5. Eighteenth-century voices

Ukawsaw Gronniosaw

1.		A Narrative of the Most remarkable Particulars in the life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African prince, As related by himself (Bath, S.Hazard [c. 1770]), [7].
2.		A Narrative, 19.
3.		A Narrative, 26.
4.		A Narrative, 32.
5.		A Narrative, 33–4.
6.		A Narrative, 39.
7.		A Narrative, 43.
8.		A Narrative, 43–4.
9.		A Narrative, 47–8.
10.		A Narrative, 48.
11.		A Narrative, Preface, pp. [iv], vi.
12.		A Narrative, 49.
13.		F.Shyllon, Black People in Britain (1977), [169].

Phillis Wheatley

1.		Her only predecessor was Jupiter Hammon, who published a broadside poem in 1761 and another, in praise of Phillis Wheatley, in 1778. See Oscar Wegelin, Jupiter Hammon: American Negro poet: Selections from his writings and a bibliography (Heartman’s Historical Ser. no. 13, New York, Chas. Fred. Heartman, 1915); Vernon Loggins, The Negro Author: his development in America (New York, Columbia University Press, 1931), 9–16; Benjamin Brawley, Early Negro American Writers: Selections with Biographical and Critical Introductions (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1935), 21–2; Sidney Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770–1800 (Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society Ltd, 1973), 171–8.
2.		H.W.Debrunner, Presence and Prestige (1979), 169.
3.		‘Extracts from the Journal of C.J.Stratford’, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, [XIV] (1876–7), 389.
4.		[Margaretta Matilda Odell], Memoir and Poems of Phillis Wheatley, a Native African and a Slave (Boston, Geo. W. Light, 1834), [9].
5.		M.A.Richmond, Bid the Vassal Soar: Interpretive Essays on the Life and Poetry of Phillis Wheatley (ca. 1753–1784) and George Moses Horton (ca. 1797–1883) (Washington, DC, Howard University Press, 1974), 12, 70–1, suggests that Phillis Wheatley was a Fula from Senegambia, who might well have been familiar with Arabic script before being transported.
6.		Benjamin Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art in the United States (New York, Duffield & Company, 1918), 13.
7.		Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art, 13.
8.		[Odell], 11.
9.		Phillis Wheatley, Poems on various subjects, religious and moral (A.Bell, 1773), 18; The Poems of Phillis Wheatley, ed. Julian D. Mason, Jr (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 7.
10.		Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1961), 189.
11.		London Magazine, XLII (1773), 456.
12.		Monthly Review, XLIX (1773), 459.
13.		All eight reviews are reprinted in Mukhtar Ali Isani, ‘The British Reception of Wheatley’s Poems on Various Subjects’, Journal of Negro History, LXVI (1981), 144–9. ‘In every case’, Isani points out (p. 145), ‘at least one poem was reprinted as a sample of its quality.’
14.		William H. Robinson, Phillis Wheatley in the Black American Beginnings (Broadside Critics Ser. no. 5, Detroit, Broadside Press, 1975), 11.
15.		Julian D. Mason, Jr, in Poems of Phillis Wheatley, ed. Mason, p. xxi.
16.		Robinson, 30–1.
17.		‘To the University of CAMBRIDGE, in NEW–ENGLAND’, Wheatley, 15; Poems of Phillis Wheatley, ed. Mason, 5.
18.		Wheatley, 114–15; Poems of Phillis Wheatley, ed. Mason, 54–5. ‘S.M.’ was Scipio Moorhead, slave to the Revd John Moorhead (Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art, 103).
19.		Robinson, 62.
20.		[M.M.Odell and G.W.Light], ‘Memoir’, in [Odell], 23. See also, for Phillis Wheatley, John W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History: Men and women eminent in the evolution of the American of African descent (Washington, DC, American Negro Academy, 1914), 77–85; Loggins, 16–29; Brawley, Early Negro American Writers, 31ff.; Kaplan, 150–70.

Ignatius Sancho

1.		Letters of the late Rev. Mr. Laurence Sterne, To his most intimate Friends, ed. Mrs. [Lydia] Medalle (T.Becket, 1775), III. 22–3; Letters of Laurence Sterne, ed. Lewis Perry Curtis (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1935), 282; [Joseph Jekyll], ‘The Life of Ignatius Sancho’, in Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, an African (J.Dodsley etc., 1782), I. p. vi; Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, ed. Paul Edwards (Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), Introduction, p. xvi, facsimile reprint, p. iv.
2.		[Jekyll], in Letters of Sancho (1782), I. p. vii; Letters of Sancho (1968), p. ii.
3.		[Jekyll], in Letters of Sancho (1782), I. pp. vii-viii; Letters of Sancho (1968), p. iii.
4.		Paul Edwards, Introduction to Letters of Sancho (1968), p. viii. The collections are: Minuets Cotillons & Country Dances for the Violin, Mandolin, German Flute, & Harpischord, Composed by an African, Most humbly Inscribed to his Grace Henry Duke of Buccleugh, &c, &c, &c. (Printed for the Author, [c.1765]); A Collection of New Songs, Composed by an African, Humbly Inscribed to the Honble Mrs James Brudenell by her most humble Devoted & obedient Servant The Author [c.1770]; Minuets for the Violin Mandolin German-Flute and Harpsichord, Compos’d by an African, Book 2d, Humbly Inscribed to the Right Honble John Lord Montagu of Broughton (Richd Duke, [c.1770]). For Sancho as composer, see Josephine Wright, ‘Ignatius Sancho (1729–1780), African Composer in England’, Black Perspective in Music, VII/2 (Fall 1979), [133]–145.
5.		Vols. III and IV of Sterne’s Sermons had been published six months before, vols. VI and VII of Tristram Shandy in the previous year.
6.		Critical Review, XXI (1766), 282.
7.		Letters of Sterne (1775), III. 23–5; cf. the version edited by Sterne, in Letters of Sterne (1935), 282–3.
8.		Letters of Sterne (1775), III. 27–8; cf. Letters of Sterne (1935), 285–6.
9.		Letters of Sterne (1775), III. 31–2; cf. Letters of Sterne (1935), 340.
10.		Letters of Sterne (1775), III. 36; cf. Letters of Sterne (1935), 370.
11.		[Jekyll], in Letters of Sancho (1782), I. p. xi; Letters of Sancho (1968), p. v.
12.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 204, 205–6; Letters of Sancho (1968), 295, 296.
13.		J.T.Smith, Nollekens and his Times (1828), I. 28–9.
14.		Andrew Knapp and William Baldwin, Criminal Chronology; or, The New Newgate Calendar (Liverpool, Nuttall, Fisher, and Dixon, 1809–10), III. 445, 447. I am grateful to Liz Willis for this reference.
15.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 169, 170, 171–4; Letters of Sancho (1968), 269, 270, 270–3.
16.		Letters of Sancho (1782), [editorial note], p. ii.
17.		Robin Hallett, The Penetration of Africa: European enterprise and exploration principally in northern and western Africa up to 1830, 1, To 1815 (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965), 147–8.
18.		Monthly Review, LXIX (1783), 492n., 497.
19.		F. Shyllon, Black People in Britain (1977), 191.
20.		H[enri].[Baptiste] Grégoire, De la litteŕature des Nègres (Paris, Maradan, 1808), 252, 255, corrected by Edwards, Introduction to Letters of Sancho (1968), pp. v–vi. J[ohn]RW[illis], ‘New Light on the Life of Ignatius Sancho: Some Unpublished Letters’, Slavery & Abolition, 1/3 (December 1980), [345]–358, includes a facsimile of a letter, dated 29 February 1820, from Sancho’s daughter Elisabeth to William Stevenson, a friend of the family, accompanying the presentation of Gainsborough’s portrait of Sancho.
21.		Letters of Sancho (1782), I. 113, 180; II. 14; I. 174, 39; Letters of Sancho (1968), 83, 130, 156, 125, 30.
22.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 116, 167; I. 140; II. 126; Letters of Sancho (1968), 231, 268, 101, 238.
23.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 155; Letters of Sancho (1968), 259.
24.		Letters of Sancho (1782), I. 140; Letters of Sancho (1968), 101.
25.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 86–7; Letters of Sancho (1968), 209–10.
26.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 92; Letters of Sancho (1968), 214.
27.		Letters of Sancho (1782), I. 200; Letters of Sancho (1968), 143.
28.		Letters of Sancho (1782), II. 98; Letters of Sancho (1968), 218.

Ottobah Cugoano

1.		H.W.Debrunner, Presence and Prestige (1979), 166.
2.		Ottobah Cugoano, Thoughts and sentiments on the evil and wicked traffc of the slavery and commerce of the human species, humbly submitted to the Inhabitants of Great-Britain (1787), 7–12.
3.		How he was freed is not clear. Debrunner, 166, following H.Grégoire, De la littérature des Nègres (1808), says he was ‘ransomed’ by ‘Lord Hoth’ and brought to London in 1780; Cugoano’s own account is different, as Paul Edwards points out in his introduction to the facsimile reprint, Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery (Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1969), p. v.
4.		Prince Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp, Esq. (Henry Colburn & Co., 1820), 247–8.
5.		Robert W. July, The Origins of Modern African Thought: Its development in West Africa during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Faber & Faber, 1968), 21.
6.		C.Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (1962), 13; July, 40; Edwards, Introduction to Cugoano, Thoughts and Sentiments (1969), pp. vii–xii; F.Shyllon, Black People in Britain (1977), 173.
7.		Cugoano (1787), 17.
8.		Cugoano (1787), 73.
9.		Cugoano (1787), pp. iii, 103.
10.		Cugoano (1787), 103–4.
11.		Cugoano (1787), 109–10,112,130,132.
12.		Fyfe, 13.
13.		Cugoano (1787), 121–2, 133–5.
14.		Cugoano (1787), 75–7. The significance of this passage is pointed out by Imanuel Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, trans. Ann Keep (Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1974), 9.
15.		Parliamentary History, XXX. cols. 659, 660.
16.		Robert Isaac and Samuel Wilberforce, The Life of William Wilberforce (John Murray, 1838), III. 182.
17.		Wilberforce, I. 344.
18.		Shyllon, 175.
19.		Wilberforce, I. 152–3.
20.		Edwards argues (Introduction to Cugoano (1969), p. xii) that the 1791 edition is not an abridgement, but the text from which the 1787 edition had been expanded.
21.		[Ottobah Cugoano], Thoughts and sentiments on the evil of slavery or, The nature of servitude as admitted by the law of God, compared to the modern slavery of the Africans in the West-Indies (The Author, 1791), [47].
22.		Grégoire, 215–16. I have used the contemporary translation, An Enquiry concerning the intellectual and moral faculties and literature of Negroes (Brooklyn, Thomas Kirk, 1810), 189. The anti-slavery writer Wilson Armistead wrote of Cugoano in 1848: ‘In him we may behold talents without much literary cultivation, to which a good education would have given great advantage’ (Wilson Armistead, A Tribute for the Negro: being a vindication of the moral, intellectual, and religious capabilities of The Coloured portion of Mankind (Manchester, William Irwin, 1848), as quoted by Debrunner, 166).
23.		Geiss, 9, 40.
24.		Paul-Marc Henry, ‘Pan-Africanism; a dream come true’, Foreign Affairs, XXXVII (1958–9), 445.
25.		Cf. George Shepperson, ‘Notes on Negro American influences on the emergence of African nationalism’, Journal of African History, I (1960), [299]–300, 312.

