1. Quote from Logue to John M. Golden, September 25, 1953, EJL, Series 4, Box 26, Folder 56. For more on Logue’s involvement in the Lee campaign, see Chester Kerr to Logue, October 7, 1953, EJL, Series 4, Box 27, Folder 67; and Logue to Chester Bowles, October 19, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 13, Folder 10, where Logue is listed as a member of the Executive Committee of Independents for Lee.
2. Mayor Richard C. Lee, Speech to the New Haven Board of Aldermen, November 11, 1960, in Fred Powledge, Model City: A Test of American Liberalism; One Town’s Efforts to Rebuild Itself (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), 42. Lee used versions of this phrase frequently; also see Allan R. Talbot, The Mayor’s Game: Richard Lee of New Haven and the Politics of Change (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 88. So did Logue; see Logue, interview, Schussheim, 20.
3. Logue frequently described his home as “without racial prejudice” in oral histories; see, for example, Logue, interview, Schussheim, 2.
4. Logue quote in Ruth Knack, “Edward Logue, AICP,” Planning 64, no. 4 (April 1998): 16.
5. Ellen Logue (sister), interview by Lizabeth Cohen, April 13, 2008, Berkeley, CA. Later in life, Logue credited Philadelphia with sparking his interest in urban design, “a city not without style and grace” where “I went to school in Rittenhouse Square and learned at a formative age what a delightful place a modest public square can be”; Logue, “The Education of an Urban Administrator,” in The Universitas Project: Solutions for a Post-Technological Society, conceived and directed by Emilio Ambasz (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2006), 177.
6. Ellen Logue, interview; “Requiem Mass Celebrated for Sister Maria Kostka,” Catholic Standard and Times (Philadelphia), January 10, 1958.
7. On Logue’s youth in Philadelphia, see Logue, interview, Jones, Tape 5:13–34; Paul Hogan, Philadelphia Boyhood: Growing Up in the 1930s (Vienna, VA: Holbrook and Kellogg, 1995); Ellen Logue, interview; Frank Logue, “From Yale to City Hall, and Back Again,” Yale Herald, December 6, 2002; Seymour “Spence” Toll to Margaret Logue, January 28, 2000, MDL. Toll, a high school friend of brother John, recalled “the years of terrible financial stress” during the Logues’ youth.
8. On religious and class discrimination at Yale, see George Wilson Pierson, A Yale Book of Numbers: Historical Statistics of the College and University 1701–1976 (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1983), 85, 87, 89, 96, 127; Dan A. Oren, Joining the Club: A History of Jews and Yale (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, in cooperation with the American Jewish Archives, 1985), 70–71, 91–93, 181–82, 348n19; Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005), 200–219; Marcia Graham Synnott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979), xviii, 14, 128, 131–32, 218; Geoffrey Kabaservice, “The Birth of a New Institution: How Two Yale Presidents and Their Admissions Directors Tore Up the ‘Old Blueprint’ to Create a Modern Yale,” Yale Alumni Magazine, December 1999, http://
Thomas Bergin (Class of ’25, Ph.D. ’29), a New Haven High School graduate who attended Yale in the 1920s and felt excluded from the dominant prep-school culture, appreciated how much the college system improved the social experience of “the plebian class” when he returned as a professor in 1948. Nonetheless, when Anthony Astrachan (’52), a Jewish student from Stuyvesant High School in New York City, arrived that same year, he still encountered discrimination: “If you did not request specific roommates, the Yale of 1948 automatically put four Jewish strangers together. This concern for our comfort discomfited us by telling us we were all outsiders”; Thomas Bergin, “My Native Country,” and Anthony Astrachan, “Class Notes,” in My Harvard, My Yale, ed. Diana Dubois (New York: Random House, 1982), 160–67, 212.
9. John Arcudi, interview by Deborah Sue Elkin, December 16, 1997, “Bridgeport Working: Voices from the 20th Century Oral History Project,” Bridgeport Public Library, transcript, 6, 10–13, 56; for the La Guardia rally and Winchester strike, Logue, interview by Deborah Sue Elkin, September 18, 1993, New Haven, CT, transcript from Elkin, 28–30; Bud Scher to Margaret, Frank, and John Logue, February 4, 2000, MDL.
10. On the Labor Party of the Yale Political Union, see Deborah Sue Elkin, “Labor and the Left: The Limits of Acceptable Dissent at Yale University, 1920s to 1950s” (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1995), 51.
11. FBI, Report from New Haven, November 1, 1951, for United States Civil Service Commission, Security Clearance File, obtained under a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request on April 20, 2009, received on September 18, 2009, 3; Hood to FBI Washington Field, cable November 19, 1951, FOIA; Logue, Elkin interview, 15–16.
12. Logue, interview, Schussheim, 10. Arcudi felt a similar connection to New Haven: “I go to New Haven in 1939, and I don’t have any money, you know? But I had great entertainment, walking around the streets of New Haven”; Arcudi, interview, 56.
13. Quote from Logue, Elkin interview, 2. On Logue’s support of the union cause while a student, see letter to the editor, Yale Daily News, November 4, 1941. At a debate at the Yale Political Union, “Laborite” Logue defended the resolution “Resolved, That Yale C.I.O. employees should have a union shop”; “Moderates Pull Coup; P.U. Upholds ‘Protective Shop,’” Yale Daily News, November 27, 1941.
14. Ellen Logue, interview.
15. MLogue, interview.
16. On Logue’s work as a labor organizer, see YULocal35, Boxes 1 and 3, including Logue to A. D. Lewis, September 8, 1948, Box 1, Folder 3; Elkin, “Labor and the Left,” 48–228; Logue, Elkin interview, 16–18. For conditions of Yale workers, see George Butler, “Yale Needs the C.I.O.,” Nation 146, no. 3 (January 15, 1938): 67–68. On labor in New Haven more broadly, see Frank E. Annunziato, William Carey, and Nick Aiello, Labor Almanac: New Haven’s Unions in the 1990s, a joint project of the Greater New Haven Labor History Association and the Greater New Haven Central Labor Council, AFL-CIO, 1995.
17. Logue to Franklin D. Roosevelt, September 29, 1942, EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 94; Military Intelligence Service, War Department, Washington, DC, to Honorable J. Edgar Hoover, Director, FBI, July 3, 1943, with accompanying report by Intelligence Division, Army Service Forces, June 10, 1943, FOIA.
