Joan of Arc directing operations

9    The Capetians and the Valois, France 987–1500

GENERALS AND LEADERS

See in Part I: d’Albret (Charles), Blanche of Castile, Boucicaut, Cadoc, Charles the Good, Charles VI, Charles VII, Enguerrand de Coucy, Ferrand of Flanders, François de Surienne, Fulk le Réchin, Fulk V of Anjou, Geoffrey V of Anjou, Guesclin (Bertrand du), Henry I of France, Hugh Capet, Hugh du Puiset, Joan of Arc, John II, John the Fearless, Louis VI, Louis VII, Louis VIII, Louis IX, Louis XI, Marcel (Étienne), Mercadier, Philip I, Philip II, Philip IV, Philip VI, Renaud de Dammartin, Robert II the Pious, William V the Great of Aquitaine, William IX of Aquitaine.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

Agincourt 1415, Baugé 1421, Beauvais 1430, 1472, Bouvines 1214, Brémule 1119, Breteuil 1356, Caen 1346, 1417, 1450, Calais 1346–7, Candé 1106, Cassel 1071, 1328, Castillon 1453, Château-Gaillard 1203–4, Conquereux 992, Courtrai 1302, Cravant 1423, Crécy 1346, Falaise 1418–19, Formigny 1450, Fréteval 1194, Gisors 1198, Harfleur 1415, Herrings (Rouvray) 1429, Jacquerie 1358, Laon 986–7, La Rochelle 1372, Liège 1468, Mauron 1352, Meaux 1421–2, Mons-en-Pévèle 1304, Montboyau 1026, Montlhéry 1465, Montreuil-Bellay 1149–51, Morlaix 1342, Muret 1213, Neuss 1474–5, Orléans 1428–9, Patay 1429, Poitiers 1356, Rennes 1356–7, Roche-Derrien 1347, Roosebeke 1382, Rouen 1418–19, 1449, Saintes 1242, St-Pol de Léon 1346, Sluys 1340, Thurie c.1370, Valmont 1416, Verneuil 1424.

OUTLINE OF EVENTS

In 987 Carolingian rule ended after years of uncertainty. Hugh Capet duke of the Franks took the crown. His family, descended from Robert the Strong, had dominated the kingdom of the West Franks for some time. Hugh founded a dynasty that lasted until 1328, the Capetians. The early Capetians were relatively weak with little authority over the great principalities – Normandy, Flanders, Anjou, Brittany, Burgundy, Blois and Aquitaine. The monarchs endured through effort and luck. Among the factors helping them was the lack of external interests, a good relationship with the Church, and a series of long-lived kings with male heirs. Between 996 and 1180 there were only five kings, with a shortest reign of 29 years. This stability meant a permanent and increasing territorial family base for the monarchy.

Three Robertines (Odo, Robert and Raoul) were crowned kings before Hugh Capet. As Duke of the Franks Hugh possessed a base in the Île-de-France which, though restricted in extent, was larger than the demesne of the late Carolingian kings. The early Capetians resisted domination by the great princes – the dukes and counts. Odo count of Blois claimed he had no wish to be king, ‘just always the king’s master’. The principalities threatened to develop beyond the monarchy’s control. The Duke of Normandy conquered England and became a king. Other principalities, especially Flanders and Burgundy, had important connections outside West Francia – in their cases with the Holy Roman Empire, which meant divided loyalties. Capetian independence was often threatened but the threats were shrugged off in the long run.

Control of lords within the royal demesne was a constant problem for the early Capetians (Hugh, Robert the Pious, Henry I and Philip I). Henry I of France quarrelled with his brother, but internal family differences were rare. The growing power of the monarchy encouraged Henry to invade Normandy but his limitations were exposed by defeat at the hands of William the Conqueror. The weakness of the early Capetians can be exaggerated and a policy of co-operation with the principalities was generally successful.

From the 12th century the monarchy emerged from relative humility. Philip I defended the Vexin against the Normans and by 1108 was recovering from his defeat by Hugh du Puiset. Louis VI gained revenge over Hugh. Louis developed a strong central administration with reasonable control over the barons of the demesne. By countering the local lords Louis forged closer links with the growing towns that wanted independence of the same lords. Communes and the monarchy gave each other mutual support, and both benefited. The value of the demesne became clear, not least the hold on Paris. Louis was now more on a par with the greater princes of Europe, and benefited from ecclesiastical support. Nevertheless a royal invasion of Normandy was defeated, this time at Brémule.

Louis VII married Eleanor of Aquitaine but failed to keep her or her inheritance of the duchy of Aquitaine. Yet monarchical power continued to increase and relations with the Church were cemented by the protection given to Pope Alexander III. Louis could not stop the growth of the Angevin Empire but he undermined Henry II through supporting Becket and encouraging Henry’s rebellious sons. Louis went on the Second Crusade, a failure but a sign of his good relationship with the Church.

Medieval France became more significant under the great Capetians, the first of whom was Philip II. From a lengthy struggle with his rivals in Flanders, the Empire and England, he emerged victorious – conquering Normandy and winning at Bouvines. Philip’s son continued and completed his father’s work by bringing southern France more fully under Capetian rule.

Many see Louis IX as the greatest ruler of medieval France though he was not its most successful military leader. His two crusades were disasters. He is better known for his peace treaties, which settled the basic frontiers of France, than for his wars. He was fond of quoting ‘Blessed are the peacemakers’, and agreed that wars should be just. His mother, Blanche of Castile, was regent in the early reign, when Henry III of England unsuccessfully invaded France in 1230. She fended off opposition from the princes, including those of Boulogne, Brittany, Toulouse, La Marche and Champagne. Under Louis, the Cathar heretics were crushed with the taking of Montségur. The power of the counts of Toulouse was destroyed, the county going to Louis’ brother Alphonse.