Olaudah Equiano

1.		Paul Edwards, Introduction to Equiano’s Travels (Heinemann Educational Books, 1967), p. xi; Paul Edwards, Introduction to The Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa the African (Dawsons, 1969), I. pp. xx–xxi, lxxiv n. 31.
2.		The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African: written by himself (The Author, [1789]), I. 98–9.
3.		Interesting Narrative, I. 106.
4.		Interesting Narrative, I. 116.
5.		Interesting Narrative, I. 176–8.
6.		Interesting Narrative, II. 122–3.
7.		Interesting Narrative, II. 222.
8.		Interesting Narrative, II. 231.
9.		Interesting Narrative, II. 234–6. Cf. Equiano’s letter to Cugoano, Public Advertiser, no. 16496 (4 April 1787), [3].
10.		[Captain] Tho. Bn. Thompson to Commissioners of the Navy, 21 March 1787: copy in PRO T1 643/305.
11.		Commissioners of the Navy to Treasury, 23 March 1787, PRO T1 643/304.
12.		Edwards, Introduction to Equiano’s Travels, p. xii.
13.		Public Advertiser, no. 16583 (14 July 1789), [3].
14.		Thomas Hardy to Revd Mr Bryant of Sheffeld, 8 March 1792: copy in British Library Add. MS. 27,811 (‘Original Letter Book of the (London) Corresponding Society’), fols. 4v–5r; cf. the edited version in Memoir of Thomas Hardy, Founder of and Secretary to, the London Corresponding Society (James Ridgway, 1832), 15.
15.		Memoir of Thomas Hardy, 15.
16.		Lydia Hardy to Thomas Hardy, 2 April 1792, PRO TS 24/12/1.
17.		G.I Jones, ‘Olaudah Equiano of the Niger Ibo’, in Africa Remembered, ed. P.D.Curtin (1967), 61.
18.		The Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, A.M., ed. Nehemiah Curnock and others (Charles H. Kelly, 1909–16), VIII. 128.
19.		Monthly Review, LXXX (1789), 551–2.
20.		General Magazine and Impartial Review, III (1789), 315.
21.		P.Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (1820), 236; Edwards, Introduction to Life of Equiano, I. pp. lvi–lvii.
22.		The Diary; or Woodfall’s Register, no. 24 (25 April 1789), [3].
23.		The letters signed by the ‘Sons of Africa’, are conveniently assembled in F.Shyllon, Black People in Britain (1977), App. ii, [267]–272.
24.		[James Tobin], Cursory Remarks upon the Reverend Mr. Ramsay’s Essay on The Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the Sugar Colonies (G. & T. Wilkie, 1785), 118n.; Public Advertiser, no. 16754 (28 January 1788), [1]–[2].
25.		Public Advertiser, no. 16761 (5 February 1788), [1]–[2].
26.		Public Advertiser, no. 16754 [sic] (31 March 1788), [1]; cf. the version in Shyllon, 251–3.
27.		John Alfred Langford, A Century of Birmingham Life: or, A Chronicle of Local Events, From 1741 to 1841 (Birmingham, E.C.Osborne, 1868), I. 440–1.
28.		The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, sixth edition (The Author, 1793), 359; Edwards, Introduction to Life of Equiano, I. p. xiv.
29.		Gentleman’s Magazine, LXII (1792), i. 384.
30.		Reproduced in N.File and C.Power, Black Settlers in Britain (1981), [55].
31.		Interesting Narrative, sixth edition, pp. [xviii]–xxxiv.
32.		Equiano to Revd G.Walker, 27 February 1792, as quoted by Edwards, Introduction to Life of Equiano, I. p. xiv.
33.		Thomas Digges to Mr. O’Brien, Carrickfergus, 25 December 1791, in Interesting Narrative, sixth edition, p. xii.
34.		Oracle, no. 909 (25 April 1792), [3]; Star, no. 1,248 (27 April 1792), [3].
35.		Interesting Narrative, sixth edition, p. vi.
36.		Interesting Narrative, sixth edition, p. iv.
37.		Granville Sharp to his niece Jemima, 22 February 1811, as quoted by Edwards, Introduction to Equiano’s Travels, p. xv.
38.		I owe this last sentence to S. Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770–1800 (1973), 206.

6. Slavery and the law

The legal pendulum

1.		John Rushworth, Historical Collections, II (John Wright & Richard Chiswell, 1680), i. 468; Judicial Cases concerning American Slavery and the Negro, ed. Helen Tunnicliff Catterall (Washington, DC, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1926–37), I. 1, 9.
2.		Jos. Keble, Reports in the Court of Kings Bench at Westminster (Thomas Dring etc., 1685), III. 785; Les Reports de Sr. Creswell Levinz (S.Keble etc., 1702), ii. 201; The Reports of Sr. Creswell Levinz, Knt., second edition (D.Browne etc., 1722), ii. 201; Sir Bartholomew Shower, The Second part of the reports of cases and Special Arguments, argued and adjudged in the Court of King’s Bench (D.Browne etc., 1720), 177; The English Reports, LXXXIII (Edinburgh, William Green & Sons, etc., 1908), 518; Catterall, I. 9, 10 n. 2.
3.		Lord Mansfield, as quoted by Capel Lofft, Reports of cases adjudged in the Court of King’s Bench (William Owen, 1776), 8; A Complete Collection of State Trials, comp. T.B.Howell, XX (1814), col. 70.
4.		Robert Lord Raymond, Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Courts of King’s Bench and Common Pleas, second edition (J.Worrall etc., 1765), I. 147; English Reports, XCI (1909), 994; Catterall, I. 10.
5.		[Guy Miège], The New State of England Under Their majesties K. William and Q. Mary (1691), ii. 268.
6.		Will of Thomas Papillon, 1700–01, Kent Archives v 1015. T. 44, as quoted by J.Walvin, Black and White (1973), 42, 50.
7.		Thomas Carthew, Reports of cases Adjudged in the Court of King’s Bench (R.Gosling etc., 1728), 396–7; Raymond, I. 147; English Reports, XCI. 994; Catterall, I. 10–12.
8.		William Salkeld, Reports of cases Adjudg’d in the Court of King’s Bench (J.Walthoe etc., 1717–18), II. 666; English Reports, XCI. 566–7; Catterall, I. 2–3, 11.
9.		Lord Mansfield, as quoted by Lofft, 8; State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. col. 70; Catterall, I. 3.
10.		William Maxwell Morison, The decisions of the Court of Session (Edinburgh, Archibald Constable & Company, 1811), XXXIII–XXXIV. 14547; Catterall, I. 3, 12.
11.		Charles Ambler, Reports of Cases argued and determined in the High Court of Chancery (A.Strahan etc., 1790), 76–7; English Reports, XXVII (1903), 47–9; Catterall, I. 3–4, 12–13.
12.		[Solomon] Bolton, The Present State of Great Britain and Ireland, eleventh edition (J.Brotherton etc., 1758), i. 173.
13.		Robert Henley Eden, Reports of cases argued and determined in the High Court of Chancery, from 1757 to 1756 (Charles Hunter etc., 1818), II. 127; English Reports, XXVIII (1903), 844–5; Catterall, I. 4, 13.

Granville Sharp challenges the slave-owners

1.		The bill of sale is quoted in P.Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (1820), 34–5n.
2.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 21.
3.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 21.
4.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 22.
5.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 23.
6.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 30.
7.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 39.
8.		G.Sharp, A representation of the Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery (1769), 79, 29, 104–5.
9.		James Bradshawe, undated letter to Granville Sharp, in Hardwicke Papers, as quoted, BSB, 37–8.
10.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 42.
11.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 43.
12.		Sharp, as quoted, BSB, 51.
13.		T.Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1808), I. 75; Hoare, 69n.
14.		Hoare, 56n; BSB, 46.
15.		BSB, 15, 169, 234. Mansfield’s black slave-servant was called Dido Elizabeth Lindsay.
16.		As quoted by Edward Lascelles, Granville Sharp and the Freedom of Slaves in England (Humphrey Milford, 1928), 29.
17.		Clarkson, I. 76.