18. From YULocal35, Box 1, Folder 7: Logue to Member, January 29, 1942; Logue to A. D. Lewis, January 26, 1943: “I am more than happy,” he wrote in his resignation letter, “to fight as a member of the Army Air Corps for our democracy and for the cause of free labor everywhere.”
19. “Master Pieces: Ed Logue Talks with Rebecca Barnes AIA,” AB 1, no. 2 (1998): 32; Logue, “Life as a City Builder—‘Make No Little Plans,’” March 26, 1991, written for Yale Reunion Book, The Yale ’42 Story: 50 Years Out, MDL, 2; “Another Droopsnoot Bombardier Checks In,” Crosshairs, September 1994, 15.
20. On Le Corbusier, see M. Christine Boyer, “Aviation and the Aerial View: Le Corbusier’s Spatial Transformations in the 1930s and 1940s,” diacritics 33, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter 2003): 93–116; quotation in Le Corbusier, trans. Edith Schreiber Aujame, Precisions on the Present State of Architecture and City Planning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991, originally published 1930), 236.
21. Logue to Mary Nelles, November 4, 1944, EJL, Series 1, Box 5, Folder 77; Max Page and Timothy Mennel, eds., Reconsidering Jane Jacobs (Chicago: American Planning Association, 2011), 5–6. For Maurice Rotival’s bird’s-eye viewing, see Rachel D. Carley, “Tomorrow Is Here: New Haven and the Modern Moment,” report prepared for New Haven Preservation Trust, June 2008, 16.
22. Logue’s work as a union organizer from 1946 to 1948 in YULocal35, Box 1, Folders 11, 12, 13, and EJL, Series 1, Box 7, Folders 110–23. For Logue’s appointment as a part-time organizer, see Logue to A. D. Lewis, October 7, 1946, and A. D. Lewis to Logue, November 1, 1946, EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 109, and a detailed paper Logue wrote for Fred Rodell about his efforts, “Organizational Techniques,” April 21, 1947, EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 102.
23. MLogue, interview; Logue’s references for jobs included Rodell, Dean Wesley Sturges, Harry Schulman (a labor arbitrator), and Thomas I. Emerson, probably the most politically radical member of the Yale Law faculty; Glenn Fowler, “Thomas I. Emerson, 83, Scholar Who Molded Civil Liberties Law,” NYT, June 22, 1991.
24. Laura Kalman, Legal Realism at Yale, 1927–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986); Laura Kalman, “Legal Realism,” in The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History, ed. Stanley L. Katz (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Neil Duxbury, “In the Twilight of Legal Realism: Fred Rodell and the Limits of Legal Critique,” Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 11, no. 3 (Autumn 1991): 354–95; Charles Alan Wright, “Goodbye to Fred Rodell,” Yale Law Review Journal 89, no. 8 (July 1980): 1455–62; “Journals of Opinion and the Work of Democracy: A Conversation with Victor S. Navasky,” Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley, http://
25. As early as 1942, Logue spoke out against redbaiting: Logue to A. D. Lewis, October 21, 1942, YULocal35, Box 1, Folder 3: “It is my belief that the labor movement in general can gain nothing by a policy of redbaiting. I don’t like Communists, but there are other ways of getting them out of their positions of power than crying ‘Bolsheviks’ to the general public.” For his efforts to expose Yale’s discriminatory quotas against blacks, Jews, Catholics, and other minorities, as well as politically motivated hiring and firing, see EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 101; Logue to Margaret DeVane, April 23, 1946, EJL, Series 1, Box 3, Folder 31; also Ellen W. Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 67–68, 250–53; and Seymour quote, Crimson, June 4, 1949, 111.
26. On factionalism in the AVC: Logue, “Citizens First, Veterans Second,” Progressive 10, no. 48 (December 16, 1946): 4, 11; Logue, Elkin interview, 32–33. Also, John S. Atlee, “A.V.C. Sets the Pace,” Nation, June 22, 1946, 740–41; “Veterans: ‘Citizens First,’” Time, June 24, 1946, 23–24; Julian H. Franklin, “Why I Broke with the Communists,” Harper’s, May 1947, 412–18; Robert L. Tyler, “The American Veterans Committee: Out of a Hot War and into the Cold,” American Quarterly 18, no. 3 (Fall 1966): 419–36; Robert Francis Saxe, “‘Citizens First, Veterans Second’: The American Veterans Committee and the Challenge of Postwar ‘Independent Progressives,’” War and Society 22, no. 2 (October 2004): 75–94. At nearby Columbia University, the freshman and later prominent sociologist Emmanuel Wallerstein found the AVC to be “the most vibrant political organization on campus” but “torn apart (and destroyed) by this … split”; http://
27. Logue, “Negro Labor: A Call to Action,” Progressive 10, no. 13 (April 1, 1946): 10; Philip Burnham to Edward Logue, April 24, 1946, EJL, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 13.
28. Harold Grabino, interview, March 22, 2006, by telephone, Ruben, transcript, 2.
29. Logue’s “Grades for 1946 Fall Term” included “Property I”; “Grades for 1947 Spring Term” included “Legal Aspects of Community Planning and Development,” EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 98. Logue also took “Law, Science and Policy” under Harold Lasswell in spring 1946; EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 100. In May 1947, he wrote a paper proposing a “labor law firm” to service the legal needs of workers, which began, “The law is a thing that makes rich men richer and poor men poorer”; EJL, Series 1, Box 6, Folder 106. Also, Kalman, Legal Realism at Yale, 176–87.
30. FBI, Report from New Haven, November 1, 1951, FOIA, 4; “Logue, 1942, Succeeds John Clark, as Head of Yale Employees Union,” Yale Daily News, July 6, 1942. Logue’s sister, Ellen, remembered that when his union activity angered Yale alumni in Philadelphia who had funded his scholarship, Ed’s response was, “It’s the right thing to do”; Ellen Logue, interview.
31. Logue to Ellen Logue, April 24, 1947, EJL, Series 1, Box 3, Folder 45.
32. Milton DeVane, interview, April 13, 2006, Ruben, transcript, 26.
33. Allan Talbot, email message to author, June 13, 2007.
34. “Interrogatory No. 5” in “Interrogatory for Edward J. Logue,” eleven questions with responses by Logue, June 23, 1952, to Conrad E. Snow, Chairman, Loyalty Security Board, U.S. Department of State, 1–7, in response to request from Mr. Snow, May 27, 1952, MDL.