No prince in France could now match monarchical power. A second invasion by Henry III of England in 1241 ended in victory for Louis at Saintes. In 1258 Louis’ treaty with Henry recognised the English loss of most of the Angevin Empire – including Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and Poitou. Henry III did homage for the lands he retained in France. Louis made a similar agreement with Aragón at Corbeil in 1258 with Jaime the Conqueror, agreeing the Pyrenees as the border. Jaime also performed homage. Louis’ brother, Charles of Anjou, invaded Sicily in 1266 and became King of Sicily. The French ruled Sicily until the Sicilian Vespers of 1284.

St Louis’ grandson Philip IV has a mixed reputation, known as Philip the Fair but noted for some dastardly acts – the bishop of Pamiers called him ‘not a man but a beast’. He was nevertheless the last great Capetian. Flanders submitted to the monarchy. After defeat at Courtrai in 1302 Philip gained revenge at Mons-en-Pévèle in 1304. Lille, Douai and Béthune were ceded to the monarchy. Philip clashed with Edward I of England in southern France. Philip took Guyenne but thereafter Edward held his own and peace was agreed with the marriage of Edward’s son to Philip’s daughter Isabelle.

Philip’s bad reputation comes largely from clashes with the Church. Most French bishops supported Philip against the papacy. Philip’s agent Philip de Nogaret was responsible for an attack on Boniface VIII’s palace, soon followed by the pope’s death. However, Philip was then able to dominate and pressurise later popes, notably Clement V. French influence assisted the papacy’s move to Avignon. Philip’s most famous act was his attack on the Templars in 1307, leading to their suppression in 1311. His motives have never been satisfactorily explained – though criticism of their activities, accusations of heresy (unlikely to be true), and profit from their wealth were part of it. Scandals late in the reign, over the conduct of his daughters-in-law, did not improve the monarchy’s reputation. Philip’s three sons inherited the throne in turn and died quickly without leaving male heirs.

In 1328 Philip VI became the first Valois King of France. Under him the Hundred Years’ War began. Philip partly provoked the war by continuing to seek expansion and allying with the Scots. Philip’s victory in Flanders at Cassel in 1328 increased French domination and damaged English interests there. The two monarchs were involved in a succession dispute over Brittany. Edward III renounced homage to Philip for his French lands in 1336 and declared war in 1337. France was under attack. Edward won at sea off Sluys in 1340 and on land at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356. At Poitiers King John II of France was defeated and captured – imprisoned in the Tower. France was harmed by the Black Death and the social upheaval of the Jacquerie. The 1360 Treaty of Brétigny recognised English holdings in Poitou, Gascony, Aquitaine and Calais.

France was ravaged by unemployed mercenaries. An even greater threat came from the growth of an independent duchy of Burgundy. The murder of Louis of Orléans in 1407 led to civil war between Burgundians and Armagnacs. Burgundy allied with England and encouraged Henry V’s invasion France. He besieged Harfleur and won at Agincourt in 1415. By 1419 England had reconquered Normandy. By the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Henry V married the French Princess Catherine.

The turning point in the war came in the 1420s. Henry V died suddenly and was succeeded by the minor Henry VI, who was no warrior. The English still won at Cravant and Verneuil, but the tide turned. Joan of Arc appeared and helped save Orléans. She was associated with a revived monarchy under Charles VII. The French, assisted by good generals and cannons developed by the Bureau brothers, began to win battles and recover territory. They defeated the English at Patay and Formigny. Burgundy made peace with France, deserting England. The French victory at Castillon in 1453 marked the end of the war. Of the territory once held by English kings in France, only Calais remained.

The duchy of Burgundy was a rival as well as an enemy of France. Its rulers retained high ambitions – perhaps too high. Charles the Bold led the duchy into a series of military disasters. Burgundy had hopes from renewed alliance with England but Edward IV’s invasion of France, though it brought financial compensation to Edward, was concluded with a peace that excluded Burgundy. Charles the Bold failed to take Neuss in 1474 and was defeated by the Swiss at Grandson and Morat in 1476. At Nancy in 1477 he was defeated and killed. Louis XI could not suppress his pleasure at the news.

Louis XI was the last great medieval king of France. He dealt with the War of the Public Weal, a league formed against him that threatened Paris. He was defeated at Montlhéry in 1465 but escaped and recovered all lost ground. The fall of Charles the Bold led to an increase in royal authority and demesne but Charles’ daughter, Mary, avoided a French marriage for one with Maximilian (HRE). The French were defeated at Guinegate in 1479. Louis gained Roussillon and Cerdagne in the south from Aragón to settle the Pyrenean frontier. Louis’ son Charles VIII married the heiress Anne of Brittany in 1491 and the extent of modern France was established. French invasions of Italy take us into a new era.

BATTLES AND SIEGES

AGINCOURT, 25 OCTOBER 1415

Victory of Henry V over the French under Constable d’Albret, Marshal Boucicaut and the dukes of Orléans and Bourbon. Henry invaded France in 1415. After the siege of Harfleur he headed for Calais. He crossed the main rivers, shadowed by a larger French force. He crossed the Somme but was caught near Azincourt (Agincourt), 30 miles south of Calais. Henry took a defensive position but advanced to provoke enemy action. He was protected on either flank by woods. The French dismounted knights in the centre, with cavalry on each wing. English longbowmen, on the wings of the English army protected by stakes, halted French charges. The French centre advanced through muddy ground and was held. Henry countered. He saved one fallen brother, Humphrey, but another, the Duke of York, was killed. Eighteen French knights swore to kill Henry or die; they failed apart from denting his helmet (now in Westminster Abbey). Fearing for his small force during an attack on the baggage train, Henry ordered the execution of French prisoners. Agincourt was a major victory, followed by the conquest of Normandy and the successful claim to the French throne. Henry and his troops received a triumph in London.