The Somerset case

1.		As quoted, BSB, 43.
2.		William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1765–9), I. 123.
3.		W.Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, second edition (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1766–9), I. 127.
4.		This is conclusively argued by Shyllon, BSB, [55]–76. He clinches his argument with this quotation from [Sir James Stephen], ‘The Clapham Sect’, Edinburgh Review, LXXX (1844), 264, reprinted in his Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography (Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans, 1849), II. 316: ‘Three of the infallible doctors of the Church at Westminster – Yorke, Talbot, and Mansfield – favoured the claim [of David Lisle in the case of Jonathan Strong]; and Blackstone, the great expositor of her traditions, hastened, at their bidding, to retract a heresy on this article of the faith into which his uninstructed reason had fallen.’
5.		By far the best account of the Somerset case is Shyllon’s, in BSB, [82]–124. The summary in Judicial Cases concerning American Slavery and the Negro, ed. H.T.Catterall (1926–37), I. 14–18, is, for various reasons, unsatisfactory.
6.		P.Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (1820), 77n.; cf. Charles Stuart, A Memoir of Granville Sharp (New York, American Anti-Slavery Society, 1836), 11.
7.		Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, no. 13,480 (13 May 1772), [4]; BSB, 95.
8.		Hoare, 84; BSB, 95.
9.		Francis Hargrave, A Complete Collection of state-trials, and proceedings for high-treason, XI (J.F. & C.Rivington etc., 1781), 346; State Trials, comp. T.B. Howell, XX (1814), cols. 59–60; BSB, 97.
10.		State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. col. 69; BSB, 101.
11.		Hoare, 89; BSB, 102–3.
12.		Hoare, 89; State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. col. 71; BSB, 104.
13.		State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. cols. 74–5; BSB, 104.
14.		Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, no. 13,489 (23 May 1772), [4]; BSB, 105.
15.		State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. col. 79; BSB, 106.
16.		State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. col. 79; Cecil Fifoot, Lord Mansfield (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1936), 361.
17.		Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, no. 13,491 (26 May 1772), [4]; BSB, 116.
18.		BSB, 119–22.
19.		Morning Chronicle and London Advertiser, no. 962 (23 June 1772), [2]; BSB, 108.
20.		As quoted by Granville Sharp, The Just Limitation of Slavery in the Laws of God, compared with The unbounded Claims of the African Traders and British American Slaveholders (B. White etc., 1776), App. 8, pp. 67–9; BSB, 108–10. There are serious omissions from the version in State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. cols. 80–2; Sharp had a shorthand writer in court, and his version is confirmed by contemporary newspaper reports. The italics and other emphasis are his.
21.		BSB, 110.
22.		See Jerome Nadelhaft, ‘The Somersett Case and Slavery: Myth, Reality, and Repercussions’, Journal of Negro History, LI (1966), 193–208. And note the air of surprise with which J.R.Pole of Churchill College, Cambridge, ‘Slavery and revolution: the conscience of the rich’, Historical Journal, XX (1977), 505–6 n. 4, reports his having learnt that ‘even in the light of Somerset, residence in England did not make a slave free if that slave left British shores without compulsion’; that ‘James Somerset was the only slave freed by Lord Mansfield’s famous decision’; and that ‘both slavery and slave sales continued in Britain’.
23.		London Chronicle, XXXIII (1773), 597; BSB, 167.
24.		Hannah More to Horace Walpole, July 1790, in William Roberts, Memoirs of the life and correspondence of Mrs. Hannah More, second edition (L.B.Seeley & Sons, 1834), II. 235.
25.		Bristol Journal, 8 December 1792, as quoted, BSB, 170.

Slavery and the Scottish law

1.		W.M.Morison, Decisions of the Court of Session (1811), XXXIII–XXXIV. 14545; State Trials, comp. T.B.Howell, XX (1814), col. [1]n.; Judicial Cases concerning American Slavery and the Negro, ed. H.T.Catterall (1926–37), I. 13, BSB, [177].
2.		John Millar, The origin of the distinction of ranks; or, An inquiry into the circumstances which give rise to influence and authority, in the different members of society (J.Murray, 1779), 361–2.
3.		Morison, XXXIII–XXXIV. 14545–9; State Trials, comp. Howell, XX. cols. [2]–7n.; Catterall, I. 18–19; BSB, [177]–183.
4.		Boswell’s Life of Johnson, ed. G.B.Hill and L.F.Powell (1934–64), V. 82–3: ‘How curious it was to see an African in the north of Scotland, with little or no difference of manners from those of the natives.’

Mass murder on the high seas

1.		See BSB, 158–64.
2.		The account that follows is based on P.Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (1820), 236–47 and App. VIII, pp. xvii–xxi; Henry Roscoe, Reports of cases argued and determined in The Court of King’s Bench, III (S.Sweet etc., 1831), 232–5; and BSB, [184]–209. See also Robert Weisbord, ‘The case of the Slave-Ship “Zong”, 1783’, History Today, XIX (1969), 561–7.
3.		Such heroism left an indelible record of the slaves’ attitude to their captors’ barbarities. In 1767 Jamaican slaves smiled contemptuously while being burnt alive (London Magazine, XXXVI (1767), 258).
4.		G[eorge]. Gregory, Essays Historical and Moral (J.Johnson, 1785), 307n.
5.		Gazetteer, and New Daily Advertiser, no. 21027 (3 May 1796), [3]; Charles Durnford and Edward Hyde East, Reports of cases argued and determined in the Court of King’s Bench, VI (J.Butterworth, 1796), 656–9; English Reports, CI. 756–7; BSB, 207–9.

The Grace Jones case

1.		This account is based on J.Haggard, Reports of cases argued and determined in the High Court of Admiralty, II (1833), 94–134; Reports of State Trials, n.s. II (1889), cols. 273–304; BSB, [210]–229.
2.		BSB, 212.
3.		The Times, no. 13,310 (20 June 1827), 3.
4.		Haggard, II. 100–1; Reports of State Trials, n.s. II. cols. 279–80; BSB, 212.
5.		Haggard, II. 115; Reports of State Trials, n.s. II. col. 291; BSB, 222, 229.
6.		Haggard, II. 128–9; Reports of State Trials, n.s. II. col. 300; BSB, 229.
7.		Antigua Free Press, IV/174 (14 December 1827), [2]. I owe this and the following two references to BSB, 218–19, 219, 213–14.
8.		Royal Gazette (Kingston, Jamaica), L/2 (5–12 January 1828), Postscript, p. [17].
9.		New Times, no. 9146 (9 November 1827), [2].

7. The rise of English racism

Race prejudice and racism

1.		W.D.Jordan, White over Black (1968), 80.
2.		A distinction between race prejudice (‘essentially irrational and . . . in large measure sub-conscious’) and racialism (‘a rationalized ideology based upon what is purported to be irrefutable scientific fact’) is drawn by Charles H. Lyons, To Wash anAethiop White: British Ideas about Black African Educability 1530–1860 (New York, Teachers College Press, 1975), p. x.
3.		Cf. A.J.Barker, The African Link (1978), [41].