35. Logue to M. H. Goldstein, September 15, 1947, EJL, Series 1, Box 2, Folder 28, expressing determination “to take a long look at the Philadelphia City Planning Exhibition.” More on Logue’s visit to the exhibition in EJL, Series 1, Box 5, Folder 83. Quote from “The Better Philadelphia Exhibition: What City Planning Means to You,” 1947, General Pamphlets, Box 521, Temple University Urban Archives, cited in Scott Gabriel Knowles, ed., Imagining Philadelphia: Edmund Bacon and the Future of the City (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 87, also see 29–31, 86–91. In addition, “Philadelphia Plans Again,” Newsletter, Citizens’ Council on City Planning, EJL, Series 1, Box 5, Folder 83.
36. Quote from “Philadelphia Plans Again,” AF 87, no. 6 (December 1947): 66–88.
37. Logue, interview, Schussheim, 12.
38. Logue’s concern over poor housing conditions is in Logue to Richardson Dilworth, November 15, 1948, EJL, Series 1, Box 5, Folder 76. For Logue on the Philadelphia Citizens’ Council on City Planning, see EJL, Series 1, Box 5, Folders 82–83. On the election, see G. Terry Madonna and John Morrison McLarnon III, “Reform in Philadelphia: Joseph S. Clark, Richardson Dilworth, and the Women Who Made Reform Possible, 1947–1949,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 127, no. 1 (June 2003): 57–88.
39. Logue to Fred Rodell, July 31, 1948, Fred Rodell Papers, Haverford College Special Collections, Addition 1927–80, Box 11, Item 105, a remarkable letter in which Logue acknowledges the limitations of Goldstein’s practice and declares, “What I really want to do eventually is get into politics.”
40. Rodell got Logue the job offer from Chester Bowles; Logue, interview by Jean Joyce, May 27, 1974, Bowles, transcript, 2. On the job offer from Humphrey, Logue to Hubert Humphrey, February 16, 1953, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 54. Humphrey’s speech is at http://
41. Chester Bowles, “The Role of the States,” in Two-Thirds of a Nation: A Housing Program, ed. Nathan Straus (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), 236–55; Logue, interview, Steen, December 13, 1983, New York, NY, 3; on Logue’s work on Bowles’s staff, see EJL, Series 2, Boxes 9–12.
42. Logue’s candid assessment of Chester Bowles’s strengths and weaknesses in Logue, second interview by Jean Joyce, October 2, 1976, Essex, CT, Bowles, transcript, passim but particularly 62–63.
43. Bowles wanted Logue’s help in India, but he also wanted Logue to keep an eye on Connecticut politics, “something we must definitely not let slip away from us”; Chester Bowles to Logue, September 18, 1951, EJL, Series 1, Box 1, Folder 12. Logue’s work in India—and the entire Bowles operation there, including a great deal about Point Four and community development—is documented in EJL, Series 3, Boxes 13–22.
44. Conrad E. Snow to Logue, May 17, 1952; quotation from Logue to Conrad E. Snow, June 23, 1952; and attached “Interrogatory for Edward J. Logue,” MDL; Margaret Logue quote from email message to author, December 21, 2005. Finally, in November 1952, Logue received an official letter declaring that he was no security risk to the United States; Carlisle H. Humelsine to Logue, November 3, 1952, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 62.
45. Logue to Tom [?], July 19, 1953, EJL, Series 4, Box 29, Folder 113, 2. The following spring, Logue shared harsh criticisms of McCarthy with his mother: “It is distressing to hear supposedly informed people talking about McCarthy in the way you report. He is a menace to the freedoms all our wars have been supposed to protect. He is a dishonest, immoral man who has brought nothing but evil into American life”; Logue to Resina Logue, May 3, 1954, EJL, Series 4, Box 28, Folder 86.
46. Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 31.
47. “Is One Hundred Years Long Enough?,” Winter 1953, MDL; Penn Kimball to Logue, January 12, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 59; Logue to Paul Hoffman, May 30, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 52, and Logue to Dyke Brown, July 18, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 36, on the hope that the Ford Foundation’s Fund for the Republic will sponsor his idea. Logue was not easily discouraged and reminded Bowles of it when he became a board member of the fund: Logue to Chester Bowles, December 23, 1954, EJL, Series 4, Box 23, Folder 10. While in India, Logue chastised the editor of the embassy’s publication, American Reporter, for failing to tell the whole truth about racial discrimination in America; Logue to Jean Joyce, September 10, 1952, EJL, Series 3, Box 13, Folder 1.
Two civil rights activists of the 1960s also became inspired by their time in India: Harris Wofford, intimate of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr., and Kathleen Neal Cleaver—a Black Panther Party member and the wife of Eldridge Cleaver—who grew up in India while her father, Ernest Neal, a rural sociologist from Tuskegee, worked in community development there. See Ernest Neal to Logue, February 10, 1953, and Logue to Ernest Neal, April 15, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 16, Folder 78, where they discussed Logue’s “Is One Hundred Years Long Enough?”
48. Harry S. Truman, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1949, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, https://
49. On Truman and Point Four, see Bowles, Ambassador’s Report, 323. The Ford Foundation had recently reinvented itself after the death of Henry Ford, Sr., in 1947 as a more ambitious, activist, and international-oriented philanthropy, with a strong commitment to India and Pakistan. A Ford office opened in New Delhi just as the Logues arrived in January 1952; Alice O’Connor, “Community Action, Urban Reform, and the Fight Against Poverty: The Ford Foundation’s Gray Areas Program,” JUH 22, no. 5 (July 1996): 586–95.
50. On Etawah, Faridabad, and Nilokheri, see Bowles, Ambassador’s Report, 197–98, 202; Robert McGill, Report on India, reprints of articles from the Atlanta Constitution, December 1951, 11, 12, 18, 21, 29. The “Guide to Albert Mayer’s Papers on India” (hereafter Mayer) in the University of Chicago’s Special Collections, available online at http://
51. Saunders Redding, An American in India (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954), 21–29. Redding, an African American English professor at Hampton Institute, urged Bowles and Logue to accept Indian neutrality. Bowles elaborates on not requiring too strident an anti-communism from the Indians in Ambassador’s Report, 343. On his personal anti-communism, see Chester Bowles, “‘The Most Powerful Idea in the World,’” NYT Magazine, May 13, 1951, 9, 29, 30.