BAUGÉ, BATTLE OF, 22 MARCH 1421

Defeat on Easter Saturday of the English under Thomas duke of Clarence (Henry V’s brother) in the Hundred Years’ War while Henry was in England. Clarence had news of an Armagnac force in the vicinity. He rashly crossed the bridge over the Couesnon at Baugé in Anjou to attack. The English cavalry was separated from the infantry and met by the enemy, including Scots under Buchan. The English entered the town and rallied on the slope by the river. Buchan appeared with his larger force. Clarence charged forward and was killed, as was Lord de Roos. The earls of Somerset and Huntingdon were captured. The Earl of Salisbury with a force of archers recovered Clarence’s body from the cart on which it had been thrown. The battle was a sign of changing fortunes for the French even before the emergence of Joan of Arc.

BEAUVAIS, BATTLE OF, 1430, SIEGE OF, 1472

What is known as the Battle of Beauvais was fought 20 miles west at Savignies. The French were defeated and pursued to Beauvais. The victory was won by English archers. The war was swinging in favour of France, but the traditional English formation still won some victories. Nevertheless the area was soon overrun by the French. Ironically it was in 1430 that Joan of Arc was brought before the bishop of Beauvais as judge (ejected from his see by Charles VII). In 1472 Beauvais was successfully defended by the French. Women, including Jeanne Laisné (model for the legendary Jeanne Hachette), helped the defence. It was besieged from 27 June by Charles the Bold of Burgundy against Louis XI. The besiegers’ ladders were too short and Charles lacked sufficient ammunition for his cannons. The siege was abandoned on 22 July. Louis XI rewarded Beauvais (and its women) with civic privileges – the women were allowed to wear what they chose and to precede the men in town processions.

BOUVINES, BATTLE OF, 27 JULY 1214

Victory of Philip Augustus king of France over allies under Otto IV (HRE). Otto allied with Flanders, England and dissident French lords and threatened to overwhelm Philip. Philip wanted to avoid battle but was caught at a river crossing near Bouvines, between Douai, Tournai and Valenciennes, a marshy area – and the weather had been wet. Philip was crossing the Marcq but recalled those who had crossed to face the enemy. The French right charged under Guérin de Glapion. The Flemish knights despised this attack by men of low rank, and Eustace de Mechelen challenged the French knights to fight him – he was then surrounded and killed. The head of a man who fell from his horse was buried to the neck in mud. The counts of St Pol and Melun charged and broke through. They turned to attack from the rear. On the French left Ferrand of Flanders (for the allies) was unhorsed and captured. Otto advanced in the centre and the battle was in the balance. Philip was unhorsed and fell with a lance sticking in his mail. He was not badly injured, and remounted. The allied right made an angled advance towards Philip but was held by the bishop of Beauvais, who clubbed down and captured the Earl of Salisbury (fighting for the allies). Otto IV was unhorsed but remounted and fled. Renaud de Dammartin (for the allies) fought a last ditch resistance, issuing repeatedly from a circle of pikemen – but numbers told. Most of Renaud’s men were killed and he was captured. The battle lasted three hours. Otto’s eagle standard was damaged and captured. Most major prisoners were ransomed. The defeat of Otto led to his replacement by Frederick II in 1215. Otto retired to Brunswick and died in 1218. Ferrand’s defeat led to the division of Flanders between France and the Empire. Ferrand was not released until 1227, dying a broken man. Renaud, as a traitor, was imprisoned and when it became clear he would never be released he committed suicide. For King John, although not present, the defeat was a disaster, soon followed by Magna Carta. Philip proceeded to a triumph in Paris. The victory sealed his conquest of the Angevin Empire and removed the imperial threat for the rest of the reign.

BRÉMULE, BATTLE OF, 20 AUGUST 1119

Victory for Henry I of England over Louis VI of France. Louis and Fulk V of Anjou invaded Normandy in support of William Clito’s claim to the duchy. Louis headed for Noyon but was seen by Henry’s scouts on the hill at Verclives. They saw the French emerging from the woods and warned Henry, who moved to block them. The site was on a plain near the River Andelle. Henry I dismounted some knights to strengthen the infantry. He led the rear division. The French attacked, losing 80 knights in the first disorderly charge. The second charge broke through the front line but was halted by the dismounted men. Henry advanced into the fray. He was wounded by a blow on the helmet but survived. An attack by a reserve force (probably cavalry) under Henry’s sons decided the battle. The French broke and fled. Louis got lost in a wood but was led to safety at Les Andelys by a peasant. One chronicler said that French knights were captured, rather than killed, on Christian principles. Louis’ standard was captured. Henry went on to a triumph in Rouen. His control of Normandy was secured.

BRETEUIL, SIEGE OF, 1356

Besieged by King John II of France from 26 July after he had taken Evreux. He used engines and a three-storey belfry with 200 men on each level and loopholes for archers. Peasants collected wood to fill the moat, covering it with earth and straw so the belfry could cross. The Navarrese garrison, allied to the English, halted the belfry with cannons and Greek Fire. It caught fire and was abandoned. Breteuil surrendered on 20 August, the garrison paid off and allowed to go.

CAEN, SIEGES OF, 1346, 1417, 1450

City and castle in western Normandy at the junction of the Orne and the Odon, vital in the Hundred Years’ War. Edward III besieged it in 1346 on his Crécy campaign, approaching by land and water. The garrison included Genoese crossbowmen. The town was stormed on 26 July and many inhabitants killed. The castle surrendered on terms. Henry V besieged Caen in 1417 during his conquest of Normandy. He camped in monastic buildings. He used a collapsible bridge to cross the river. Defenders placed bowls of water on the walls to detect mining attempts. English scaling ladders proved too short. Caen was stormed on 4 September. Two hundred French were killed in the market place. The castle surrendered on terms on 20 September. Henry went on to conquer Normandy. In 1450 the French besieged Caen from June and recovered it from the English in the reconquest of Normandy. Somerset retreated to Caen from Rouen. The French bombarded with cannons for three weeks. One cannonball entered the chamber where Somerset’s wife and children were staying. They survived but Somerset surrendered. By the end of the year Normandy was lost.