The demonology of race

1.		See Don Cameron Allen, ‘Symbolic Color in the Literature of the English Renaissance’, Philological Quarterly, XV (1936), 83–4; P.J.Heather, ‘Colour Symbolism: Part I’, Folk-Lore, LIX (1948), 169–70; Harry Levin, The Power of Blackness: Hawthorne Poe Melville (Faber & Faber, 1958), 35–6; Harold R. Isaacs, ‘Blackness and whiteness’, Encounter, XXI (1963), 12–14; W.D.Jordan, White over Black (1968), 7–8; Alan James, ‘ “Black”: an inquiry into the pejorative associations of an English word’, New Community, IX (1981–2), 19–30; Mary Searle-Chatterjee, ‘Colour symbolism and the skin – some notes’, New Community, IX (1981–2), 31–5.
2.		Jordan, White over Black, 6, 9; cf. Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man’s Burden: Historical origins of racism in the United States (New York, Oxford University Press, 1974), 5.
3.		Jeffrey Burton Russell, Witchcraft in the Middle Ages (Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1972), 113–14.
4.		Iohn Day, Law-trickes, or, Who would have thought it (Richard More, 1608), Act V, sig. G4v.
5.		T[homas]. H[eywood]., The fair maid Of The West: or, A Girle worth gold: The second part (Richard Royston, 1631), Act I, sig. C2v.
6.		Reginald Scot, The discouerie of witchcraft (1584), 455–6.
7.		The Revelations of Saint Birgitta, ed. William Patterson Cumming (Early English Text Society, Original Ser. no. 178, 1929), 43.
8.		Scot, 535.
9.		S[amuel]. H[arsnet]., A Declaration of egregious Popish Impostures (Iames Roberts, 1603), 177, 178.
10.		[Samuel Butler], Hudibras: The Second Part (John Martyn & James Allestry, 1664), 30.
11.		T[homas]. H[erbert]., A relation of someyeares travaile, begunneAnno 1626: Into Afrique and the greater Asia (William Stansby & Jacob Bloome, 1634), 8; [Thomas Herbert], Some yeares travels into divers Parts of Asia and Afrique (Iacob Blome & Richard Bishop, 1638), 11.
12.		H[erbert]., A relation (1634), 8.
13.		‘The plott of The first parte of Tamar Cam’, in The Plays of William Shakespeare . . . with the corrections and illustrations of various commentators (J.Johnson etc., 1803), III. ii, facing p. 414; Henslowe Papers, ed. Walter W. Greg (A.H.Bullen, 1907), 148; W.W.Greg, Dramatic Documents from the Elizabethan Playhouses: Reproductions & Transcripts (Oxford, Clarendon Press, [1931]), vii.
14.		Ben Ionson, Volpone Or The Foxe (Thomas Thorpe, 1607), sig. C4v.
15.		Jordan, White over Black, 29.
16.		Edward Topsell, The Historie of foure-footed beastes (William Iaggard, 1607), 10, 12–13, 16, 4.
17.		[James VI of Scotland], Daemonologie, in forme of a Dialogue (Edinburgh, Robert Walde-graue, 1597), 19.
18.		Topsell, 12.
19.		R.Iobson, The Golden Trade (1623), 153.
20.		H[erbert]., A relation (1634), 17.
21.		[Thomas Herbert], Some years travels into divers part of Africa, and Asia the Great, fourth impression (R.Scot etc., 1677), 18.
22.		See Conway Zirkle, ‘The Knowledge of Heredity before 1900’, in Genetics in the 20th Century: Essays on the Progress of Genetics during its First 50 Years, ed. L.C.Dunn (New York, Macmillan Company, 1951), 40: ‘Apes . . . were supposedly derived from the cross of a human being with some unknown quadruped. The height of absurdity seems to have been reached by Burzurgh-ibn-Shahrizar (ca. 954) who described the manatee as a hybrid between an Arab and a fish.’
23.		John Bodin, Method for the Easy Comprehension of History, trans. Beatrice Reynolds (Records of Civilization – Sources and Studies, XXXVII, New York, Columbia University Press, 1945), 105. This is a translation of I[ean]. Bodin, Methodus, ad facilem historiarum cognitionem (Paris, apud Martinem Iuuenem, 1566).
24.		Thomas Phillips, ‘A Journal of a Voyage . . . to . . . Africa; And . . . Barbadoes’, in A Collection of Voyages and Travels, [comp. Awnsham and John Churchill], VI (John Walthoe, 1732), 211.
25.		Morgan Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate, Suing for their Admission into the Church: or A Persuasive to the Instructing and Baptizing of the Negro’s and Indians in our Plantations (J.D., 1680), 12.
26.		J. Atkins, A voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West-Indies (1735), 108.
27.		[Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon], Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, XIV (Paris, Imprimerie royale, 1766), 3 (‘un singe aussi haut, aussi fort que l’homme, aussi ardent pour les femmes que pour ses femelles’), 31 (‘L’appetit véhément des singes mâles pour les femmes . . . les mélanges forcés ou volontaires des Négresses aux singes, dont le produit est rentré dans l’une ou l’autre espèce’); Natural History, general and particular, [trans. William Smellie], VIII (Edinburgh, William Creech, 1780), 40, 65 (I have emended this translation).
28.		[James Burnet, Lord Monboddo], Of the origin and progress of language, I (Edinburgh, A.Kincaid & W.Creech, 1773), 234–5; second edition (Edinburgh, J.Balfour, 1774), 262n.
29.		Chauncey Brewster Tinker, Nature’s Simple Plan: a phase of radical thought in the mid-eighteenth century (Oxford University Press, 1922), 16.
30.		[Burnet], Origin and progress of language, I (1773), 239. See also Arthur O. Lovejoy, ‘Monboddo and Rousseau’, Modern Philology, XXX (1932–3), 283ff.
31.		[Burnet], Origin and progress of language, I, second edition (1774), 289, 270, 345, 290, 276, 346.
32.		[James Burnet, Lord Monboddo], Antient Metaphysics: or, The science of universals, II (T.Cadell, 1782), 125; III (T.Cadell, 1784), 41.
33.		[Burnet], Origin and progress of language, I, second edition (1774), 277, 334.
34.		Cf. Jordan, White over Black, 237; David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press, 1966), 455.
35.		Othello, seventh Arden edition, ed. M.R.Ridley (1958), I. i. 126.
36.		Iohn Leo [Africanus], A geographical historie of Africa, trans. Iohn Pory (Georg. Bishop, 1600), 38, 42. This was a translation of the Descrittione dell’ Africa, published in Venice in 1550 as vol. I of G.B.Ramusio’s collection of travels. Cf.Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow, James MacLehose & Sons, 1905–7), V. 353, 359.
37.		E.Jones, Othello’s Countrymen (1965), p. [vii].
38.		Bodin, 143, 106.
39.		[G.K.Hunter], ‘Elizabethans and foreigners’, in Shakespeare in his own age, ed. Allardyce Nicoll (Shakespeare Survey, XVII, Cambridge, University Press, 1964), 51, reprinted (with some changes) in G.K.Hunter, Dramatic Identities and Cultural Tradition: Studies in Shakespeare and his contemporaries (Liverpool University Press, 1978), 29. Cf. Eldred D. Jones, ‘The Physical Representation of African Characters on the English Stage during the 16th and 17th Centuries’, Theatre Notebook, XVII (1962–3), 18–19: ‘The plays of the Elizabethan and Jacobean period used African characters to an extent that is still not fully recognised . . . Altogether I have listed about thirty-six plays and masques of the 16th and 17th centuries in which African characters were used in one way or another. Some of the titles of lost plays, Mully Mullocco and Mahomet for example, suggest that there may have been more plays which used African characters.’ Actors playing these parts were painted black with what Isabel, in Lust’s Dominion, calls ‘the oil of hell’; see Lust’s Dominion; or, The Lascivious Queen: a Tragedie (Robert Pollard, 1657), V. v, sig. G7v. For a detailed discussion of The Battle of Alcazar, Titus Andronicus, and Lust’s Dominion, see Jones, Othello’s Countrymen, 40–68.
40.		Francis [Bacon], New Atlantis: A Worke vnfinished, 26, in Francis [Bacon], Sylva sylvarum or A Naturall History In ten Centuries (W.Lee, 1627). In C.H.Lyons, To Wash anAethiop White (1975), 5, this vision is unaccountably granted to ‘an “unholy hermit” ’.
41.		‘The strange aduentures of Andrew Battell of Leigh in Essex’, in Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes (Henrie Fetherstone, 1625), II. 973; cf. Purchas (1905–7), VI. 376.
42.		‘A description and historicall declaration of the golden Kingdome of Guinea’, in Purchas (1625), II. 927; cf. Purchas (1905–7), VI. 251.
43.		Iobson, 52.
44.		The Golden Coast, or A Description of Guinney (S.Speed, 1665), 76.
45.		John Ogilby, Africa, being an accurate description of the regions of Ægypt, etc. (the Author, 1670), 451.
46.		William Smith, A New Voyage to Guinea (John Nourse, [1744]), 221–2, clearly copied from a similar passage in Willem Bosman, Nauweurige beschryving van de Guinese Goud-, Tand- en Slave-Kust (Utrecht, Anthony Schouten, 1704), I. 197, as translated in William Bosman, A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea (James Knapton, 1705), 206–7.
47.		The Decades of the newe worlde or west India [ed. R.Eden] (1555), fol. 355v; cf. R. Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations . . . of the English Nation (1903–5), VI. 167; Europeans in West Africa, ed. J.W.Blake (1942), II. 338.
48.		H[erbert]., A relation (1634), 10.
49.		Ogilby, 452.
50.		Bosman (1704), I. 113; Bosman (1705), 117.
51.		[J. Oldmixon], The British Empire in America (1708), II. 118.
52.		Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia (J.Clarke, 1724), 37.
53.		James Houstoun, Some New and Accurate observations Geographical, Natural and Historical: Containing a true and impartial account of the Situation, Product, and Natural History of the Coast of Guinea (J.Peele, 1725), 33–4. Houstoun was for a time physician to the Royal African Company and chief surgeon at Cape Coast Castle.
54.		R.Ligon, A true & exact history Of the Island of Barbados (1657), 53.
55.		[Herbert], Some yeares travels (1638), 11.
56.		John Seller, A new systeme: of Geography (John Seller, [1685]), 90.
57.		Bosman (1704), I. 113; Bosman (1705), 117.
58.		[Oldmixon], II. 119.
59.		H.Jones, 38.
60.		Ligon, 51.
61.		Richard Hakluyt, The principal navigations, voiages, traffiques and discoueries of the English Nation (George Bishop etc., 1598–1600), II. ii. 25; cf. Hakluyt (1903–5), VI. 184; Europeans in West Africa, ed. Blake, II. 367.
62.		Jean Mocquet, Voyages en Afrique, Asie, Indes orientales, & occidentales (Rouen, Iean Caillové, 1645), 74–5; Jean Mocquet, Travels and Voyages into Africa, Asia, and America, trans. Nathaniel Pullen (William Newton etc., 1696), 45.
63.		William Strachey, The Historie of Travell into Virginia Britania [1612], ed. Louis B. Wright and Virginia Freund (Hakluyt Society, 2nd ser. CIII, 1953), 71.
64.		H.Jones, 3.
65.		Don Cameron Allen, The Legend of Noah: Renaissance Rationalism in Art, Science, and Letters (Illinois Studies in Language and Literature, XXXIII/3–4, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1949), 119.
66.		Gilbert Génébrard, Chronographiæ Libri Quatuor (Leyden, sumptibus Ioannis Pillehotte, 1609), 26–7.
67.		Guillaume Postel, De Originibus (Basle, per Ioannem Oporinum, [1553]), 96ff.; Guillaume Postel, Cosmographicae disciplinae compendium (Basle, per Ioannem Oporinum, 1561), 37ff.
68.		Agostino Tornielli, Annales sacri & Profani (Frankfurt, apud Ioannem Theobaldum Schon Wetterum, 1611), I. 133ff.
69.		[George Best], A true discourse of the late voyages of discouerie, for the finding of a passage to Cathaya, by the Northweast (Henry Bynnyman, 1578), sig. f4r–f4v; cf. Hakluyt (1903–5), VII. 264.
70.		The Athenian Oracle: Being an Entire Collection ofall the Valuable Questions and Answers in the old Athenian Mercuries [ed. J.Dunton], III (Andrew Bell, 1704), 380.
71.		P[eter]. H[eylyn]., Microcosmus, or A little description of the great world (Oxford, Iohn Lichfield & Iames Short, 1621), 379.
72.		Peter Heylyn, Mιϰоϰоσμоς: A little description of the great world, third edition (Oxford, William Turner & Thomas Huggins, 1627), 771.
73.		Peter Heylyn, Cosmographie, in four books: containing the Chorographie and History of the whole world (Anne Seile, 1666), 1004.
74.		[Isaac La Peyrère], Præadmitæ: sive Exercitatio super Versibus duodecimo, decimotertio, & decimoquarto, capitis quinti Epistolæ D. Pauli ad Romanos ([Amsterdam?], 1655); Men before Adam: or A Discourse upon the twelfth thirteenth, and fourteenth Verses of the Fifth Chapter of the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Romans (1656).
75.		‘Nouvelle Division de la Terre, par les différentes Espéces ou Races d’hommes qui l’habitent, envoyé par un fameux Voyageur à Monsieur ***** à peu près en ces termes’, Le Journal des sçavans, 1684, pp. 85–9; trans. T.Béndyshe, ‘The History of Anthropology’, App. I, in Memoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of London, I (1863–4), 360–4.
76.		Edward Tyson, Orang-Outang, sive Homo Sylvestris: or, The anatomy of a pygmie compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man (Thomas Bennet, 1699), 55. For Tyson, see M.F.Ashley Montagu, Edward Tyson, M.D., F.R.S. 1650–1708 and the rise of human and comparative anatomy in England: A Study in the History of Science (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, XX, Philadelphia, 1943).
77.		[Johann] Meckel [the elder], ‘Nouvelles observations sur l’épiderme et le cerveau des Négres’, Histoire de l’Académie royale des sciences et belles lettres [Berlin], XIII (1757), 71: ‘Le sang du Négre . . . étoit si noir, qu’au lieu de rougir le linge, comme le sang le fait ordinairement, il le noircissoit. Il semble donc que les Négres fassent presque une autre espece d’hommes, par rapport à la structure intérieure.’
78.		See Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1936).
79.		John Atkins, The Navy-Surgeon: or, A Practical System of Surgery (Caesar Ward & Richard Chandler, 1734), App., 23, 24.
80.		Atkins, A voyage to Guinea, 39. Atkins was soon taken to task for undermining the biblical view of humanity’s creation. See A New General Collection of Voyages and Travels [comp. John Green] (Thomas Astley, 1745–7 [1743–7]), II. 270: ‘With Mr. Atkins’s Leave, this is not to be a little heterodox, but in a great Degree so.’
81.		Ligon, 54–5. See also Wylie Sypher, Guinea’s Captive Kings: British Anti-Slavery Literature of the XVIIIth Century (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1942; reprinted New York, Octagon Books, 1969), 122ff.; and Davis, 10–13.
82.		Mrs. A[phra]. Behn, Oroonoko: or, the Royal Slave: A True History (Will. Canning, 1688), 20–1.
83.		Davis, 481. See also Eva B. Dykes, The Negro in English Romantic Thought: or A Study of Sympathy for the Oppressed (Washington, DC, The Associated Publishers, Inc., 1942), 2–3; R.Anstey, The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition (1975), 145ff.; Douglas A. Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victorians: English attitudes to the Negro in the midnineteenth century (Leicester University Press, 1978), 23–4.
84.		Joseph Jones, ‘The “Distress’d” Negro in English Magazine Verse’, Studies in English, no. 17 (University of Texas Bulletin, no. 3726, 8 July 1937), 103; see also Dykes, passim.
85.		Phillips, ‘A Journal of a Voyage’, 219.