52. Quotation from Chester Bowles, “Asia Challenges Us Through India,” NYT Magazine, March 23, 1952, 53 (italics in original); Chester Bowles to George V. Allen, March 7, 1953, MDL. On the community development program in India, also see Bowles, Ambassador’s Report, 195–214, 322–47; Cynthia Bowles, At Home in India (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1956), 130–55; Chester Bowles, Promises to Keep: My Years in Public Life, 1941–1969 (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 548–50; Chester Bowles, The Makings of a Just Society: What the Postwar Years Have Taught Us About National Development (Delhi: University of Delhi, 1963), 56–62. For progress reports from 1953, see Jonathan B. Bingham, “The Road Ahead for Point Four,” NYT Magazine, May 10, 1953, 12, 65, 67; and from 1955, Chester Bowles, “India Revisited: ‘Spectacular Progress,’” NYT Magazine, April 3, 1955, 13, 63–67; Howard B. Schaffer, Chester Bowles: New Dealer in the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 63–79. For an excellent overview, see Dennis Merrill, Bread and the Ballot: The United States and India’s Economic Development, 1947–1963 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1990), 76–93, 121–25, 141–43, 162–79, 206–7. A thorough collection of sources is Action for Rural Change: Readings in Indian Community Development (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1970). For astute analyses of the failures of community development, see Bipan Chandra, Aditya Mukherjee, and Mridula Mukherjee, India After Independence (New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2000), 146–48; and Lane E. Holdcroft, “The Rise and Fall of Community Development in Developing Countries, 1950–65: A Critical Analysis and an Annotated Bibliography,” MSU Rural Development Paper No. 2 (1978), Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University. A more strident condemnation of community development, with some useful insights, is Garvin Karunaratne, “The Failure of the Community Development Programme in India,” Community Development Journal 11, no. 2 (1976): 95–118. On the larger context of American development activities, see Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), particularly 75–107 on community development in India. Other works offering important discussions are Daniel Immerwahr, Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), particularly 66–100; Nicole Sackley, “The Village as Cold War Site: Experts, Development, and the History of Rural Reconstruction,” Journal of Global History 6, no. 3 (November 2011): 481–504; and Subir Sinha, “Lineages of the Developmentalist State: Transnationality and Village India, 1900–1965,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50, no. 1 (2008): 57–90.
53. EJL, Series 4, Box 25, Folder 43: Logue to Douglas Ensminger, January 15, 1955; Logue to Ensminger, August 21, 1956; Logue to Allen Wagner, May 8, 1957; “Rough Draft to Hon. Chester Bowles,” May 15, 1957, EJL, Series 4, Box 23, Folder 13, 3–4. In 1956, Logue wrote to two Indian graduate students at Yale, “The program [urban renewal] has very much in common with your country’s community development program, which my wife and I had firsthand opportunity to observe when we were in India three years ago”; Logue to Gurherdial S. Grewal and Kulbir Singh Gill, September 28, 1956, EJL, Series 4, Box 26, Folder 56.
54. The classic text on the agricultural reformers in the New Deal is Richard S. Kirkendall, Social Scientists and Farm Politics in the Age of Roosevelt (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1966). More recent literature on them and their move to the developing world is extensive; see Jess Gilbert, “Agrarian Intellectuals in a Democratizing State: A Collective Biography of USDA Leaders in the Intended New Deal,” in The Countryside in the Age of the Modern State: Political Histories of Rural America, ed. Catherine McNicol Stock and Robert D. Johnston (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), 213–39; Jess Gilbert, “Low Modernism and the Agrarian New Deal: A Different Kind of State,” and Mary Summers, “The New Deal Farm Programs: Looking for Reconstruction in American Agriculture,” in Fighting for the Farm: Rural America Transformed, ed. Jane Adams (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 129–59. Also see Douglas Ensminger, interview by Harry S. Taylor, June 16 and July 7, 1976, Harry S. Truman Library, Columbia, MO. I have benefited enormously from an extensive email exchange with Jess Gilbert, Clifford Kuhn, and Mary Summers.
55. For the Logues’ stay in Japan, see Logue to Ensminger, July 8, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 48; Logue to Bowles Family, July 8, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 13, Folder 10; Logue to Dyke Brown, July 18, 1953, EJL, Series 3, Box 15, Folder 36.
56. “Time of Trial for Wolf Ladejinsky, Land Reform Expert Ousted from Job,” NHR, December 31, 1954; Wolf Ladejinsky to Logue, January 14, 1955; Logue to Ladejinsky, February 6, 1956; Ladejinsky to Logue, February 15, 1956; and Logue to Ladejinsky, March 20, 1956, EJL, Series 4, Box 27, Folder 69; Logue to Ensminger, March 20, 1956, EJL, Series 4, Box 25, Folder 43; Logue to Paul Appleby, March 20, 1956, and Appleby to Logue, March 22, 1956, EJL, Series 4, Box 23, Folder 2; Logue to Chester Bowles, March 27, 1956, EJL, Series 4, Box 23, Folder 12. On Wolf Ladejinsky and his land reform work, see Bowles, Ambassador’s Report, 181, 185, 374; Wolf Isaac Ladejinsky and Louis J. Walinsky, eds., Agrarian Reform as Unfinished Business: The Selected Papers of Wolf Ladejinsky (New York: Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press, 1977), particularly introduction, 2–22; Al McCoy, “Land Reform as Counter-Revolution: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Tenant Farmers of Asia,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 3, no. 1 (Winter–Spring 1971): 24; Cullather, Hungry World, 94–105.
57. Bernard Loshbough quoted in Albert Mayer, “Transplantation of Institutions in Both Directions: Examples from India and the U.S.A.,” Duke University seminar, February 2, 1962, 19, Mayer, Folder 41, in Immerwahr, Thinking Small, 145; on Loshbough’s Pittsburgh work, O’Connor, “Community Action, Urban Reform,” 603, 622n46. Much of the attention to ideas moving from the developing world back to the United States focuses on the poverty programs of the 1960s, not urban renewal and infrastructural improvements; see Immerwahr, Thinking Small; Alyosha Goldstein, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action During the American Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012).