CALAIS, SIEGE OF, 1346–7

Besieged by Edward III from 4 September 1346 after Crécy. Calais belonged to the county of Boulogne. The English fleet arrived to blockade but was defeated by a Genoese fleet for France. Calais’ defence was commanded by the Burgundian Jean de Vienne; 1,700 poor were expelled and allowed to pass through, provided with food. Cannons were brought from London and siege engines built. A ‘new town’ was constructed for the besiegers. Philip VI’s attempts at relief in October 1346, May and July 1347 all failed. Calais surrendered on 4 August 1347. Edward demanded six leading citizens to execute. Six burghers with ropes round their necks approached Edward’s Queen, Philippa of Hainault, and gained from her an appeal for mercy – probably staged to enhance Edward’s reputation. The ordinary citizens were expelled and replaced by an English garrison. Calais remained English longer than any continental possession, until 1558 under Mary I.

CANDÉ, SIEGE OF, 1106

Marked by the death of Geoffrey Martel II, son and heir of Fulk IV count of Anjou. Candé lies on the Loire and the Angevins sought to control it. Geoffrey besieged Candé against Norman of Montevrault. He stormed and took the castle. During peace negotiations Geoffrey was treacherously shot in the arm by a crossbow bolt and died the next day. His brother Fulk V succeeded to Anjou in 1109.

CASSEL, BATTLES OF, 22 FEBRUARY 1071, 23 AUGUST 1328

In 1071 Flemings under Arnulf III count of Flanders, allied with Philip I of France, defeated Robert the Frisian, Arnulf’s rival. Cassel, then in Flanders, is now in northern France. Arnulf had become count in the previous year. He was killed at Cassel. Philip recognised Robert the Frisian as count. In 1328 Philip VI defeated Flemings rebelling against French rule. The Flemings stood on a hill but chose to attack. The French took their revenge for Courtrai and thousands were killed. Louis of Nevers was restored as Count of Flanders. To commemorate the victory Philip had a statue of himself erected at Notre-Dame in Paris.

CASTILLON, BATTLE OF, 17 JULY 1453

Battle that ended the Hundred Years’ War. The English commander was John Talbot earl of Shrewsbury. The French were under Jean de Bueil. Castillon is on the Dordogne. Talbot sought to recover Bordeaux. The French built a camp outside Castillon, which they were besieging. The camp, between the Dordogne and the Lidoire, was designed by Jean Bureau, protected by 300 cannons. The French had 700 handgunners. Talbot unwisely attempted to storm the camp and his force was decimated by the guns. Talbot was an obvious target with his white hair, purple hat and scarlet gown. He lacked armour, having sworn on release from captivity not to appear against the French in arms. A Breton force came to aid the French and the battle was soon concluded. Talbot’s horse was hit and fell, trapping him underneath. He was despatched with a battleaxe. The corpse was returned to Shropshire. In 1860 the tomb was opened and the skull was found to have been split by a blow. Castillon surrendered and then Bordeaux. There was no treaty but the war was over.

CHÂTEAU-GAILLARD, SIEGE OF, 1203–4

Besieged and taken by Philip Augustus during his conquest of Normandy. The castle was built in 1196–8 by Richard the Lionheart on a cliff over the Seine by the Norman border at Les Andelys. Philip arrived in August 1203. The castle was held for King John by Roger de Lacy. John attempted relief with a land and river attack that failed. He returned to England. The outer bailey was mined in February 1204. The middle bailey was entered through a garderobe chute. The inner bailey was mined, the besiegers sheltering behind the rock bridge leading to it. The defenders surrendered on 8 March 1204. Within a year Philip held Normandy, and most of the Angevin Empire followed suit.

CONQUEREUX (CONQUEREUIL), BATTLE OF, 27 JUNE 992

Fought near Nantes between the Bretons under Conan I and the Angevins under Fulk Nerra. Some Bretons dismounted to fight on foot, an early example of the tactic. Fulk, seeking to expand Angevin power, intervened in Brittany to support the nephew of Guerech count of Nantes (killed in 988). The Breton tactic failed. Conquereux was the first in a series of victories by Fulk, aiding the growth of Anjou.

COURTRAI (THE GOLDEN SPURS), BATTLE OF, 11 JULY 1302

Defeat by the Flemish of the French under Robert of Artois for Philip IV. It followed the revolt of the Matins of Bruges. The Flemings besieged Courtrai whose castle was held by the French. The French attempted relief. A Flemish force, called ‘weavers, fullers and the common folk’, assembled under Guy of Namur, William of Jülich and Jean de Renesse. The Flemish army consisted mainly of citizen militias, infantry armed with crossbows and goedendags. The Flemings protected their position with ditches. The French charged but, faced by ditches and pikes, failed to break through. The garrison sortied against the Flemish rear but was beaten back. Robert led the rearguard into the fray. His horse was hit and he was dragged off and killed. Courtrai demonstrated the value of infantry against cavalry. The battle was known as that of the Golden Spurs, because 700 pairs were taken from French corpses as trophies. The defeat shocked France, but Philip IV gained his revenge at Mons-en-Pévèle.

CRAVANT, BATTLE OF, 31 JULY 1423

An English victory in the Hundred Years’ War. The English were commanded by the Earl of Salisbury and fought in alliance with Burgundy. Charles VII invaded Burgundy with Scottish allies, besieging Cravant on the frontier by the Yonne. Salisbury came to its relief. The French held the high ground but came down to the river. Covered by shots from his archers, Salisbury crossed the Yonne to attack. The English garrison made a sortie. The Count of Ventadour and the Scot Sir John Stewart, who lost an eye, were captured.