Plantocracy racism

1.		As quoted, [J.E.V.Crofts], ‘Enthusiasm’, in Eighteenth Century Literature: an Oxford Miscellany (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1909), 130.
2.		M. Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate (1680), 61.
3.		Morgan Godwyn, Trade preferr’d before religion, and Christ made to give place to Mammon: Represented in a Sermon Relating to the Plantations (B.Took & Isaac Cleave, 1685), Preface, p. 1: ‘A Negro, whose Owner resided somewhere near Bristol . . . addressed himself to the Minister, beseeching Baptism . . . All which soon after arriving to the Master’s jealous ear, he, with . . . terrible Menaces, dehorted the Minister [i.e. advised him not to]; adding withal, this insolent enquiry, Whether he would baptize his Horse? But perceiving that the Minister little regarded his Menaces or Arguments, he goes home and instantly chains the Negro under the Table among his Dogs.’ This slave had himself baptized all the same – and was promptly shipped out to the plantations.
4.		Thomas Fuller, The Holy State (Cambridge, John Williams, 1642), 129.
5.		A Journal or Historical Account of the Life, Travels, Sufferings, Christian Experiences and Labour of Love in the Work of the Ministry, of that Ancient, Eminent and Faithful Servant of Jesus Christ, George Fox, I (Thomas Northcott, 1694), 361; G[eorge]. F[ox]., Gospel Family–Order; being a short discourse concerning the Ordering of Families, both of Whites, Blacks and Indians (1676), 13–14. See also T.E.Drake, Quakers and Slavery in America (1950), 4, 5–8.
6.		Richard Baxter, A Christian Directory: Or, A Summ of practical theologie, and cases of conscience (Nevill Simmons, 1673), ii. 557–8.
7.		‘Philotheus Physiologus’ [Thomas Tryon], Friendly Advice to the Gentlemen-Planters of the East and West Indies (Andrew Sowle, 1684), 75, 82, 85.
8.		Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate, Preface, sigs. A7r, A5v.
9.		Godwyn, Trade preferr’d before Religion, Preface, p. 1.
10.		Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate, Preface, sig. A7r–A7v; pp. 1–2, 38–9, 3.
11.		Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate, 20,14–19, 13.
12.		Godwyn, The Negro’s and Indians advocate, 28.
13.		M[organ]. G[odwyn]., A Supplement to the Negro’s & Indian’s advocate (J.D., 1681), 10. For the skills of black slaves in colonial New England, including livestock care and rice cultivation, see Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1974) and The Other Slaves: Mechanics, Artisans and Craftsmen, ed. James E. Newton and Ronald L. Lewis (Boston, G.K.Hall & Co., 1978).
14.		Godwyn, Trade preferr’d before Religion, Preface, p. 6.
15.		[Francis Brokesby], Some Proposals towards Promoting the Propagation of the Gospel in our American Plantations (G.Sawbridge & B.Bragg, 1708), 3, 11n.
16.		The Petty Papers: Some unpublished writings of Sir William Petty, ed. [Henry Fitzmaurice,] Marquis of Lansdowne (Constable & Company Limited, 1927), 11. 31.
17.		Maurice Cranston, John Locke: a biography (Longmans, Green & Co., 1957), 115n., 119–20; D.B.Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1966), 118–19; W.D.Jordan, White over Black (1968), 440–1; C.H.Lyons, To Wash an Aethiop White (1970), 22–3.
18.		Jordan, 441.
19.		John Locke, An Essay concerning Human Understanding, ed. Peter H. Nidditch (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1975), I. ii. 25, p. 62; IV. vii. 16, pp. 606–7.
20.		Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: a history of racist and nationalist ideas in Europe, trans. Edmund Howard (Sussex University Press, 1974), 145.
21.		David Hume, Essays Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. T.H.Green and T.H.Grose (Darmstadt, Scientia Verlag Aalen, 1964), 252n.
22.		London Magazine, XIX (1750), 317.
23.		The Modern Part of the Universal History, V (T.Osborne etc., 1760), 658–9, 664, 665.
24.		The Modern Part of the Universal History, VI (T.Osborne etc., 1760), 581.
25.		[William Knox], Three Tracts respecting the Conversion and Instruction of the free Indians, and Negroe slaves in the colonies: addressed to the venerable Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts [c. 1768], 41, 16–18.
26.		London Chronicle, XVI/1214 (29 September–2 October 1764), 317.
27.		Gentleman’s Magazine, XXXIV (1764), 495.
28.		London Chronicle, XVIII/1378 (19–22 October 1765), 387.
29.		London Chronicle, XXIII/2537 (13–16 March 1773), 250; Samuel Martin, An Essay upon Plantership, Humbly Inscribed to his Excellency George Thomas Esq; Chief Governor of All the Leeward Islands, fifth edition (T.Cadell, 1773), Preface, pp. xiv–xv.
30.		English Chronicle, as quoted by J.A.C[annon]. in Sir L.Namier and J.Brooke, The House of Commons 1754–1790 (1964), II. 406–7.
31.		Estwick was assistant agent for Barbados, 1763–78, and agent for Barbados, 1778–92. He was MP for Westbury, Wiltshire, 1779–95, deputy paymaster-general, 1782–3, and paymaster-general from 1784 to his death in 1795. For a brief biography, see Namier and Brooke, II. 406–7.
32.		[Samuel Estwick], Considerations on the Negroe Cause Commonly so called, addressed to the Right Honourable Lord Mansfield, . . . By a West Indian (J.Dodsley, 1772), 44.
33.		Samuel Estwick, Considerations on the Negroe Cause, second edition (J.Dodsley, 1773), 73–4.
34.		Estwick, Considerations, second edition (1773), 74–82.
35.		[Edward Long], Candid Reflections (1772), 48–9.
36.		[Long], Candid Reflections, 50.
37.		[Long], Candid Reflections, 46.
38.		[E.Long], History of Jamaica (1774), I. 4.
39.		[Long], History of Jamaica, II. 336, 356, 352–3, 356–70, 371, 374–5, 382–3.
40.		George Metcalf, Introduction to E.Long, History of Jamaica (Cass Library of West Indian Studies, no. 12, Frank Cass & Co. Ltd, 1970), I. p. [xi].
41.		G[ilbert]. Francklyn, Observations occasioned by the attempts made in England to effect the abolition of the slave trade (J.Walter etc., 1789), 4n.; cf. G[ilbert]. Francklyn, An Answer to the Rev. Mr. Clarkson’s Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species (J.Walter etc., 1789), 31–3.
42.		[Long], Candid Reflections, 60.
43.		J.H.Plumb, England in the Eighteenth Century (Pelican History of England, 7, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books Ltd, 1955 reprint), 88–9. Much the same comparison – in fact, with the condition of English agricultural workers – was made in 1789 by a former private secretary to the governor of Barbados; see William Dickson, Letters on Slavery (J.Phillips etc., 1789), 52–3.
44.		HCSP of the Eighteenth Century, LXXIII. 232, 239, 242–3 (evidence of Ninian Jeffreys); 305 (evidence of Henry Hew Dalrymple).
45.		Davis, 461.
46.		Oliver Goldsmith, An History of the Earth, and Animated Nature (J.Nourse, 1774), II. 226–8.
47.		[Janet Schaw], Journal of a Lady of Quality, ed. Evangeline Walker Andrews and Charles McLean Andrews (Yale Historical Publications, Manuscripts and Edited Texts, VI, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1921), 127. The original is unfortunately missing from the British Library’s Department of Manuscripts.
48.		[Charles Johnstone], The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life (T.Cadell & W.Flexny, 1775), I. 239.
49.		[James Tobin], Cursory Remarks upon the Reverend Mr. Ramsay’s Essay on The treatment and conversion of African slaves in the sugar colonies (G. & T. Wilkie, 1785), 118n.
50.		See pp. 108–9 above.
51.		P.Thicknesse, A Year’s Journey through France and Part of Spain, second edition (1778), II. 102–5, 108–11. See also Memoirs and Anecdotes of Philip Thicknesse (the author, 1788), I. 279, 282n.: blacks were an inferior order of men, never seen to work ‘except now and then to serve the mason, or bricklayer, with mortar’.
52.		The World, no. 735 (9 May 1789), [2]. For Shyllon’s suggestion that this letter was written by Long, see his Black People in Britain (1977), 111 n. 29.
53.		Morning Chronicle, and London Advertiser, no. 6015 (19 August 1788), [2].
54.		John Scattergood, An Antidote to Popular Frenzy, particularly to the present rage for the abolition of the slave-trade (H.Gardner etc., [1792]), 15, 24.
55.		Thomas Atwood, The History of the Island of Dominica (J.Johnson, 1791), 212, 266, 255, 272.
56.		Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of The British Colonies in the West Indies (John Stockdale, 1793), II. 62, 79, 81. Edwards was MP for Grampound, 1796–1800; for a brief biography see W.P.C[ourtney]., in DNB, XVII. 111–13.
57.		Fugitive Thoughts on the African slave trade, interspersed with cursory remarks on the manners, customs, and commerce, of the African and American Indians (Liverpool, 1792), as quoted by B.Davidson, Black Mother, revised edition (1980), 14. This rare pamphlet is listed as no. 2133 in Peter C. Hogg, The African Slave Trade and its Suppression: a classified and annotated bibliography (Frank Cass, 1973).

