The Battle of Morat, 1476, from Diebold Schilling’s Chronicle

6    The Holy Roman Empire and central Europe, 850–1500

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I: Albert II, Charles IV, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Conrad II, Conrad III, Conrad IV, Frederick Barbarossa, Frederick II, Frederick III, Henry I the Fowler (HRE), Henry II (HRE), Henry II the Wrangler of Bavaria, Henry III (HRE), Henry IV (HRE), Henry V (HRE), Henry VI (HRE), Henry VII (HRE), Henry the Lion, Henry Raspe of Thuringia, Herman of Luxembourg, John of Luxembourg, Lewis IV, Lothar III, Maximilian I, Otto I the Great, Otto II, Otto III, Otto IV, Ottokar I, Ottokar II, Prokop, Rienzi, Rudolf I, Sigismund, Wenceslas II, Wenceslas IV, William of Holland, William Tell.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Alessandria 1174–5, Aussitz 1426, Benevento 1266 (p. 232), Brescia 1238, Cortenuova 1237, Deutschbrod 1422, Dornach 1499, Durben 1260, Flarcheim 1080, Grandson 1476, Hohenburg 1075, Hohen-Mölsen 1080, Lake Peipus 1242, Lechfeld 955, Legnano 1176, Lenzen 929, Liegnitz 1241, Marchfeld 1278, Merseburg 933, Milan 1158–62, Morat 1476, Morgarten 1315, Mühldorf 1322, Nancy 1477, Parma 1247–8, Saaz 1421, St Jakob 1444, Sempach 1386, Tannenberg 1410, Vysehrad 1420, Weinsberg 1140.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

The Holy Roman Empire dated from the papal coronation of Charlemagne in Rome in 800. It claimed to be the descendant of the Roman Empire, controlling most of western Europe. This situation only endured with the Carolingians. The fall of the Carolingians saw the division of their empire and the formation of new units. Three or four such units appeared, altered, merged and eventually became East and West Francia, the nuclei of Germany and France. At first neither of the new monarchies was very strong. East Francia established itself as the inheritor of Charlemagne’s empire, becoming the Holy Roman Empire.

Lewis the Child was the last Carolingian ruler of the East Franks. He died in 911, when an assembly of East Franks at Fircheim elected Conrad duke of Franconia as Conrad I king of the East Franks. East Francia consisted of four main principalities, the stem duchies – Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia. To the west was Lotharingia (Lorraine), initially separate but claimed by both East and West Francia. Conrad I favoured his own duchy against the others. He tried to win Lotharingia but failed. He tried to limit ducal power but with little success. He faced revolts in Saxony and Bavaria, which remained virtually independent.

While the West Franks established hereditary monarchy, East Francia remained elective, its ruler chosen from one duchy and family then another. This restricted the growth of power of the kings. On Conrad’s death Henry the Fowler of Saxony was elected at Fritzlar, with the support of only two duchies. He fought to win wider recognition. Bavaria accepted his rule when he defeated Duke Arnulf in 921. Henry married the Duke of Lotharingia’s daughter. His greatest achievement was against his pagan neighbours – Magyars, Slavs and Danes – including victory at Unstrut.

Henry the Fowler seemed to have established a Saxon dynasty. His son was elected as Otto I (the Great). In 962 Otto was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII, establishing East Francia as the heir to Charlemagne’s empire. The ruler elected by the German duchies was called King of the Romans. Only if crowned by the pope could he properly be called emperor. In common parlance, however, the rulers of Germany are often referred to as emperors, and we shall follow this practice.

Otto I forced the papacy to give him imperial coronation but the need to have papal blessing caused problems for his successors. Otto faced internal revolt and external threats. Eberhard rebelled but was killed in battle and his duchy, Franconia, was added to the royal demesne. Otto extended his family power by establishing his brother in Bavaria, his son in Swabia and his brother-in-law in Lotharingia. From Lotharingia he developed German interest in Italy, which would dog imperial history through the Middle Ages. Otto had notable success over the Magyars at Lechfeld.