CRÉCY, BATTLE OF, 26 AUGUST 1346

Victory of Edward III over Philip VI in the Hundred Years’ War, the first major victory of the war. Edward took Caen and marched north to escape pursuit by a larger army. He crossed the Somme ford at Blanchetaque but was caught at Crécy by the River Maie. The English took a defensive position. The French used Genoese crossbowmen but rain lessened the effectiveness of their bows. The French charged through their failed archers to be halted by longbows and the ditches Edward had dug. Horses piled up ‘like a litter of piglets’. Fifteen charges were made and all failed. The English used a few cannons but with little effect. The Black Prince was knocked down but saved by his standard-bearer. Philip VI was wounded in the neck by an arrow but escaped. The French losses were high, the English slight. Blind King John of Bohemia and Louis de Nevers count of Flanders were killed fighting for the French. Edward continued his march to Calais.

FALAISE, SIEGE OF, 1418–19

The castle near Caen, where William the Conqueror was conceived and born, was besieged in December 1418 during Henry V’s conquest of Normandy. It was defended by Olivier de Maunay, Charles VII’s standard-bearer. The English built huts against the icy weather. Henry’s guns brought down the clock tower and breached the wall. The town surrendered on 2 January but the castle resisted. Blockade eventually succeeded and the garrison surrendered on 16 February. A captured Welsh captain, Edward ap Gruffydd, was hanged, drawn and quartered as a traitor. Falaise was recovered by the French in 1450 after a siege.

FORMIGNY, BATTLE OF, 15 APRIL 1450

Defeat for the English in the final stages of the Hundred Years’ War near Bayeux, for which the English were heading. The French were under Clermont, the English under Thomas Kyriell. The English took a defensive position and held early French attacks. The main conflict was over the English attempt to capture French cannons. A second French force arrived under Constable Richemont. It attacked from the flank and won the battle. Kyriell was captured, Normandy lost.

FRÉTEVAL, BATTLE OF, 3 JULY 1194

Defeat for Philip Augustus by Richard the Lionheart. Richard sought to recover ground lost in France during his captivity after the Third Crusade. Philip tried to avoid battle but Richard caught him near Vendôme. Richard attacked the French rearguard and captured the baggage train, including the royal archives, the royal seal, and letters revealing treachery by Angevin nobles. Fréteval was a skirmish rather than a battle and Philip, who was not involved in the fighting, escaped. Philip entered a church to pray while Richard chased elsewhere on false information. Fréteval assisted Richard’s recovery of territory.

GISORS, BATTLE OF, 28 SEPTEMBER 1198

Victory of Richard the Lionheart over Philip Augustus. Gisors was a major castle on the Norman frontier. Richard de Vaux started to build a castle at Vaux for Philip in 1186, to threaten Gisors. Henry de Vere, castellan of Gisors, declared he would destroy it. The French came out to protect the building work and a skirmish followed in which Richard de Vaux’ son Ralph was killed. Henry fled to Richard the Lionheart for protection. In 1193 Philip invaded Normandy and captured Gisors, which surrendered. In 1198 Richard invaded the Vexin and a skirmish occurred involving Philip Augustus. Philip was attempting to reach Gisors with a small force of 200 knights when Richard caught him. It was a minor victory for Richard since Philip escaped to Gisors. The incident is remembered because, as the surviving French knights crossed the bridge over the Epte into Gisors, it broke. Philip was among those who fell into the water. Eighteen were drowned. Philip was dragged to safety and soon moved on. Angevin chroniclers ridiculed Philip but it was an embarrassment rather than a serious defeat. Philip still held Gisors.

HARFLEUR, SIEGE OF, 1415

Besieged by Henry V from 13 August at the start of his invasion of Normandy. Harfleur is now part of Le Havre. Henry was well provided with arms and siege equipment. His fleet prevented approach from the sea. Harfleur had two and a half miles of walls. The French dammed the River Lézarde, creating marshy ground for the attackers. A relief force of 300 broke through to aid the defence. Henry bombarded with guns, including London and Messenger. The weather worsened and many besiegers sickened and died. The French agreed to surrender in three days if no help came. Harfleur fell on 22 September, providing a base for the conquest of Normandy.

HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE (ROUVRAY), 12 FEBRUARY 1429

Defeat of the French by English heading for Orléans. An English supply train (with wagons full of herrings) under Sir John Fastolf was attacked by French under Clermont, with allied Scots under Sir John Stuart, between Rouvray and Janville. Fastolf made a barricade with wagons, protected by archers and stakes. The French attacked with guns while the Scots charged on foot. They were held and Stuart was killed. Fastolf’s charge decided the battle. The English continued their march to Orléans with the supplies. The victory gave false hope since Joan of Arc was about to emerge from obscurity.

JACQUERIE, THE, 1358

Political and economic reasons provoked this French Peasants’ Revolt, following French defeats in the Hundred Years’ War, the capture of the French king, the Black Death, and pillaging and disorder caused by mercenary companies. The name comes from calling a typical peasant ‘Jacques Bonhomme’. The peasants assembled on 28 May at St-Leu in the Beauvaisis. They marched on the local lord’s residence, killing him and his family. A protest movement turned into violence throughout northern France. A leader emerged in Guillaume Cale from Picardy. Attacks were made on castles and noble residences with looting, killing and rape. Compiègne was besieged but held out. In June the revolt was crushed by the nobles under Charles of Navarre. Cale was treacherously captured at a ‘parley’. He was crowned with a ring of red-hot iron and beheaded. Peasants were massacred at Meaux and Clermont-en-Beauvaisis. There were troubles in Paris where Étienne Marcel was killed in riots in July.