Pseudo-scientific racism

1.		Charles R. Lawrence, Foreword to Dorothy Hammon and Alta Jablow, The Africa That Never Was: Four centuries of British writing about Africa (New York, Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1970), [3].
2.		P.D.Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, II (1960–3), 42.
3.		Ralph A. Austen and Woodruff D. Smith, ‘Images of Africa and British slave-trade abolition: the transition to an imperialist ideology, 1787–1807’, African Historical Studies, II (1969), 69–83.
4.		P.D.Curtin, The Image of Africa (1965), 45. As late as 1857, France’s first professor of anthropology, Armand de Quatrefages, quoted both Estwick and Long with reference to the alleged infertility of persons of mixed race; see his ‘Du croisement des races humaines’, Revue des deux mondes, séconde période VIII (1857), 162.
5.		Carl Linnaeus, Systema naturœ per Regna tria naturœ, tenth edition (Stockholm, Laurentius Saluis, 1758–9), I. 21–2; The Animal Kingdom, or zoological system of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnœus, trans. Robert Kerr (J.Murray & R.Faulder, 1792), 45.
6.		Nicolaus E. Dahlberg, Dissertatio botanica metamorphoses plantarum sistens (Stockholm, Typographia regia, [1755]), 22; Knut Hagberg, Carl Linnceus, trans. Alain Blair (Jonathan Cape, 1952), 199, erroneously attributing these words to Linnaeus himself.
7.		W.D.Jordan, White over Black (1968), 236.
8.		C[harles]. Bonnet, Contemplation de la nature (Amsterdam, Marc-Michel Rey, 1764), I. 81–2; The Contemplation of Nature (T.Longman etc., 1766), I. 68–9. For Bonnet, see Lorin Anderson, ‘Charles Bonnet’s Taxonomy and Chain of Being’, Journal of the History of Ideas, XXXVII (1976), 45–58.
9.		[Soame Jenyns], Disquisitions on several subjects (J.Dodsley, 1782), 10. Jenyns was MP for Cambridgeshire, 1741–54; Dunwich, 1754–8; and Cambridge, 1758–80. For a brief biography, see Sir L.Namier and J.Brooke, The House of Commons 1754–1790 (1964), II. 681–2.
10.		Ioann. Frider. Blumenbach, De generis humani varietate nativa (Göttingen, Frid. Andr. Rosenbuschii, [1775]), 41–2; second edition (Göttingen, Viduam Abr. Vandenhoek, 1781), 51–2; third edition (Göttingen, Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 1795), pp. x–xi, 285–7; Joh. Fr. Blumenbach, Beyträge zur Naturgeschichte (Göttingen, Johann Christian Dieterich etc., 1790–1811), I. 79–83, 84–118; The anthropological treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, trans. and ed. Thomas Bendyshe (Publications of the Anthropological Society of London, 1865), 99, 150–1, 264–6, 302–4, 305–12.
11.		[Marie Jean Pierre] Flourens, ‘Eloge historique de Jean-Frédéric Blumenbach’, Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de l’Institut de France, XXI (1847), p. xiij, reprinted in [Marie Jean] P[ierre]. Flourens, Recueil des éloges historiques lus dans les séances publiques de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris, Garnier Frères, 1856–62), I. 212; ‘Memoir of Blumenbach’, in Anthropological treatises of . . . Blumenbach, trans. and ed. Bendyshe, 57.
12.		Blumenbach, De generis humani varietate nativa, third edition (1795), 106–8, 304; Anthropological treatises of . . . Blumenbach, trans. and ed. Bendyshe, 237–8, 269.
13.		Jacques Barzun, Race: a study in modern superstition (Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1938), 52–3.
14.		Verhandeling van Petrus Camper, over het natuurlijk verschil der wezenstrekken in menschen van onderscheiden landaart en ouderdom (Utrecht, B.Wild & J.Altheer, 1791), 47, 32; The Works of the Late Professor Camper, on The Connexion between the Science of Anatomy and The Arts of Drawing, Painting, Statuary, &c. &c., trans. T.Cogan (C.Dilly, 1794), 50, 32.
15.		Jordan, 226.
16.		See Charles White, An account of the regular gradation in man, and in different animals and vegetables; and from the former to the latter (C.Dilly, 1799), 41.
17.		S[amuel]. Th[omas]. [von] Sömmerring, Ueber die körperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers vom Europäer (Frankfurt & Mainz, Varrentrapp, Sohn & Wenner, 1785), 67.
18.		[Henry Home, Lord Kames], Sketches of the History of Man (Edinburgh, W.Creech, 1774), I. 38–42, 12. For Kames, see Franklin Thomas, The Environmental Basis of Society: A study in the history of sociological theory (New York and London, The Century Co., 1925), 269–70, and Gladys Bryson, Man and society: The Scottish Inquiry of the Eighteenth Century (Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1945), especially pp. 64–6.
19.		[Thomas Jefferson], Notes on the state of Virginia; written in the year 1781 . . . for the use of a Foreigner of distinction ([Paris], 1782 [1784]), 263–4: ‘I advance it . . . as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind.’
20.		White, 66–7, 79, 83, 134–5, 137–8, App.
21.		J[ames]. C[owles]. Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, third edition (Sherwood, Gilbert, & Piper, 1836–47), II. 97. For this paragraph, see also John S. Haller, Outcasts from Evolution: Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859–1900 (Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1971), 77.
22.		Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, 50.
23.		Michael D. Biddiss, ed., in Images of Race (Leicester University Press, 1979), 11.
24.		Bernard Semmel, The Governor Eyre Controversy (Macgibbon & Kee, 1962), 134–5.
25.		V.G.Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European attitudes towards the outside world in the Imperial Age (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969), 316.
26.		I owe some of these categories to Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, 43ff.
27.		W[illiam]. Lawrence, Lectures on physiology, zoology and the Natural History of Man (J.Callow, 1819), 363, 476, 478, 493.
28.		T.K.Penniman,/4 Hundred Years of Anthropology, second edition (Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd, 1952), 81–2.
29.		George Combe, A System of Phrenology, second edition (Edinburgh, John Anderson, jun., 1825), 468–9; John D. Davies, Phrenology, Fad and Science: A 19th–Century American Crusade (Yale Historical Publications, Miscellany 62, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1955), 145.
30.		W[illiam]. F[rédéric]. Edwards, Des caractères physiologiques des races humaines considérés dans leurs rapports avec Vhistoire (Paris, Compère Jeune, 1829), 45.
31.		Curtin, Image of Africa, 363, 235.
32.		Combe, 461.
33.		Robert Verity, Changes produced in the nervous system by civilization, considered according to the evidence of physiology and the philosophy of history, second edition (S.Highley, 1839), 57–8, 69, 29n., 64.
34.		See Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, 50.
35.		J.G. Robertson, ‘Carlyle’, in The Cambridge History of English Literature, XIII (Cambridge, University Press, 1953 reprint), 1; see also George Sampson, The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature, third edition (Cambridge, University Press, 1970), 572.
36.		[Thomas Carlyle], ‘Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question’, Fraser’s Magazine, XL (1849), 676–7, 671; T.Carlyle, Occasional Discourse on the Nigger Question (Thomas Bosworth, 1853), 42, 5. Ian Campbell, ‘Carlyle and the Negro Question Again’, Criticism, XIII (1971), 279–90, draws attention to a series of five letters ‘On the West Indies Question’, signed ‘Presbyter’, published in the Dumfries and Galloway Courier, 1829–30, which Carlyle undoubtedly read and from which he seems to have taken certain ideas for the ‘Occasional Discourse’.
37.		Michael St.John Packe, The Life of John Stuart Mill (Seeker & Warburg, 1954), 465; D. [i.e. John Stuart Mill], ‘The Negro question’, Fraser’s Magazine, XLI (1850), 25–31.
38.		[Thomas Carlyle], ‘Shooting Niagara: and after?’, Macmillan’s Magazine, XVI (1867), 321.
39.		Thomas Carlyle, ‘The New Downing Street’, 23, in Latter–day Pamphlets (Chapman & Hall, 1850); Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, hero-worship, & the heroic in history (James Fraser, 1841), 362; Thomas Carlyle, Past and Present (Chapman & Hall, 1843), 215–18; C[arl]. A[dolph]. Bodelsen, Studies in mid-Victorian imperialism (Copenhagen, Gyldendalske Boghandel, 1924), 28.
40.		Anthony Trollope, The West Indies and the Spanish Main (Chapman & Hall, 1859), 56–7.
41.		Spectator, no. 1942 (16 September 1865), 1035.
42.		Cf. Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, 44.
43.		Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, 3rd ser. vol. 88 (1846), cols. 165–6.
44.		Harry H. Johnston, A history of the colonization of Africa by alien races (Cambridge, University Press, 1899), 91–2.
45.		Gilbert Murray, ‘The exploitation of inferior races in ancient and modern times’, in Liberalism and the Empire (R. Brimley Johnson, 1900), 156.
46.		Thomas Arnold, Introductory lectures on modern history (Oxford, John Henry Parker, 1842), 36–9.
47.		Curtin, Image of Africa, 311.
48.		Robert Knox, The Races of Men: a philosophical enquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations, second edition (Henry Renshaw, 1852), pp. [v], 243–4, 246. For Knox, see M.D.Biddiss, ‘The Politics of Anatomy: Dr Robert Knox and Victorian Racism’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, LXIX (1976), 245–50, and Reginald Horsman, ‘Origins of Racial Anglo–Saxonism in Great Britain before 1850’ Journal of the History of Ideas, XXXVII (1976), 405–7. As Biddiss points out (p. 246), the only recent life of Knox – Isobel Rae, Knox, the Anatomist (Oliver & Boyd, 1964) – plays down his racism. Henry Lonsdale, A Sketch of the Life and Writings of Robert Knox the Anatomist (Macmillan and Co., 1870), was less reticent: see pp. 305–6, 308–315.
49.		Horsman, 407.
50.		Lancet, 1865, ii. 627.
51.		William Hepworth Dixon, White Conquest (Chatto & Windus, 1876 [1875]), II. 372–3.
52.		Samuel George Morton, ‘On the Size of the Brain in Various Races and Families of Man; with Ethnological Remarks’, in J.C.Nott and Geo. R. Gliddon, Types of Mankind: or, Ethnological Researches (Trübner & Co., 1854), 301–2; [S.G.Morton], ‘Origin of the Human Species’, in Nott and Gliddon, 310; J.C.N[ott]., ‘Comparative Anatomy of Races’, in Nott and Gliddon, 450. These figures differ considerably from Morton’s earlier findings.
53.		Thomas F. Gossett, Race: the history of an idea in America (Dallas, Southern Methodist University Press, 1963), 74. Cf. Christine Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 15: ‘In recent times, since it has been demonstrated that the Japanese, American Indians, Eskimoes and Polynesians all frequently have brains larger than those found among Europeans, this line of argument has lost its appeal for the racist.’
54.		Thomas Hope, Essay on the origin and prospects of man (John Murray, 1831), III. 391–6, 397.
55.		‘Notices and Abstracts of Communications’, etc., 75, in Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science . . . 1841 (John Murray, 1842).