The son and grandson of Otto I continued family expansion. Otto II gained imperial prestige through marriage to a Byzantine princess. Otto III faced opposition from Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria. He made regular Italian expeditions, three in six years. He died without heir. The clash with the papacy reached crisis point under Henry IV who was elected as a minor, not reaching his majority until 1065. His clash with Gregory VII came over the archbishopric of Milan. Henry threatened to bring down the pope, calling him a false monk and demanding ‘let another mount the throne of St Peter’. In turn Henry IV was excommunicated and deposition threatened. Henry submitted to the pope at Canossa in 1077. The death of his rival Rudolf of Swabia, killed at Hohen-Mölsen, was a turning point in his control of the German princes. In 1084 Henry attacked Rome and deposed Gregory, who was rescued by the Normans of southern Italy. Henry V (HRE) reached an agreement with the papacy to resolve the Investiture Controversy by the Concordat of Worms.

The Holy Roman Emperors found it difficult to maintain power in Germany. Constant changes of dynasty made it hard to establish a demesne. Frederick Barbarossa, arguably the greatest emperor, attempted to regain dominance in Germany and the west. He was elected after a period of frequently changing ruling familes – from Saxony, Bavaria and his own Swabia. His family was the Hohenstaufen. He was Conrad III’s nephew, preferred to Conrad’s young son. The Hohenstaufen lands were on the fringes of Germany. Frederick’s second marriage, to Beatrice of Burgundy, directed his interest south. He built up the royal demesne and imperial administration through officials called ministeriales. A major threat came from the duchy of Saxony under Henry the Lion. Their early good relationship deteriorated. Frederick used other magnates to bring down Henry, who was exiled, while Saxony was split in two. Frederick was crowned emperor in Rome in 1155 but the Lombard League of Italian towns formed against him and rebelled. On his final expedition Frederick failed to take Alessandria and was defeated at Legnano. He recognised Lombard freedom. Frederick married his son Henry to the heiress Constance of Sicily, leading to imperial rule of the Norman kingdom.

Henry VI died in 1197. His young son Frederick was not elected. Frederick though, as the son of Constance of Sicily, inherited that kingdom, which became his base. In Germany power went to Otto IV of Saxony, though opposed by Frederick’s uncle, Philip of Swabia, in a civil war that lasted until Philip died. Otto’s fate was sealed when he joined an alliance against Philip Augustus of France and was defeated at Bouvines. The young Frederick was crowned at Aachen.

Frederick II had to compromise with the German princes to keep his throne while facing a rival in Henry Raspe. Frederick was excommunicated by the pope for failing to go on crusade, though he eventually went and was crowned King of Jerusalem. He defeated the Lombard League at Cortenuova in 1237. He suppressed a rebellion by his son Enzio and his chief minister Piero della Vigna.

After Frederick II the empire declined as a western power, becoming increasingly divided. The inherent weaknesses of its monarchical system became more apparent. The nobles and the towns of Germany and Lombardy became independent of imperial control. Frederick’s descendants fought to keep Sicily but Anjou and Aragón ousted them. Imperial territory in Italy declined into a patchwork of lesser states – the kingdom of Sicily/Naples, the Papal States and the city states of Milan, Venice and Florence. Germany was weakened by internal division. The death of Conrad IV was followed by a 20-year interregnum, no ruler winning universal acceptance. Rudolf of Habsburg was elected in 1273 but his son was not. The Habsburgs remained powerful but were opposed by the Wittelsbachs.

Central Europe was an ever-changing patchwork of states through the Middle Ages, not unlike the Balkan region. Poland, Lithuania, Hungary and Bohemia were the major units (with the Empire) – power moving from one to the other. Magyars and Slavs formed a large part of the population. Christian wars against pagans marked the early Middle Ages. Later the Teutonic Knights and the Mongols (Tatars) joined the fray.