58. Ed Logue wrote something similar in “Life as a City Builder—‘Make No Little Plans’”: “Looking back, my training at Yale, in college and law school, my war-time experience, my service with Chet Bowles in Hartford and New Delhi, prepared me to be a city builder in a new and different way,” 5.
59. This description of New Haven is based on Elizabeth Mills Brown, New Haven: A Guide to Architecture and Urban Design (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976); New Haven Colony Historical Society, New Haven: Reshaping the City, 1900–1980 (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2004); Vincent Scully, Catherine Lynn, Erik Vogt, and Paul Goldberger, Yale in New Haven: Architecture and Urbanism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004); and Douglas W. Rae, City: Urbanism and Its End (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003).
60. Logue to Margaret DeVane, January 1946, EJL, Series 4, Box 4, Folder 56.
61. Robert J. Leeney, Elms, Arms, and Ivy: New Haven in the Twentieth Century (Montgomery, AL: Community Communications, in cooperation with the New Haven Colony Historical Society, 2000), 61, 108.
62. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 16.
63. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961), 120.
64. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 16–17.
65. On Ivy-style dress: “Report by Dahl and Wolfinger, Mayor Richard C. Lee,” May 2, 1958, Dahl, Box 1, Folder “Special Interviews,” 1, 3; Paul Moore, Jr., “A Touch of Laughter,” in My Harvard, My Yale, 20; Horowitz, On the Cusp, 45–53.
66. Quote from John P. Kotter and Paul R. Lawrence, Mayors in Action: Five Approaches to Urban Governance (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 137.
67. NAACP support from Mandi Isaacs Jackson, Model City Blues: Urban Space and Organized Resistance in New Haven (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 65.
68. Logue, interview, Schussheim, 9.
69. Maurice E. H. Rotival to Logue, memorandum, January 15, 1954, “Confidential,” Rotival, Box 37. Lee and Logue began talking to Rotival about assisting with ambitious redevelopment within weeks of Lee’s election; see Logue to Rotival, December 16, 1953, and Rotival to Logue, December 23, 1953, Rotival, Box 37.
70. On the Federal Housing Acts of 1937, 1949, and 1954 and the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, see Susan S. Fainstein and Norman I. Fainstein, “Economic Change, National Policy and the System of Cities” and “New Haven: The Limits of the Local State,” in Susan S. Fainstein, Norman I. Fainstein, Richard Child Hall, Dennis R. Judd, and Michael Peter Smith, Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment, rev. ed. (New York: Longman, 1986), 13, 15, 37, 47.
71. Linda Corman, “Former BRA Head Takes Another Look at the City He Helped Plan,” Banker and Tradesman, October 21, 1987, 6.
72. Logue, “Can Cities Survive Automobile Age? New Haven Used as a Test Case,” Traffic Quarterly 3, no. 2 (April 1959): 175.
73. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 159–61.
74. William Finnegan, Cold New World: Growing Up in a Harder Country (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 34.
75. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 152.
76. Logue, “Can Our Cities Survive?” [1958], EJL, Series 4, Box 23, Folder 19 (draft of what would appear in NYT Magazine, November 9, 1958, as “Urban Ruin—or Urban Renewal?”). Draft text is slightly different than final published version. These quotes from draft, 3.
77. Logue, “Urban Ruin—or Urban Renewal?,” 17.
78. Henry E. and Katharine Pringle, “New Haven,” SEP, May 28, 1949, 126.
79. “Slum-Cut New Haven Sizes Up Logue,” CSM, April 26, 1960; Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 38.
80. Joe Alex Morris, “He Is Saving a ‘Dead’ City,” SEP, April 19, 1958, 118.
81. Logue, “A Marshall Plan for Our Cities,” BG, August 7, 1960.
82. MLogue, interview.
83. Logue, “Can Cities Survive Automobile Age?,” 178. A couple of years earlier, Logue wrote to the architect John Follett, who, with John Graham, was designing the new Malley’s department store: “This opportunity which you as architects and we as administrators now have comes to us in large part from the genius of Maurice Rotival … We have great confidence in his judgment”; Logue to John Follett, July 2, 1957, Rotival, Box 35, Folder “N.H. City, 1956–7.”
84. In a helpful analysis of the multiple Rotival plans, Rico Cedro argues that Rotival’s proposals for New Haven were inspired by Le Corbusier and Manhattan, the epitome for Europeans of the modern city in the 1920s; Rico Cedro, Modern Visions: Twentieth Century Design in New Haven (New Haven, CT: New Haven City Arts Gallery, 1988), 255. Many of Rotival’s plans were rendered in aerial perspective. On Rotival’s career, see Carola Hein, “Maurice Rotival: French Planning on a World-Scale (Part I), Planning Perspectives 17 (2002): 247–65; and Hein, “Maurice Rotival: French Planning on a World Scale (Part II),” Planning Perspectives 17 (2002): 325–44.
85. “New Haven: Test for Downtown Renewal,” AF 109, no. 1 (July 1958): 80.
86. Maynard G. Meyer and Maurice E. H. Rotival, Master Plan, Report to the City Plan Commission (New Haven, CT: New Haven City Plan Commission, 1941); New Haven City Plan Commission, Tomorrow Is Here, 1944; Lloyd B. Reid and Maurice E. H. Rotival, Short Approach Master Plan with Particular Reference to Highway Design and Urban Redevelopment (New Haven, CT: New Haven City Plan Commission, 1953); “Map of New Haven, Including Redevelopment and Renewal Boundaries,” New Haven Redevelopment Agency Records, YMA, Box 319, in Francesca Ammon, “‘Town Living in the Modern Manner’: A History of the Postwar Redevelopment of Downtown High-Rises in New Haven, CT” (seminar paper, Yale University, 2006), 43, in possession of the author.
87. Logue, “Can Cities Survive Automobile Age?,” 176, also passim; on road mileage, Kenneth A. Simon, “Suburbia: The Good Life in Connecticut?,” http://
88. Leeney, Elms, Arms, and Ivy, 58.
89. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Vintage, 1961), 365–68.
90. Quote in “Richard C. Lee, 86, Mayor Who Revitalized New Haven,” NYT, February 4, 2003.
91. Promotional brochure, “The Distinguished Apartment Residence in New Haven: University Towers, 100 York Street,” RCL, Box 29, Folder 29, in Ammon, “‘Town Living in the Modern Manner,’” 17 for quote; 28, 31–33, 48–50 on parking.