56.		J.W.Burrow, ‘Evolution and Anthropology in the 1860’s: the Anthropological Society of London, 1863–71’, Victorian Studies, VII (1963–4), 143, says this was ‘little more than a pretext’
57.		Burrow, 146.
58.		James Hunt, ‘On the Negro’s Place in Nature’, Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London, I (1863–4), 51–2; James Hunt, On the Negro’s Place in Nature (Triibner & Co., 1863), 51–2. The society published 1,000 copies of Hunt’s paper; see D.A.Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victorians (1978), 138.
59.		James Hunt, ‘Address delivered at the Third Anniversary Meeting of the Anthropological Society of London’, Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, IV (1866), p. lxxviii.
60.		For the Morant Bay atrocities, see [Sydney Haldane,] Lord Oliver, The Myth of Governor Eyre (Hogarth Press, 1933); C.L.R.James, A History of Negro Revolt (Fact, no. 18, September 1938), 27; Arvel B. Erickson, ‘Empire or Anarchy: the Jamaica Rebellion of 1865’, Journal of Negro History, XLIV (1959), 99–f 22; Eric Williams, British Historians and the West Indies (Port-of-Spain, P.N.M. Publishing Company Limited, 1964), [62]–120, British edition (André Deutsch, 1966), [87]–153; Bolt, 75–108; Lorimer, [178]–200. For additional references, see Lorimer, 260 n. 2. George H. Ford, ‘The Governor Eyre Case in England’, University of Toronto Quarterly, XVII (1947–8), 219–33, and Semmel, The Governor Eyre Controversy, discuss repercussions in Britain.
61.		As quoted by Ford, 223.
62.		Report of the Jamaica Royal Commission, 1866 (HCSP, 1866, XXX).
63.		J.B.Atlay, ‘The case of Governor Eyre’, Cornhill Magazine, XII (1902), 211–12, 215, 217; Malcolm Uren and Robert Stephens, Waterless horizons: The first full-length study of the extraordinary life-story of Edward John Eyre (Melbourne, Robertson & Mullens, 1945), 239–40; Ford, 225–6.
64.		As reported in The Times, no. 25,584 (23 August 1866), 7.
65.		Hunt, ‘Address . . . at the Third Anniversary Meeting’, p. lxxviii.
66.		Commander Bedford Pim, The Negro and Jamaica (Triibner & Co., 1866), 15, 16, 50, 35, 51, 63.
67.		‘The end of the Jamaica prosecution’, Spectator, no. 2084 (6 June 1868), 666.
68.		Lorimer, 149–50.
69.		Lorimer, 146.
70.		Michael Banton, Race Relations (Tavistock Publications, 1967), 37.
71.		Herbert Spencer, Social statics; or, The conditions essential to human happiness specified (John Chapman, 1851), 322–3.
72.		Herbert Spencer, ‘The comparative psychology of man’, in his Essays: Scientific, Political and Speculative, III, third edition (Williams & Norgate, 1878), 425–7.
73.		R.H.H[utton]., in DNB, II. 395; Walter Bagehot, Physics and politics, or thoughts on the application of the principles of ‘Natural Selection’ and ‘Inheritance’ to political society (Henry S. King & Co., 1872), 43, 49.
74.		Benjamin Kidd, Social Evolution (Macmillan & Co., 1894), 45–6, 268.
75.		Benjamin Kidd, The Control of the Tropics (New York, The Macmillan Company, 1898), 53.
76.		‘A Biologist’ [i.e. Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell?], ‘A biological view of our foreign policy’, Saturday Review, LXXXII/2101 (1 February 1896), 119.
77.		W. Winwood Reade, Savage Africa: being the narrative of a tour of equatorial, south-western, and north-western Africa (Smith, Elder, & Co., 1863), 587.
78.		F[raser]. R[ae], in DNB, XLIX. 97; Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, 3rd ser. vol. 165 (1862), col. 1449.
79.		Francis Galton, Hereditary genius: an inquiry into its laws and consequences (Macmillan & Co., 1869), 338, 339, 343, 359.
80.		Banton, Race Relations, 41.
81.		Karl Pearson, National life from the standpoint of science (Adam & Charles Black, 1901 [1900]), 42, 43, 19, 24, 62.
82.		Cf. Barzun, 69, and E.F.Chidell, Africa and national regeneration (Thomas Burleigh, 1904), 62–3: ‘Even the Australian native does not disappear soon enough to satisfy everyone. I remember an archdeacon, who was a true bishop to these poor folk, after a visit paid to one of their settlements, expressing the wish from a heart overflowing with kindness, that they would all, being first brought into an appropriate frame of mind, at once depart to a better world.’
83.		Horsman, 399.
84.		Thomas Carlyle, Chartism (James Fraser, 1840), 75.
85.		Arnold, 33–5.
86.		As quoted by Williams (1966), 49.
87.		Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, 3rd ser. vol. 151 (1858), col. 1821.
88.		Charles Wentworth Dilke, Greater Britain: A record of travel in English-speaking countries during 1866 and 1867 (Macmillan & Co., 1868), I. 273; II. 406; I. 308.
89.		Charles Kingsley, The Roman and the Teuton (Cambridge and London, Macmillan & Co., 1864), [324], 338, 340.
90.		Charles Kingsley to J.M.Ludlow, December 1849, in Charles Kingsley: his letters and memories of his life [ed. Frances E. Kingsley] (Henry S. King & Co., 1877), I. 222–3.
91.		Kingsley to his mother, 25 January 1870, in Charles Kingsley, II. 312.
92.		Kingsley to his wife, 4 July 1860, in Charles Kingsley, II. 107.
93.		As quoted by Michael Banton, ‘A nineteenth-century racial philosophy: Charles Kingsley’, The Idea of Race (Tavistock Publications, 1977), 79–80. For Kingsley as racist see also an earlier version of Banton’s essay: ‘Kingsley’s Racial Philosophy’, Theology, LXXVIII (1975), 22–30.
94.		J.R.Seeley, The Expansion of England (Macmillan & Co., 1883), 262.
95.		Captain Frank E. Younghusband, The heart of a continent: a narrative of travels in Manchuria etc. (John Murray, 1896), 396.
96.		R.A.Huttenback, ‘The British Empire as a “White Man’s Country” – Racial Attitudes and Immigration Legislation in the Colonies of White Settlement’, Journal of British Studies, XIII (1973–4), 109.
97.		H.D.Traill, ‘ “The burden of Egypt”, I: The difficulties of withdrawal’, Nineteenth Century, XXXIX (1896), 549.
98.		The Times, no. 34,732 (12 November 1895), 6.
99.		Basil Williams, Cecil Rhodes, new edition (Constable & Company Ltd, 1938), 55.
100.		W.T.Stead, ed., in The Last Will and Testament of Cecil John Rhodes (Review of Reviews office, 1902), 52, 63.
101.		Last Will and Testament of . . . Rhodes, 58.
102.		Lord Milner, The Nation and the Empire (Constable & Company Ltd, 1913), pp. 496, xxxv.
103.		R.N.Chowdhuri, International Mandates and Trusteeship Systems: a comparative study (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1955), 16.
104.		Speech of Edmund Burke, Esq. on moving his resolution for conciliation with the colonies, March 22, 1775, second edition (J.Dodsley, 1775), 101; Mr. Burke’s Speech, On the 1st December 1783, on Mr. Fox’s East India Bill (J.Dodsley, 1794), 7–8.
105.		George R. Mellor, British Imperial Trusteeship 1783–1850 (Faber & Faber, 1951), 22–3; Austen and Smith, 69–83; Robin Hallett, ‘Changing European Attitudes to Africa’, in The Cambridge History of Africa, V, ed. John E. Flint (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 490.
106.		‘Minutes by Sir T.S.Raffles, on the establishment of a Malay college at Singapore. 1819’, in [Lady Sophia Raffles], Memoir of the life and public services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, F.R.S. &c. (John Murray, 1830), App., p. [24].
107.		Report from the Select Committee on Aborigines (British Settlements) (HCSP, 1837, VII), 4, 6, 76–81.
108.		Hallett, 490.
109.		Curtin, Image of Africa, 415, 422.
110.		Lorimer, 77. Lorimer warns (p. 79) against seeing all evangelicals as racially prejudiced. Missionary attitudes to race are discussed in Bolt, 117ff. For missionaries as agents of imperial expansion, see H. Alan C. Cairns, Prelude to Imperialism: British Reactions to Central African Society 1840–1890 (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965), 239–40.
111.		Rt Hon. Sir F.D.Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood & Sons, 1922), 18, 69, 88.
112.		Curtin, ‘ “Scientific” Racism and the British Theory of Empire’, 48–9.
113.		Sir Charles Eliot, The East Africa Protectorate (Edward Arnold, 1905), 92, 99.
114.		Eliot, 122.
115.		Lugard, 92.
116.		J.D.Fage, A History of Africa (Hutchinson, 1978), 375. Chamberlain was ‘the first British statesman to prize west African territory highly enough to risk fighting France to get it’ (Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism (Macmillan & Co. Ltd, 1961), 395).
117.		Rudyard Kipling, ‘Recessional’, The Times, no. 35,258 (17 July 1897), 13; Kipling, The Five Nations (Methuen & Co., 1903), 215.
118.		Rudyard Kipling, The White Man’s Burden (printed for private circulation, 1899), [5]; Kipling, The Five Nations, 79.
119.		Robert Needham Cust , A sketch of the modern languages of Africa (Trübner & Co., 1883), II. 457.
120.		Curtin, Image of Africa, 382.
121.		‘Elia’ [Charles Lamb], ‘Jews, Quakers, Scotchmen, and other imperfect sympathies’, London Magazine, IV (1821), 152, 155; [Charles Lamb], Elia (Taylor & Hessey, 1823), 134, 143.
122.		Philip D. Curtin, ‘Anglo-Saxons and the Tar Brush’, Journal of African History, XII (1971), 673.
123.		Reade, 555.
124.		Bolt, 210; Lorimer, 16, 226 n. 11.
125.		Louis James, ‘Tom Brown’s Imperialist Sons’, Victorian Studies, XVII (1973), 97. I owe the following reference to James’s paper.
126.		Boys of England, I (1866–7), 3, 19.
127.		J.A.Mangan, ‘Images of empire in the late Victorian public school’, Journal of Educational Administration and History, XII (1980), 31, 37.
128.		G.A.Henty, By Sheer Pluck: a tale of the Ashanti war (Blackie & Son, 1884 [1885]), 118, For Henty as propagandist of ‘the stereotype of blacks as lazy, childlike, without capacity, and still more the feeling of contempt for them’, see Guy Arnold, Held Fast for England: GA.Henty: imperialist boys ’ writer (Hamish Hamilton, 1980), 79–80: ‘Henty must take a full share of responsibility for propagating the kind of views which have done such damage to British relations with African or Asian people during the present century. Nor is the retrospective defence of such attitudes – that they were normal for that period in history – really tenable. To suggest that Henty was expressing no more than what half his contemporaries felt is to denigrate his powers and influence. He was a propagandist – for empire and British interests – and a highly successful one, too, in his way . . . As Henty often claimed, he set out to instruct as well as amuse . . . At least some of the racial arrogance which, unhappily, has been so marked a characteristic of British behaviour in what is now termed “The Third World” can be attributed to his influence.’ The figure for Henty’s sales is taken from Arnold’s Preface, p. [xi], where it is attributed to Henty’s principal publisher, Blackie. For an excellent survey of the presentation of black people in nineteenth-century fiction for children, see Jake W. Spidle, ‘Victorian juvenilia and the image of the black African’, Journal of Popular Culture, IX (1975–6), 51–65. See also G.D.Killam, Africa in English Fiction 1874–1939 (Ibadan University Press, 1968).