A political unit existed in Poland from the early Middle Ages. Mieszko I converted to Christianity in 966. His son Boleslaw I was the first crowned king though coronation remained difficult and intermittent. Feudal ties developed but power was often in the hands of dukes rejoicing in such names as Henry the Bearded, Boleslaw the Bashful, Henry the Honourable and Wladislaw Spindleshanks. Przemysl II duke of Kraków brought more unity, ruling Gdansk (Danzig) and eastern Pomerania. He arranged for his own coronation only to be murdered before it could happen, in 1296. Wenceslas II of Bohemia was crowned king in 1300, uniting the crowns. A separate Polish monarchy returned in 1320 with the coronation of Wladyslaw the Short-Elbowed, who lost some territory but strengthened internal rule. Poland proper emerged with Casimir III the Great who increased royal power, fortified towns, built castles and regained Mazovia. After a succession crisis the throne went jointly in 1386 to Jadwiga daughter of Louis of Hungary and her husband Jagiello, Grand Duke of Lithuania and previously pagan. The dynasty ruled Poland until 1572. The power of the Knights declined after their defeat at Tannenberg in 1410. The dynasty came to control Hungary and Bohemia as well as Lithuania and Poland.

In northern Europe a crusading movement led to the conversion of the pagan Baltic (north Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Livonia, Estonia). Christians from Scandinavia and the west with the Military Orders participated. The Sword Brothers were important early, later absorbed into the Teutonic Knights. They focused on the Baltic region. The Knights conquered Prussia. They were defeated by Alexander Nevsky at Lake Peipus. In 1410 they were beaten by the (now Christian) Lithuanians at Tannenberg. Western crusaders still came to Marienburg, where their shields were displayed on the walls, among them Henry Grosmont of Lancaster and Henry Bolingbroke. Ordinary people, especially from Germany, came for land. Crusading transformed into wars between Christians for territory. The Teutonic Order declined from 700 members in 1410 to 300 by 1453 but survived the Middle Ages.

Hungary was another major state in central Europe, formed from Magyar settlement. It had constant contact with the Holy Roman Empire to its west and Balkan countries to its east. The Mongols had overrun Hungary in the mid-13th century when the larger of the two-pronged Mongol invasion had defeated Béla IV at the River Sajó in 1241. In the same year, however, the Great Khān Ögedei died and the Mongols withdrew. There was still Mongol activity in Hungary in the later 13th century but the main threat had passed. A stronger western influence was felt with the succession of Charles Robert (Carobert) in 1310 as Charles I, the grandson of the Angevin Charles II of Naples. He restored Hungarian unity, defeating his internal opponents at Rozgony in 1319. He married Elizabeth, sister of Casimir the Great of Poland, and their son Louis ruled both kingdoms. In a 40-year reign Louis the Great recovered the Dalmatian coast from Venice, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bosnia and part of Serbia and Bulgaria. Hungary suffered under Sigismund, largely because of his wide interests elsewhere and his costly wars. After his death for a time the union with Poland was restored. Hungary was saved by the efforts of its general, John Hunyadi, despite the disaster at Varna in 1444 due to the king breaking the truce. Hunyadi saved Belgrade just before his death in 1456. Hunyadi’s son, Matthias I Corvinus, was elected king despite having no claim by inheritance. He reformed the army, demanding service from a proportion of the serfs, and won back ground from the Turks. He crusaded against the Hussites. He recovered Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia. From Austria he won Salzburg and Styria, in 1485 besieging and taking Vienna, where he died in 1490.

The imperial concept crumbled in central and eastern Europe, where German claims of lordship were overthrown and smaller states established themselves, including Bohemia. Charles of Moravia succeeded his father John as king. He was elected as Emperor Charles IV in 1346. He is accused of favouring Bohemia at the expense of the empire, granting privileges to Prague. By the Golden Bull he recognised limitations on emperors, which were already apparent, defining the system for election. Seven electors were named, one being the King of Bohemia. The Czechs sought independence and revolted against Sigismund in the Hussite wars. Sigismund invaded Bohemia but was defeated at Vyšehrad by Žiška. Prokop took over as Bohemian commander. Sigismund finally captured Prague but recognised self-rule.