92. JJ Papers, Boxes 2, 3, 11, 12 on the Dixwell Project; John M. Johansen, John M. Johansen: A Life in the Continuum of Modern Architecture (Milan: L’Arca Edizioni, 1995), 38; Brown, New Haven, 173, 176; John Johansen, interview by Lizabeth Cohen, November 13, 2010, Wellfleet, MA; Don Metz and Yuji Noga, New Architecture in New Haven (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1966), 18–19; Sherman Hasbrouck, “Transformation: A Summary of New Haven’s Development Program” (M.A. thesis, Yale University, 1965), 55, which notes that utilities were placed underground, common in suburban developments.
93. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003).
94. Harry Barnett, interview by Robert Dahl, August 13, 1957, New Haven, CT, Dahl, Box 1, Folder “Interviews A–H,” 1.
95. On the condition of New Haven retail and competition from suburban stores, see retail trade statistics and details about Hamden Plaza in Jeff Hardwick, “A Downtown Utopia? Suburbanization, Urban Renewal and Consumption in New Haven,” Planning History Studies 10, nos. 1–2 (1996): 43–44; Wolfinger, Politics of Progress, 298–99, 342; and Dahl, Who Governs?, 139. For the breakdown of changes in sales by category of merchandise, see the chart (based on the U.S. Census of Business) in Daniel W. Kops to Mayor Richard C. Lee, May 23, 1957, EJL, Series 5, Box 71, Folder 595. For New Haven’s small share of the area’s growth in retail sales, see “CBD Data from Census Report,” EJL, Series 5, Box 71, Folder 595. Clearly, Logue’s office undertook extensive analysis of New Haven’s retail position. Also, “2 New Haven Stores Battle to Boost Downtown Role,” WWD, December 6, 1961; Samuel Feinberg, “From Where I Sit,” WWD, November 8, 1963.
96. For the Harris survey of 1956, see Wolfinger, Politics of Progress, 299; Logue to Richard C. Lee, memorandum RE: Louis Harris Survey, November 21, 1956; Lee Comments, December 7, 1956; and “A Proposed Study of What the People of New Haven Think of Their Downtown Shopping Facilities” with sample questionnaire, all in EJL, Series 5, Box 57, Folder 395.
97. On vacant stores and the CBD tax burden, see Wolfinger, Politics of Progress, 298–99; “Malley’s, the New Haven Central Business District, and the South Central Renewal Project,” May 23, 1957, EJL, Series 5, Box 72, Folder 608, 2.
98. “Malley’s, the New Haven Central Business District, and the South Central Renewal Project,” EJL, 2; Nick Wood to Logue, memorandum, February 26, 1958, EJL, in Hardwick, “Downtown Utopia?,” 47. On the effort to lure women shoppers, see City of New Haven, New Haven: New England’s Newest City—Pulling Power, Buying Power, Growing Power (New Haven, CT: City of New Haven, 1960), n.p., RCL, Box 60, Folder 1183. See Alison Isenberg on the effort to lure female shoppers in Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 175–87.
99. Macy’s quote in “Paul Rudolph Designs a Place to Park in Downtown New Haven,” AR 133, no. 2 (February 1963): 148; Macy’s Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended August 1, 1964, 26; “Downtown Goes Up in Macy Estimation for New Stores,” WWD, November 13, 1964; Richard Longstreth, The American Department Store Transformed, 1920–1960 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, in association with the Center for American Places at Columbia College Chicago, 2010), 232. On Macy’s strategy, see WWD: “Macy Deals for Unit in New Haven,” September 18, 1962; “New Macy’s in New Haven: Big Store, Big Competition,” December 20, 1962; Samuel Feinberg, “From Where I Sit: No Sacred Precincts for Any Retailers,” November 8, 1963; Samuel Feinberg, “From Where I Sit: What’s in Macy’s Star over New England?,” November 13, 1963; and “Government Aid Stressed to Redevelop Downtown,” May 27, 1964.
Logue’s papers contain a marked-up article discussing the desire of downtown merchants to help shoppers bring cars downtown: Mabel Walker, “The Impact of Outlying Shopping Centers on Central Business Districts,” Public Management 39, no. 8 (August 1957): 170–74.
100. Daniel W. Kops to Richard C. Lee, May 23, 1957, EJL, Series 5, Box 71, Folder 595; Louis Harris and Associates, “A Survey of the Race for Mayor of New Haven,” February 1959, EJL, Series 4, Box 26, Folder 59, 27. Norris Andrews, head of the New Haven Planning Department, pointed out that downtown also faced serious competition from the new-style, freestanding professional building; Norris C. Andrews to Logue, memorandum, April 28, 1959, Rotival, Box 38, Folder “#1,” 2.
101. Alexander Garvin, The American City: What Works, What Doesn’t, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002), 154–55.
102. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Penguin Books, 1988), 169, 302, 306–7. On Brasilia, James Holston, “The Modernist City and the Death of the Street,” in Theorizing the City: The New Urban Anthropology Reader, ed. Setha Low (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999), 245–75; Jonathan Barnett, “The Modern City,” in The Elusive City: Five Centuries of Design, Ambition and Miscalculation (New York: Harper and Row, 1986), 107–56.
103. Milton Cameron, “Albert Einstein, Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, and the Future of the American City,” Institute Letter (Spring 2014): 8–9.
104. Dolores Hayden, “‘I Have Seen the Future: Selling the Unsustainable City in 1939,’” Presidential Address to the Urban History Association, October 2010; Robert W. Rydell and Laura Burd Schiavo, eds., Designing Tomorrow: America’s World Fairs of the 1930s (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010); Folke T. Kihlstedt, “Utopia Realized: The World’s Fairs of the 1930s,” in Imagining Tomorrow: History, Technology, and the American Future, ed. Joseph J. Corn (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986), 97–118; Stanley Appelbaum, The New York World’s Fair 1939/1940 in 155 Photographs by Richard Wurts and Others (New York: Dover Publications, 1977).
There is a large literature on the impact of automobiles and highway building on U.S. cities. See, for example, Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), and Owen Gutfreund, 20th Century Sprawl: Highways and the Reshaping of the American Landscape (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
105. Edward Malley Co. brochure, November 21, 1962, Malley’s Clipping File at New Haven Free Library, in Hardwick, “Downtown Utopia?,” 49.