LAON, SIEGE OF, 986–7

Besieged by Hugh Capet against the Carolingian Charles duke of Lower Lorraine. Charles entered the city and imprisoned its bishop. Hugh came to recover it in the autumn but decided it was too late in the year for a siege. He returned next spring. The bishop escaped from the tower by sliding down a rope and joined Hugh. When Hugh returned he used an engineer to build a belfry but the slope to the walls was too steep. One night Hugh’s troops drank too much wine. The garrison took advantage to sortie, firing the besiegers’ camp. Hugh abandoned the siege though he eventually triumphed over Charles to found the Capetian dynasty.

LA ROCHELLE, SIEGE AND NAVAL BATTLE OF, 1372

La Rochelle was besieged by the French under Du Guesclin. Enrique II of Castile, allied to France, defeated the English relief fleet under the Earl of Pembroke. Pembroke was captured and taken to Spain. The mayor of La Rochelle, Jean Caudourier, tricked the illiterate English commander Philip Mansel, inviting him to dinner to show him a letter supposedly from Edward III. Mansel could not read and believed what the mayor said – that the king ordered him to parade outside the castle. The English paraded in the town square and were set upon. They surrendered and the mayor handed town and castle to Du Guesclin, contributing to French recovery of morale and territory.

LIÈGE, SIEGE OF, 1468

Besieged by Charles the Bold duke of Burgundy from 1467, in alliance with a reluctant Louis XI. Liège rebelled against Burgundy in 1467, repeating the offence in 1468. The Burgundians made four expeditions against Liège in four years, culminating in 1468. It was winter and there was deep mud around the gates. On the night of 29 October Charles and Louis were nearly captured by a sortie made while courtiers were playing dice. Men were losing fingers from frostbite. The besiegers made a surprise attack on Sunday 30 October, taking the city. They found tables laid for Sunday dinner. Charles killed one of his own men for plundering a church on the Sabbath. The city was fired and buildings fell. The attackers found the wine frozen and carried it off in chunks. Louis XI, forced to accompany Charles, now returned to Paris. Relations with Charles worsened rather than improved.

MAURON, BATTLE OF, 14 AUGUST 1352

Victory for the party favoured by England in Brittany early in the Hundred Years’ War. The site was on the Breton border by the River Ivel. The English were under Sir Walter Bentley, the French under Guy de Nesle. De Nesle raided Brittany and was halted near Rennes. Both sides dismounted some cavalry to fight on foot. The English took a defensive position. French cavalry on their right forced the opposing archers to flee. The English centre advanced to decide the battle. Eighty-nine members of the French Order of the Star, forbidden by its rules to retreat, were killed. Guy de Nesle was killed. Bentley was wounded. Thirty English archers who had fled were arrested by their own side and beheaded next day. The French withdrew from Brittany.

MEAUX, SIEGE OF, 1421–2

Besieged by Henry V from 6 October 1421. Meaux stands on either side of the Marne. It was the last major stronghold resisting Henry in northern France. Juvenal, on Henry’s firing of the neighbourhood, wrote ‘war without fire is like sausages without mustard’. The garrison under the Bastard de Vaurus acted ruthlessly, hanging captives from an elm. Eighty bodies hung there when Henry arrived. Henry resided in the abbey of St Faro and built huts for his men. He made a bridge of boats for communication over the river. Sir John Cornwall’s son was decapitated by a cannonball and Cornwall swore never again to fight Christians. Henry became ill. The defenders put a donkey on the wall and made it bray, saying this was their king, Charles VI. The trumpeter Orace blew raspberries at Henry through his instrument. Guy de Nesle attempting relief fell from a ladder into the moat and was captured. The English took the town. The French retreated to the Market, a fortified island, but surrendered on 10 May 1422. The Bastard was beheaded, his body hanged on the elm. The trumpeter Orace was taken to Paris and executed. The main significance of Meaux was that Henry never recovered from his illness and died in August, a blow to English progress in the war.

MONS-EN-PÉVÈLE, BATTLE OF, 18 AUGUST 1304

Victory of Philip IV of France over the Flemish under William of Jülich, Philip’s revenge for Courtrai in 1302. The battle site is between Douai and Lille. Philip advanced to Flanders. The Flemish infantry took a defensive position. Philip was reluctant to attack and the Flemish advanced to provoke battle. It was so hot that men on both sides died of sunstroke. The French used cavalry in flank attacks. The Flemish broke into the French baggage train and Philip was unhorsed and had to defend himself with an axe passed to him. A knight who gave his horse to the king was decapitated. Philip’s horse bolted but he was safe. The French charged. William of Jülich was killed. The Flemings withdrew from the field but both sides suffered heavy losses.

MONTBOYAU (LA MOTTE-MONTBOYAU), SIEGE OF, 1026

The castle with a motte (now St-Cyr-sur-Loire) was built near Tours by Fulk Nerra in 1017, to threaten Blesevin Tours. Odo II of Blois besieged Montboyau (possibly for a second time). He built a belfry but it collapsed, killing the men inside, and was fired by the defenders. Fulk diverted Odo’s attention by attacking Saumur. In the peace settlement Fulk agreed to dismantle Montboyau but kept Saumur. An early example of a battle with a feigned flight occurred during fighting over Montboyau. Odo II of Blois later captured Montboyau and built a new wooden tower.

MONTLHÉRY, BATTLE OF, 16 JULY 1465

An indecisive battle in the War of the Public Weal, a rebellion against Louis XI of France. The site is south of Paris. The rebels allied with Charles the Bold. Louis hoped to avoid battle. Both sides used archers, the Burgundians copying English methods with dismounted men-at-arms. Charles was hit in the stomach by a pike, leaving a bruise that was evident in the evening – the pikeman was cut down. Charles was also cut on the throat by a sword, leaving a scar for life. The battle was technically a victory for the rebels who held the field when Louis returned to Paris.