Switzerland also escaped from imperial grasp. The region was dominated by the Habsburgs from the 13th century. Three mountain cantons agreed to exclude Habsburg control. Their confederation grew. Their attempt at independence led to wars. They defeated the Austrians at Morgarten. Swiss military methods became a model for others and the papacy employed Swiss Guards. The cantons called their confederacy Schwyz and resisted the Habsburgs. The story of William Tell symbolises the fight but may be fictional. Sigismund recognised their independence in 1415. They still had to resist attempts at control by Burgundy. Charles the Bold of Burgundy was beaten at Grandson. Swiss independence was recognised by Burgundy in the Peace of Zurich.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

ALESSANDRIA (ALEXANDRIA), SIEGE OF, 1174–5

Frederick Barbarossa besieged Alessandria from 29 October on his fifth Italian expedition. Alessandria was founded on the Po by the Lombard League against Frederick and named after Pope Alexander III who was hostile to Frederick. On Good Friday Frederick broke the Truce of God to mine the wall. His men entered but were defeated. Frederick abandoned the siege on 13 April, Easter Sunday, burning his camp and siege equipment. Three days later he made terms with the Lombard League. There was a battle at Alessandria in 1391, when Milan defeated Florence.

AUSSITZ (AUSSIG/ÚSTI), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1426

The Hussites besieged Aussitz on the Elbe in Bohemia. Frederick the elector of Saxony led the third anti-Hussite ‘Crusade’ and on 16 June sought to relieve Aussitz, which he had been granted by Sigismund. The Hussites under Prokop drew up wagons defensively on a hill. The Hussites held off Frederick with artillery fire. They then used cavalry to break and pursue the enemy.

BRESCIA, SIEGE OF, 1238

Besieged by Frederick II from 3 August to 9 October. Brescia is to the east of Milan, a stronghold that Frederick needed to control if he were to win Milan. Frederick brought siege engines and mining gear. An engineer, the Spaniard Calamandrino, was captured and was offered gifts (a house and a woman) to change sides. He showed the Brescians how to make catapults against Frederick’s belfries. The besiegers tied captives to the front of their engines to discourage attack. The Brescians lowered captives on ropes before the walls at which Frederick’s rams were aimed. A nocturnal sortie surprised Frederick. With winter Frederick retreated to Cremona.

CORTENUOVA, BATTLE OF, 27 NOVEMBER 1237

Victory for Frederick II against the Lombard League. He moved from Cremona to catch the enemy near the crossing of the Oglio at Cortenuova. Frederick’s van was initially successful but the Milanese around their carroccio held on. With darkness the Lombards abandoned the field in heavy rain, leaving the carroccio stuck in the mud. Frederick made a triumphal entry into Cremona, pulling the carroccio by elephant. The success did not endure. Frederick failed to take Brescia the following year.

DEUTSCHBROD (NĚMECKÝ BROD), SIEGE OF, 10 JANUARY 1422

Victory for the Hussites under Žiška, leading to the expulsion of imperial forces from Bohemia. The Hussites had beaten Sigismund at Kuttenberg on 6 January but many escaped. A large number of these took shelter in Deutschbrod. It was stormed and those within massacred.

DORNACH, BATTLE OF, 22 JULY 1499

Defeat of Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss, the decisive battle in the Swiss struggle for independence which led to the Treaty of Basle, recognising that independence.

DURBEN (DURBE), BATTLE OF, JULY 1260

Defeat of the Teutonic Knights by the Lithuanians, leading to a revival of paganism in the eastern Baltic after the second Prussian revolt. The Knights tried to relieve besieged Christian garrisons. Their master, Von Hornhausen, was ambushed and killed in the battle. Kurland revolted and Livonia was lost. There followed a series of crusades and the revolt was not suppressed until 1283.

FLARCHEIM, BATTLE OF, 27 JANUARY 1080

An indecisive battle but Henry IV (HRE) withdrew from the field, leaving Rudolf of Rheinfelden duke of Swabia to claim victory. The pope declared Henry deposed but Rudolf was killed later in the year. Henry recovered power in Germany.

GRANDSON, 2 MARCH 1476

Swiss defeat of Charles the Bold duke of Burgundy. Charles captured Grandson and hanged its garrison. He advanced towards Neuchâtel when the Swiss van met him at the foot of Mont Aubert near Lake Geneva. The Swiss formed a defensive square and made infantry charges with pikes. Charles tried to break them with artillery and cavalry but failed. The appearance of Swiss reinforcements on the flank decided the issue. The Burgundians fled, losing 400 pieces of artillery. The Swiss recovered Grandson.

HOHENBURG (HOMBURG-ON-UNSTRUT), BATTLE OF, 9 JUNE 1075

Defeat of the Saxons by Henry IV (HRE) during Henry’s first war with the Saxons after Saxony and Thuringia rebelled. Henry raised support, especially from southern Germany. Rudolf of Swabia made a charge on Henry’s behalf but had to be rescued by the Bavarians.