106. New Haven Plan Commission, Tomorrow Is Here, n.p.
107. Seon Pierre Bonan to Richard C. Lee, March 15, 1960, RCL, Box 38, Folder 809; Edward J. Logue to Seon Pierre Bonan, March 22, 1960, RCL, Box 38, Folder 809; both in Ammon, “‘Town Living in the Modern Manner,’” 20; also Ray Wolfinger, memorandum, November 2, 1958, Dahl, Box 1, Folder “Special Interviews,” 9–10.
108. New Haven Redevelopment Agency, Redevelopment and Renewal Plan for the Wooster Square Project Area (New Haven, CT: 1958; revised 1965); Leeney, Elms, Arms, and Ivy, 67.
109. Film footage of downtown market taken by Ted Gesling, from RCL, 1985 March Accession. Also see Gregory Donofrio, “Attacking Distribution: Obsolescence and Efficiency of Food Markets in the Age of Urban Renewal,” JPH 13, no. 2 (May 2014): 136–59.
110. Logue, “Urban Ruin—or Urban Renewal,” 28; Rachel D. Carley, “Tomorrow Is Here: New Haven and the Modern Movement,” report prepared for the New Haven Preservation Trust, June 2008, 34–40.
111. Scully, “Modern Architecture at Yale,” 294–95.
112. Robert Stern made the case in 1969 that a second generation of modern architects, then the leaders of the profession, had split into two camps: the “exclusive approach,” which retained the orthodox modernist commitment to the abstract “prototypical solutions” of Le Corbusier, Sigfried Giedion, and the Bauhaus (with Mies van der Rohe as its emissary to the United States), and the “inclusive approach,” more attuned to the individual case and the realities of context. However one parses the evolution of modernism after World War II—and there are many analyses—the style became increasingly diverse from the 1960s onward, culminating in the split-off of postmodernism; Robert A. M. Stern, New Directions in American Architecture (New York: George Braziller, 1969).
113. Scully, “Modern Architecture at Yale,” 296.
114. Albert Mayer, “Report on Master Plan of the New Punjab Capital,” May 12, 1950, Mayer, Box 18, Folder 30, in Cullather, Hungry World, 82, 84; R. J. Chinwalla, “Chandigarh: Breakthrough from the Past,” Times of India, April 15, 1962, A7, in Manish Chalana, “Chandigarh: City and Periphery,” JPH 14, no. 1 (February 2015): 62; Maristella Casciato, “Modern Chandigarh,” in The City and South Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard South Asia Institute, 2014), 23–25. For more examples, see Daniel Immerwahr, “The Politics of Architecture and Urbanism in Postcolonial Lagos, 1960–1986,” Journal of African Cultural Studies 19, no. 2 (December 2007).
115. Hardwick, “Downtown Utopia?,” 49. For similar connections between modern architecture and values of rationality and progress, as made by universities, see Michael H. Carriere, “Between Being and Becoming: On Architecture, Student Protest, and the Aesthetics of Liberalism in Postwar America” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 2009). Yale is one of his case studies.
116. Carriere, “Between Being and Becoming,” 61.
117. “Death of the Gargoyle,” Time, November 15, 1963, 80–85.
118. For a thorough, if opinionated, treatment of modern architecture on the Yale campus, see Scully, “Modern Architecture at Yale,” 293–353.
119. Scully, “Modern Architecture at Yale,” 301.
120. Margaret Logue to Logue, April 15, 1948; April 28, 1948; May 2, 1948; and January 25, 1949, in EJL, Series 1, Box 4, Folder 54; Kimberly Konrad Alvarez, “The Lustron House: The Endangered Species of the Post-war Prefab Industry,” Docomomo US Newsletter, Summer 2008, 1, 8–9.
121. Logue to Louis Laun, March 21, 1958, EJL, Series 4, Box 27, Folder 68; “Logue Leaves New Haven with a Record of Success,” New Haven Journal-Courier, November 24, 1960; “Margaret and Edward Logue House, 8 Reservoir Street,” http://
122. Hugo Lindgren, “New Haven,” Metropolis 13 (January–February 1994): 27–28.
123. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 233 for Lee’s office, 138 for the fire chief’s.
124. Quote in WNBC-TV documentary, Connecticut Illustrated: A City Reborn, 1966, RCL.
125. It took a long time for New Haven’s significant modernist architecture to be fully appreciated. Recently, the New Haven Preservation Trust has undertaken thorough surveys of buildings erected during the period 1931 to 1980, is encouraging their careful renovation, and has launched an informative website; see http://
126. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 116.
127. NHR, February 19, 1960, in Wolfinger, Politics of Progress, 296.
128. Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 80. Before the auction to select the developer, Ralph Taylor “emphasized [to all potential developers] the interest of New Haven in having top architectural execution of the apartment buildings within Blocks A, B & C”; “Minutes of Staff Meetings, August 15 and August 17, 1956, 9 a.m. each day,” EJL, Series 5, Box 55, Folder 363. Logue described the design difficulties with the apartment buildings in “About Jerry Rappaport,” n.d., MDL; also Ray Wolfinger, memorandum, 8–9.
129. Logue to Roger Stevens, September 19, 1958, EJL, Series 5, Box 88, Folder 826, 1; draft of a letter by Logue to Stevens, September 12, 1958, EJL, Series 5, Box 88, Folder 826, 1.
130. Richard C. Lee to Logue, memorandum, May 21, 1958, EJL, Series 5, Box 81, Folder 732; Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 53; Ray Wolfinger described the negotiation between Lee and Logue over prominent versus local architects in Ray Wolfinger, memorandum, 15.
131. Rudolph’s Church Street Redevelopment drawings in “Unprocessed in PR 13 CN 2001:126,” Paul Rudolph Archive, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division; Logue to Paul Rudolph, October 9, 1958, EJL, Series 5, Box 88, Folder 826.
132. Margaret Logue, email message to author, January 11, 2009. “Sensual” was used in a review of the garage in the architectural press: “Sensually Structured Parking Garage by Rudolph,” PA 41, no. 9 (September 1960): 51.
133. Walter McQuade, “Rudolph’s Roman Road,” AF 118, no. 2 (February 1963): 108. For more on the garage, see Carley, “Tomorrow Is Here,” 26–27.