MONTREUIL-BELLAY, SIEGE OF, 1149–51

Besieged by Geoffrey V of Anjou for nearly three years. Its lord Gerard Berlai rebelled. Montreuil-Bellay had double walls and a keep ‘rising to the stars’, isolated from approach by a chasm. Geoffrey ordered men from the fair at Saumur to bring stones and rubbish to drop in the chasm for a bridge. He breached the wall but it was patched overnight. Reading Vegetius, Geoffrey had the idea of using Greek Fire, which he hurled in pots from throwing engines. Geoffrey broke in and captured the castle – the first time Greek Fire was used in the west, knowledge of it probably coming from the Holy Land (Geoffrey’s father was Fulk king of Jerusalem).

MORLAIX, BATTLE OF, 30 SEPTEMBER 1342

First main land battle in the Hundred Years’ War, a partial victory for the English. The English and French supported opposing rivals for control of Brittany. Morlaix was a fortified port on the Breton coast, north of Brest. The English expeditionary force under the Earl of Northampton besieged the French garrison from 3 September. Charles of Blois, the French candidate for the duchy, came from Guingamp to relieve Morlaix. The English used archers with dismounted men-at-arms, a tactic that would become familiar. They took a defensive position near woods with ditches and a stream protecting their front. The French attacked in waves. Some were dismounted to fight on foot but their cavalry was halted by hidden trenches. English longbows proved more effective than Genoese crossbowmen for the French. The English ran out of arrows and retreated into the woods but Charles had withdrawn. Morlaix was neither relieved by Charles nor taken by Northampton.

MURET, BATTLE OF, 12 SEPTEMBER 1213

During the Albigensian Crusade, part of a frontier conflict between France and Aragón. Muret was a fortified town at the junction of the Louge and Garonne, south of Toulouse. Simon de Montfort the Elder commanded the crusaders. His opponents included southern French under Raymond VI count of Toulouse and Pedro II king of Aragón. Simon’s garrison held Muret. The allied force came to recover Toulouse. Simon arrived to relieve his men and entered Muret, only to find himself shut in. Simon sortied at dawn. He enticed the enemy to attack a gate that was deliberately opened. Simon meanwhile appeared behind his opponents, who were routed. Pedro was slain by a group of knights who had sworn to kill him. Civil war followed in Aragón where Pedro’s son Jaime I emerged successful. Muret aided the Capetian domination of southern France.

NEUSS, SIEGE OF, 1474–5

Besieged by Charles the Bold duke of Burgundy from 20 July 1474. Neuss is near Düsseldorf. The defenders used a three-stage rota system of duty. In May 1475 Frederick III (HRE) attempted relief but failed. Charles built a grue (a type of crane) to lower a ladder on the wall. The grue stuck in the mud and caused hilarity among the defenders. Neuss held out. On 13 June 1475 Charles abandoned the siege after a wasted year. The failure presaged his fate at the hands of the Swiss.

ORLÉANS, SIEGE OF, 1428–9

The turning point in the Hundred Years’ War with the emergence of Joan of Arc. Orléans on the Loire marked the frontier between the English-held north and the lands controlled by Charles VII. The siege began on 7 October 1428. On 3 November the English commander, the Earl of Salisbury, was hit by debris from a cannonball shot and died eight days later. Talbot took over. The English constructed forts around the city. An English supply train broke through after winning the Herrings in 1429. Joan of Arc appeared, having persuaded Charles VII to appoint her to a military position. She entered the city on a white horse. The French took the fort at St Loup on 4 May. The English in the fort of Les Tourelles, by the bridge, surrendered on 7 May. Next day the siege was abandoned. Joan of Arc was wounded at Orléans but the victory boosted French morale.

PATAY, BATTLE OF, 18 JUNE 1429

A French victory confirming the change of fortunes marked by the English failure to take Orléans. Patay is north of Orléans. The French under the Duke of Alençon pursued the retreating English under Lord Talbot. Joan of Arc fought here, having encouraged the French to attack. The English archers were surrounded and Talbot was captured. Sir John Fastolf escaped only to have his Order of the Garter taken away, though later restored. Charles VII went to Reims for his coronation.

POITIERS, BATTLE OF, 19 SEPTEMBER 1356

Victory of the Black Prince over the French in the Hundred Years’ War. The Black Prince led a chevauchée from Gascony. At Maupertuis (possibly La Cardinerie) near Poitiers he was faced by the French under King John II. Edward tried to avoid battle but the French attacked during his march. He formed a defensive position with archers on the wings, using a hedge as protection. The French could not break through. The English became short of arrows and archers ran forward to retrieve some. Edward’s ally, the captal de Buch, led a reserve force behind a hill to attack the French by surprise from the rear. At the same time the Black Prince advanced. The French broke and fled into Poitiers. John and his son Philip were captured. John was imprisoned in the Tower. The first phase of the war was soon brought to an end.

RENNES, SIEGE OF, 1356–7

Besieged by Henry duke of Lancaster in the Hundred Years’ War. Rennes was the chief target from 3 October. Storm, mining and bombardment by throwing engines all failed. The winter was harsh. Lancaster raided around. The young Du Guesclin harried the English from outside their lines. The English John Bolton went hawking and caught six partridges. He approached the walls and offered to sell them so ladies of the town could be fed. Olivier de Mauny offered to fight a duel for them and swam over the moat. Olivier was wounded but won and returned with the birds. Later Olivier became ill and Bolton persuaded Lancaster to let him through the lines for medical attention. Lancaster was ordered to abandon the siege by Edward III but refused. On 5 July 1357, with a relief force under Charles of Blois approaching, the siege was abandoned. Lancaster arranged a face-saving ceremony in which he received the city keys and returned them. Du Guesclin offered him a drink that was accepted and the English departed. The city voted Du Guesclin 200 livres per annum.

ROCHE-DERRIEN, LA, SIEGE AND BATTLE OF, 1347

Conflict in the early Hundred Years’ War in Brittany. Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI, besieged La Roche-Derrien near Bégard by the River Jaudi. He used nine large engines and hit the governor Richard Totsham’s house with a 300-pound stone. The English attempted relief under Sir Thomas Dagworth. He attacked from an unexpected direction on 20 June. The initial impact wore off. Dagworth was wounded and captured but soon rescued. The English garrison sortied and captured Charles of Blois. The siege was abandoned. Later the French took La Roche-Derrien and massacred its garrison.