HOHEN-MÖLSEN, BATTLE OF, 15 OCTOBER 1080

Indecisive battle but Henry IV (HRE)’s rival Rudolf of Swabia was fatally wounded. A replacement anti-king was elected in Hermann of Salm but the battle established Henry’s position in Germany.

LAKE PEIPUS, BATTLE OF, 5 APRIL 1242

Victory of Alexander Nevsky over the Teutonic Knights, fought over the ice at the crossing between Lakes Peipus and Pskov. The Knights had Danish, Livonian and Estonian allies. The Russians made the best of the conditions. Their horse archers forced back the enemy left. The Knights were surrounded and slaughtered. Their position in the Baltic declined sharply after the defeat.

LECHFELD, BATTLE OF, 10 AUGUST 955

Victory for Otto I against the Magyars, who had been raiding west into Europe under Karchas Bulcsu. It was fought by the Lech near Augsburg in Bavaria, which the Magyars had been besieging. Initially the Magyars were successful, surprising Otto with a sudden attack on his camp by a second force from the flank. Otto took up shield and lance to lead the charge that settled the battle. Conrad the Red of Lorraine, fighting for Otto, was killed. Afterwards the Magyars settled in Hungary. Otto was now called ‘the Great’.

LEGNANO, BATTLE OF, 29 MAY 1176

Defeat of Frederick Barbarossa by the Lombard League, the climax of Frederick’s fifth Italian expedition. Frederick assembled at Como against Milan. Legnano is 15 miles north-west of Milan. Henry the Lion did not answer Frederick’s summons. Some of Frederick’s troops were employed elsewhere in Italy. Frederick had a small cavalry force and rashly accepted battle against a larger, better-balanced Lombard army. His charge was repulsed by pikemen and dismounted knights, holding steady round the carroccio. It was an early example of success for good infantry against heavy cavalry. New Lombard troops arrived on the flank. Frederick was unhorsed and for a time believed dead, but escaped to Pavia leaving behind shield, lance and treasure. He made peace with the papacy and recognised the liberties of the Italian communes. Afterwards Frederick took revenge on Henry the Lion.

LENZEN, BATTLE OF, 4 SEPTEMBER 929

A force for Henry I (HRE) defeated the Slavic Redarii who had revolted near the Elbe. Saxon success depended on their possession of a small cavalry force, which the Slavs lacked. Afterwards the Redarii paid tribute and converted to Christianity.

LIEGNITZ (WAHLSTATT), BATTLE OF, 9 APRIL 1241

Defeat for the Teutonic Knights by Mongols under Batu. The smaller of two Mongol armies raided through Poland and sacked Kraców. The Knights fought in alliance with Poles and Silesians. Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia commanded the Christians, his infantry in four battles. The Mongols used horse archers in a feigned flight, drawing the Christians into a trap. Mongol cavalry then attacked. Duke Henry was killed. The Mongols invaded Silesia but were blocked by the Bohemians and retreated to Hungary where Batu defeated Béla IV of Hungary at Mohi on the Sajó. A crusade was preached against the Mongols. Liegnitz ended the furthest advances of both the Mongols and the Teutonic Knights.

MARCHFELD, THE (DÜRNKRUT/STILLFRIED), BATTLE OF, 28 AUGUST 1278

Defeat of Ottokar II of Bohemia by Rudolf I Habsburg and Ladislas IV of Hungary. The Marchfeld is near Stillfried and Dürnkrut, by the Danube. Ottokar invaded Austria and camped near Stillfried, allied with Poles and German mercenaries. Rudolf was with his reserve. The conflict opened with Hungarian horse archers, for Rudolf, attacking the enemy flank. Infantry is not mentioned in the accounts. Ottokar was killed in flight. The Marchfeld ended the expansion of Bohemia and helped establish the Habsburgs.

MERSEBURG (RIADE/ALLSTEDT), BATTLE OF, 15 MARCH 933

Defeat of the Magyars by Henry I (HRE) at an unidentified site near Merseburg in northern Thuringia. The Magyars threatened western Europe. Henry refused to pay tribute, returning a dog without ears and tail. He blocked the invaders’ route, placing light horse to the fore to mask the heavy cavalry, which made a successful charge.