134. “Paul Rudolph: How One of the Great Young Architects Lives and Works,” Vogue, January 15, 1963, 85–91.
135. Logue, “Education of an Urban Administrator,” 177–78. After the telephone company building debacle, Logue wrote a clause into all subsequent contracts giving the city final approval of design; Jeanne R. Lowe, Cities in a Race with Time: Progress and Poverty in America’s Renewing Cities (New York: Random House, 1967), 451.
136. Margaret Logue, email message to author, January 11, 2009. On Rudolph, see Paul Rudolph, Writings on Architecture, foreword by Robert A. M. Stern (New Haven, CT: Yale School of Architecture, 2008), particularly “Six Determinants of Architectural Form,” originally published in AR 120, no. 4 (October 1956): 21–29; John C. Cook and Heinrich Klotz, with a foreword by Vincent Scully, Conversations with Architects (New York: Praeger, 1973), 90–121.
137. Logue, interview, Jones, Tape 3:42; Logue, interview, Steen, April 9, 1990, Boston, MA, 20; also see Logue to Paul Rudolph, May 17, 1965, EJL, Series 6, Box 150, Folder 443, where Logue thanks Rudolph for sending Perspecta (a publication of Yale School of Architecture): “It will improve my education.” Logue wrote an enthusiastic letter supporting Rudolph’s nomination as a fellow of the AIA; Logue to Jury of Fellows, December 3, 1969, EJL, Series 5, Box 99, Folder 974. For quote, Logue, remarks in “Rethinking Designs of the 60s,” Perspecta 29 (1998), 11. For more on Rudolph’s work in urban renewal, see Lizabeth Cohen and Brian D. Goldstein, “Paul Rudolph and the Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal,” in Reassessing Rudolph, ed. Timothy M. Rohan (New Haven, CT: Yale School of Architecture, 2017), 14–29.
138. Logue, “Education of an Urban Administrator,” 179.
139. Emerson Goble, “Horrors! A Handsome Garage,” AR 133, no. 2 (February 1963): 9, and in same issue “Paul Rudolph Designs a Place to Park in Downtown New Haven,” 146; also, “Paul Rudolph, Temple Street, New Haven, 1959–63,” in Simon Henley, The Architecture of Parking (London: Thames and Hudson, 2007), 56–61. The challenge of creating monumental urban space had long preoccupied Rudolph. He argued for giving greatest scale to the governmental and institutional (and in an earlier era, religious); Cook and Klotz, Conversations with Architects, 114–15; Paul Rudolph, “The Six Determinants of Architectural Form,” AR 120, no. 4 (October 1956): 183–90; Paul Rudolph, “A View of Washington as a Capital—or What Is Civic Design?,” AF 118, no. 1 (January 1963): 70; Paul Rudolph, “Architecture and Society,” L’arca, no. 62 (July–August 1992): 1–5, in Rudolph, Writings on Architecture, 156.
140. “Statement by Edward J. Logue,” Boston, Massachusetts, May 26, 1967, Hearings Before the National Commission on Urban Problems, vol. 1, May–June 1967 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1968), 191.
141. Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 19. An exception to the criticism of superblock residential projects is Danielle Aubert, Lana Cavar, and Natasha Chandani, eds., Thanks for the View, Mr. Mies: Lafayette Park, Detroit (New York: Metropolis Books, 2012).
142. Lowe, Cities in a Race with Time, 451.
143. Wolfinger, Politics of Progress, 157–58, 163; Dahl, Who Governs?, 143–46; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “The Old and the New in New Haven,” Urban Renewal Notes, 13.
144. Leeney, Elm, Arms, and Ivy, 59; Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 209; Lowe, Cities in a Race with Time, 520–21, on the plan to double salaries by 1953 to make them competitive with suburban school systems.
145. On school modernization, New Haven Redevelopment Authority, 1961 Annual Report, “Education and Schools”; Garvin, American City, 262; Leeney, Elms, Arms, and Ivy, 60, 65; Lowe, Cities in a Race with Time, 514–21; Robert Hazen, interview by Lizabeth Cohen, June 14, 2007, New York, NY.
146. On Lee’s view of the Conté School, Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 140; on Logue’s view, “Can Cities Survive Automobile Age?,” 182. On the Grant School, see Mary Hommann, “Symbolic Bells in Dixwell,” AF (July–August 1966): 54–59, particularly 58–59; from Johansen: “The Dixwell School, New Haven, Connecticut,” Box 12, Folder 7; photographs of the model of Dixwell School, Box 2, Folder 10; Dixwell Project New Haven Development Office, “Dixwell Renewal News,” September 1964, Box 11, Folder 22; Johansen, interview.
147. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “Profile of a City,” Urban Renewal Notes, July–August 1966, 4. New Haven’s urban renewal also gained increasing international attention: “Foreign Officials Observe City Renewal,” NHR, September 27, 1966; “Turkish Officials View City Answer to Some Shared Social Problems,” NHR, October 8, 1966, cited in Carriere, “Between Being and Becoming,” 232n47.
148. WNBC-TV documentary, Connecticut Illustrated. Excerpts are also incorporated into two more-recent documentaries: Ted Gesing, Model City (MFA thesis film, University of Texas, Austin, 2003), and American Beat Film produced by Elihu Rubin and directed by Stephen Taylor, Rudolph and Renewal, Yale School of Architecture, 2008 (made to accompany the exhibition “Model City: Buildings and Projects by Paul Rudolph for Yale and New Haven,” November 3, 2008–February 6, 2009), copies of all in possession of the author.
149. Wirtz quote in “An Old Industrial City Wages Dramatic War on Poverty,” Trenton Sunday Times Advertiser, July 12, 1964; Weaver quote in “New Haven Pursuing the American Dream of a Slumless City,” NYT, September 7, 1965, both in Powledge, Model City, 90.
150. “Cities: Forward Look in Connecticut,” Time, June 24, 1957; Jeanne R. Lowe, “Lee of New Haven and His Political Jackpot,” Harper’s, October 1957; Life, March 22, 1958; Logue, “New York: Are Cities a Bust?,” Look, April 1, 1969; Joe Alex Morris, “He Is Saving a ‘Dead’ City,” SEP, April 19, 1958; totals from Powledge, Model City, 25.