ROOSEBEKE (WESTROZEBEKE), BATTLE OF, 27 NOVEMBER 1382

Victory by the French under Charles VI over rebel Flemings under Philip van Artevelde, ‘regent’ of Flanders – known by his enemies as ‘Filthy Phil’. The Flemings besieged Oudenaarde in Flanders, held by a French garrison. Philip the Bold duke of Burgundy appealed to the French, who came to its relief. They met the Flemish army, mainly militia from Ghent, on the plain of Roosebeke. The French dismounted men in the centre, with cavalry on the wings. The Flemish drove into the French centre but did not break through. They became vulnerable to attack from the flank. Some, including Van Artevelde, were crushed to death. His unwounded body was brought before Charles VI, who kicked it and hanged it from a tree. Ghent continued to resist with aid from England. The war concluded in the duke’s favour in 1385.

ROUEN, SIEGES OF, 1418–19, 1449

Besieged by Henry V from 29 July 1418 during his invasion of Normandy. He crossed the Seine, isolating the city, and began a blockade. A chain was placed to stop the French coming down the Seine from Paris. A contemporary verse described the state of the defenders: ‘They ate up dogs, they ate up cats, / They ate up mice, horses and rats’. Girls sold their bodies for a crust of bread. The poor were sent out. Henry would not let them through though he provided food at Christmas. A Burgundian relief force abandoned its attempt. Rouen surrendered on 19 January 1419. Henry entered wearing black and gold, on a black horse. He soon completed his conquest of Normandy. Charles VII recovered Rouen in 1449. The Duke of Somerset took refuge there. The French battered with cannons while the citizens attacked the English garrison. Rouen surrendered on 29 October. Somerset was allowed to leave. The citizens made a mechanical stag that bowed its knees when Charles VII entered. Normandy had been recovered by the French.

SAINTES, BATTLE OF, 22 JULY 1242

Defeat of Henry III by Louis IX. Henry in alliance with French rebels, including the counts of La Marche and Toulouse, sought to regain lost territory. Taillebourg surrendered to Louis. On 21 July the two forces skirmished outside Taillebourg and the English retreated to Saintes. The armies were on opposite sides of the Charente, which Louis crossed by two bridges, one at Taillebourg, the other that he constructed. The English retreated to Blaye. Saintes surrendered to Louis and the rebels submitted. Henry’s invasion had failed.

ST-POL DE LÉON, BATTLE OF, 9 JUNE 1346

Victory for the English in Brittany under Sir Thomas Dagworth against Charles of Blois in the Hundred Years’ War. One of several battles early in the war when the French dismounted cavalry to fight on foot – a tactic formerly ascribed to the English in the period. Charles of Blois blocked Dagworth’s march. The English were outnumbered and took a defensive position on a hill. A series of attacks until late in the day were held off. The French withdrew.

SLUYS (SLUIS), NAVAL BATTLE OF, 24 JUNE 1340

English victory at the start of the Hundred Years’ War. Edward III’s invasion force met a combined French and Genoese fleet off the port of Sluys (now in the Netherlands, then a harbour for Bruges) on the coast of Flanders. Neither of the French admirals, Quiéret and Béhuchet, were seamen. It was fought like a land battle, the French anchored in position by chained lines. English longbows made their first vital impact on the war. The archers were placed as on land, on the wings, with men-at-arms in a central squadron. After the archers’ barrage, the French were boarded; 190 French and Genoese ships were captured. Both French admirals were captured and executed. So many French were pushed in the sea, it was said if fish could speak they could have learned French. Control of the sea aided England’s subsequent successes.

THURIE (TERRY), SIEGE OF, c.1370

A castle near Albi captured by the bascot (bastard) de Mauléon, a Gascon mercenary. Among his employers were the captal de Buch and the Black Prince. The bascot disguised himself and six others as women with handkerchiefs over their faces, taking pitchers from the well and using falsetto voices so they would be let in. They then blew a horn, summoning their friends from outside. The bascot profited from the venture and told the tale to Jean Froissart at an inn with the sign of the Moon at Orthez in 1388, when Froissart says the bascot was about 50. Froissart did not date the event.

VALMONT, BATTLE OF, 11 MARCH 1416

The Earl of Dorset raided through Normandy after Agincourt. Near Valmont his march was blocked by French under Constable Bernard count of Armagnac. Dorset took a defensive position with dismounted men-at-arms and archers, planting stakes before his front. Dorset was badly wounded. After resisting charges, he formed his small force to face outwards (comparable to Scottish schiltrom and Flemish pike formations). Darkness fell and Dorset withdrew. Two days later near the Seine the English were caught by the French, who charged expecting easy victory but were defeated. When Armagnac arrived with more troops, the English charged and routed them. The English, battered but victorious, reached Rouen.

VERNEUIL, BATTLE OF, 17 AUGUST 1424

Victory of John duke of Bedford (regent for Henry VI) over the French under the Count of Aumâle. The French marched from Tours, with allied Scottish archers under Alexander earl of Douglas and Lombard cavalry. They were let into Verneuil on the Avre in south-east Normandy. The armies met north of Verneuil as the English emerged from the forest of Piseux. Bedford assumed a formation of dismounted men-at-arms and archers, with stakes as protection. Bedford dismounted. The English did not attack until four in the afternoon. The Lombard cavalry broke the English archers on the left and attacked the baggage camp, but the main army held firm to win the subsequent conflict. Aumâle and Douglas were killed. Captain Young fled the field to announce premature news of defeat. He was hanged, drawn and quartered. It was an English triumph but was soon reversed. Charles VII lost his main army but Joan of Arc was about to appear.