MILAN, SIEGE OF 1158–62

During Frederick Barbarossa’s second Italian expedition. Frederick could not surround the city but used three lines of men to shoot in missiles, starving Milan into submission. All those between 14 and 70 had to take an oath of loyalty to him. Milan was the leader of the Lombard League, opposing imperial authority. It revolted again in 1159. Frederick was occupied at the siege of Crema, which Milan tried to aid. He returned to Milan in September 1161 with reinforcements. He laid waste the surrounding area to disrupt food supplies. Five Milanese captives were blinded. A sixth lost his nose but kept his eyes to lead the others home. The city surrendered on 1 March 1162. Frederick promised mercy but destroyed much of the city.

MORAT (MÜRTEN), BATTLE OF, 22 JUNE 1476

Defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgundy by the Swiss. Charles advanced towards Berne, making a diversion to besiege Morat on its lake, a town recently taken by the Swiss, who now attempted relief. Their force consisted mainly of halberdiers and pikemen but also cavalry from Lorraine and Germany. Charles had a barricaded position with a camp outside. The Swiss made a surprise attack through a wood. They were hit by artillery, and some Swiss cavalrymen were cut in half by the shot, their lower halves remaining on horseback. The Burgundians broke and thousands were slaughtered, only the left wing escaping.

MORGARTEN (MORTGARTEN), 15 NOVEMBER 1315

Defeat of Duke Leopold of Austria by the Swiss near Lake Egeri. The Swiss supported Lewis of Bavaria against Frederick of Habsburg to rule Germany. The latter’s brother, Leopold, sought revenge. He advanced towards Schwyz by a narrow path between the mountain and the lake at Morgarten to find his way blocked by a stone barrier. The Swiss hurled down boulders on the trapped enemy. Hidden Swiss closed off the rear. Swiss halberdiers demolished the Austrians. One source called it ‘a butchery’. The only escape was into the lake, where many drowned. Leopold was one of the few to escape. This was the first major victory by Swiss infantry over German knights. Lewis recognised the Swiss confederation.

MÜHLDORF, BATTLE OF, 28 SEPTEMBER 1322

Defeat of Frederick of Habsburg duke of Austria by Lewis IV (HRE) after a divided election for King of the Romans between them in 1314. Frederick tried a pincer movement against Bavaria, the second force under his brother Leopold. King John of Bohemia fought for Lewis. Frederick crossed the Inn when Lewis attacked. The battle was fought mainly by cavalry, including Hungarian mounted archers for Frederick. A flank attack by the burgrave of Nuremberg decided the issue. Frederick was captured and became reconciled with Lewis. It was claimed Lewis ignored the laws of war by not remaining on the site for three days. The victory established Lewis’ success, recognised at Nuremberg in 1323.

NANCY, BATTLE OF, 5 JANUARY 1477

Final Swiss defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgundy. René II of Anjou, having recovered his territories from Burgundy, was besieged by Charles at Nancy. The Swiss advanced to aid René. Count Campobasso, leading Charles’ mercenaries, had once fought for Anjou and now deserted. The Burgundians were outnumbered three to one. The Burgundian position was between woods and the River Meurthe on the left. The battle was fought amid snow and ice – conditions that suited the Swiss. René’s standard carried an image of the Virgin. Charles’ artillery failed to stop a Swiss infantry advance. A flank attack through the woods against Charles’ right decided the issue. The Swiss discharged culverins in the attack. The Burgundians tried to retreat. Austrian cavalry pursued, joined by Campobasso. Charles was killed trying to cover the retreat. A Swiss halberd cut through his helmet and skull. The body was found two days later in the frozen mud, partly eaten by wolves. The main beneficiary was Louis XI of France.

