert of Gloucester was exchanged for Stephen.

YORK, SIEGE OF, 1069

York held a significant strategic position. It became a capital for Viking kings. Aethelstan captured it as a step towards becoming King of England. York recovered independence until the fall of Erik Bloodaxe in 954. Harold Hardrada’s invasion against Harold Godwinson in 1066 aimed at York. Control of York remained vital and the Conqueror, after capturing it in 1068, built the castle known as Clifford’s Tower. York was a base for rebellion and Danish invasion in 1069. The castellan of Clifford’s Tower, Robert fitz Richard, made a rash sortie and his force was wiped out. William Malet remained in the castle and sent to William for aid. William returned from Normandy and recovered York. He ‘spared no man’ and built a second castle, the Old Baile. The rebels attacked York again but were held off. William’s response was the harrying of the north until ‘there was no village inhabited between York and Durham’. This episode is a vital part of the imposition of royal control over northern England.