PARMA, SIEGE OF, 1247–8

Conducted by Frederick II from 16 June. He was heading for Lyons when Parma declared for the papacy and the Lombard League. He returned to besiege it, setting up camp on the left bank of the Po and optimistically calling his settlement Vittoria (Victory). He laid waste around but the blockade was only partial. Mantua sent a fleet to assist Parma. Frederick failed to break in. The new leaders of Parma spread false reports that relief was coming, to keep up spirits. Frederick’s force was depleted by other demands. On 18 February 1248 he was defeated by a Parmesan sortie that broke into Vittoria, seizing the imperial treasure and crown. Frederick was nearly captured. His minister Taddeo da Suessa was taken, his hands cut off and he was left to die in prison. The siege was abandoned.

SAAZ (SAAS/ŽATEC), SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 2 NOVEMBER 1421

Victory for the Hussites under Žiška, settling the second anti-Hussite crusade. Two forces invaded Bohemia from east and west. The German princes coming from the west besieged Saaz. Žiška brought a relief force. He had sight in only one eye and now became entirely blind.

ST JAKOB, BATTLE OF, 26 AUGUST 1444

Defeat for the Swiss by Armagnac écorcheurs for Charles VII of France, assisting Frederick of Habsburg. The French were under Charles’ son, the Dauphin Louis (XI). A lull in the Hundred Years’ War made troops available. The French invaded Switzerland. The battle was fought by the River Birs near Basle. A small Swiss infantry army crossed the river and attacked. They pushed back the French van but were surrounded by the larger army, which then made cavalry charges. The Swiss retreated to the ruined leper hospital of St Jakob. They held off cavalry but the French attacked with archers and artillery from a distance. The Swiss killed over twice their number of French but were wiped out by the bombardment. The French however retreated, not wishing to face further Swiss troops. One reported he had ‘never seen or met men who resisted so strongly or were so willing to sacrifice their lives’.

SEMPACH, BATTLE OF, 9 JULY 1386

Duke Leopold III of Habsburg, ruler of Swabia, was defeated by the Swiss. The Swiss supported the Swabian League against Leopold. He invaded Swiss territory and was met in Luzern. The Swiss stood on a slope near Hildisrieden by Lake Sempach, later commemorated by a chapel. The Austrian van dismounted and fought on foot, seeking a solution to Swiss infantry tactics. The Austrians had initial success but their heavy armour made advance difficult. More Swiss arrived to attack from the flank. The Austrians broke and fled. Leopold rode forward in order to save the day but was killed. It was an important step towards Swiss independence. The legendary Arnold Winkelried is supposed to have played an heroic part in the battle.

TANNENBERG (GRUNWALD), BATTLE OF, 15 JULY 1410

Defeat of the Teutonic Knights by allied Slav forces under Jagiello king of Poland and Vitold grand duke of Lithuania, joined by Tatars and Bohemians under Žiška. The Knights were led by Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen. Tannenberg (now Grunwald) is in northern Poland. The Knights crossed the River Drewenz and initiated battle despite having the smaller force. The Knights stood with Tannenberg to their left and forest on their right. They had cannons in the van but a thunderstorm wet the powder. In the centre and on the right the Poles prevailed. The Knights had a wagon fort to the rear with cannons. The Poles overran it. Von Jungingen was killed. The Knights lost Old Prussia. They agreed the Treaty of Thorn in 1411, recognising Poland’s independence but keeping their own lands. The defeat was a serious blow to the prestige of the Knights whose decline followed.

VYŠEHRAD (WYSCHEBRAD), BATTLE OF, 1 NOVEMBER 1420

Defeat for Emperor Sigismund by Hussites under Žiška. The Heights of Vyšehrad are near Prague. Sigismund besieged the garrison. The Hussites came from Prague against him. It was the first major Hussite victory, causing the failure of the first anti-Hussite crusade.

WEINSBERG, BATTLE OF, DECEMBER 1140

Defeat of Welf VI by Conrad III. Conrad deprived Henry the Proud of Bavaria and Saxony. Henry died in 1139. Welf was the uncle of Henry the Proud and opposed the grant of Bavaria to Leopold of Austria, Conrad’s half-brother. The labels Guelf and Ghibelline are said to originate from this conflict, from Welf and Weibling. Saxony supported the Guelfs and Conrad invaded Saxony in 1140. In 1141 Conrad returned to besiege Weinbsberg, which surrendered. He agreed to let the women go with whatever they could carry. They took their husbands. In 1141 Leopold died and Conrad made an agreement with the Saxons. The divisions within Germany persisted.