8. Up from slavery

The black poor

1.		Herbert Aptheker, The Negro in the American Revolution (New York, International Publishers, 1940), 16–21; B.Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (1961), [19]–32, 119, [134]–181; S. Kaplan, The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution 1770–1800 (1973), 67–8, reproducing as fig. 35, p. 62, Dunmore’s proclamation of 7 November 1775, which will also be found in American Archives: Fourth Series, III, ed. Peter Force (Washington, 1840), col. 1385; Mary Beth Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists of the American Revolution’, Journal of Negro History, LVIII (1973), 402–3; James W.St.G.Walker, ‘Blacks as American Loyalists: The Slaves’ War for Independence’, Historical Reflections, II (1975), [51]–67; Sylvia R.Frey, ‘The British and the Black: A New Perspective’, The Historian, XXXVIII (1975–6), 225–38; James W.St.G.Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone (Longman & Dalhousie University Press, 1976), [1]–12; Ellen Gibson Wilson, The Loyal Blacks (New York, Capricorn Books etc., 1976), 24–36, 138.
2.		Wilson, 138; Stephen J.Braidwood, ‘Initiatives and Organisation of the Black Poor 1786–1787’ (paper presented to the International Conference on the History of Blacks in Britain, London, 28–30 September 1981), 6. Shadrack Furman’s petition is at PRO AO 13/29/658–9.
3.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 404–6; Walker, ‘Blacks as American Loyalists’, 64–5; Walker, The Black Loyalists, 6; Wilson, 138–9. See also Mary Beth Norton, The British-Americans: The Loyalist Exiles in England 1774–1789 (Constable, 1974), 226.
4.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 406 n. 11.
5.		Public Advertiser, no. 15854 (16 March 1785), [2]–[3].
6.		F.Shyllon, Black People in Britain (1977), 123–4. In 1788 James Adair, recorder of London, headed the list of subscribers to the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, with a subscription of ten guineas; see List of the Society, instituted in 1787, For the Purpose of effecting the abolition of the slave trade (1788), sig. A1r.
7.		Public Advertiser, no. 16106 (6 January 1786), [4]; no. 16109 (10 January 1786), [4]; no. 16114 (16 January 1786), [4]; no. 16137 (11 February 1786), [2]; Morning Chronicle, and London Advertiser, no. 5213 (28 January 1786), [1].
8.		Proceedings of the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, 10 July 1786, PRO T1 633/133. For the ‘Expences of the Sickhouse in Warren Street’, see PRO T1 532/360, T1 633/128, T1 633/130, T1 634/26, T1 634/133, T1 635/151, T1 638/229, T1 638/230-2, T1 638/233a.
9.		Morning Post, and Daily Advertiser, no. 4080 (15 March 1786), [1].
10.		Public Advertiser, no. 16195 (18 April 1786), [2].
11.		Public Advertiser, no. 16117 (19 January 1786), [3]; see also, for a similar opinion, no. 16143 (17 February 1786), [2].
12.		Public Advertiser, no. 16195 (18 April 1786), [2]; Braidwood, 8, 19 n. 27.
13.		C.B.Wadström, An Essay on Colonization (1794–5), II. 220.
14.		C.Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (1962), 15; I.Geiss, The Pan-African Movement, trans. A.Keep (1974), 36.
15.		[Granville Sharp], Short sketch of temporary regulations (until better shall be provided) for the intended settlement on the Grain Coast of Africa, near Sierra Leona (H.Baldwin, 1786); P.D.Curtin, The Image of Africa (1965), 99–102.
16.		Memorial of Henry Smeathman to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury, 17 May 1786, PRO T1 631/135; Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 408; Wilson, 141.
17.		Reprinted in Henry Smeathman, Plan of a settlement to be made near Sierra Leona, on the Grain Coast of Africa (T.Stockdale etc., 1786), 23; Wadstrom, II. 210; Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 408; Wilson, 152.
18.		John Pugh, Remarkable occurrences in the life of Jonas Hanway, Esq. (Payne & Son etc., 1787), 211.
19.		Proceedings of the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, 7 June 1786, PRO T1 632/105; Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 409.
20.		Smeathman, Plan of a settlement, 18.
21.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 409–10.
22.		Proceedings, 7 June 1786, PRO T1 632/105–6; reproduced in N.File and C.Power, Black Settlers in Britain 1555–1958 (1981), 31, 32.
23.		Mr Peters . . . Account of Receipts and Expences, 5 September 1786, PRO T1 635/150; Braidwood, 12.
24.		Proceedings, 17 May 1786, PRO T1 631/178; Braidwood, 11.
25.		Proceedings, 7 June 1786, PRO T1 632/107v; Shyllon, 134.
26.		Proceedings, 15 July 1786, PRO T1 633/272–5; Proceedings, 26 July 1786, PRO T1 634/28; Jonas Hanway to Treasury, 28 July 1786, PRO T1 634/117; Petition of 15 Corporals, PRO T1 638/258.
27.		Messrs Turnbull, Macaulay & Gregory, Proposals to convey Black Poor to Nova Scotia, 28 July 1786, PRO T1 634/145; Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 412.
28.		Proceedings, 31 July 1786, PRO T1 634/135; Proceedings, 4 August 1786, PRO T1 634/312; Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 413.
29.		Minutes, 9 October 1786, PRO T1 636/128; Proceedings, 24 October 1786, PRO T1 638/238, reproduced in File and Power, 33.
30.		PRO T1 636/128.
31.		Proceedings, 14 June 1786, PRO T1 632/112; Wilson 143.
32.		Draft at PRO T1 636/130.
33.		George Peters to Commissioners of Navy, 6 October 1786, PRO T1 636/127; PRO T1 636/128; PRO T1 636/233; Wilson, 143–4; Braidwood, 13.
34.		Wilson, 146.
35.		Sam[uel] Hoare to Treasury, 6 December 1787, PRO T1 638/227.
36.		General Evening Post, no. 8276 (14–16 December 1786), [1].
37.		Public Advertiser, no. 16418 (3 January 1787), [4].
38.		e.g. Public Advertiser, no. 16419 (4 January 1787), [3]; no. 16426 (12 January 1787), [4].
39.		O. Cugoano, Thoughts and sentiments on the evil and wicked traffic of the slavery and commerce of the human species (1787), 142.
40.		e.g. Morning Post, and Daily Advertiser, no. 4327 (29 December 1786), [3], reproduced in File and Power, [27].
41.		Morning Post, and Daily Advertiser, no. 4328 (30 December 1786), [2].
42.		As quoted by Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 415.
43.		Cugoano, 140.
44.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 416.
45.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 417–18.
46.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 418–19; Wilson, 150.
47.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 419.
48.		Braidwood, 12.
49.		Norton, ‘The fate of some black loyalists’, 409.
50.		Cugoano, 140.
51.		C.H.Fyfe, ‘Thomas Peters: History and Legend’, Sierra Leone Studies, n.s. no. 1 (December 1953), [4]–11; Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 32–4, 41–2; Walker, The Black Loyalists, 25, 31, 44, 94–6, 105, [115]–138, [145]–151; Wilson, 34, 75, 108–13, 177–86, 231–2, 248–56; Christopher Fyfe, in The Encyclopaedia Africana Dictionary of African Biography, II (New York, Reference Publications Inc., 1979), 131–2.
52.		Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 42.

Resistance and self-emancipation

1.		Will of Thomas Armstrong, 1822, Record Office, Carlisle, as quoted byJ.Walvin, Black and White (1973), 50.
2.		Douglas A.Lorimer, ‘Black Slaves and English Liberty: a Reexamination of Racial Slavery in England’ (paper presented to the International Conference on the History of Blacks in Britain, London, 28–30 September 1981), abstract and pp. [1], 2, 4, 7–8, 10, 15,21.
3.		Gentleman’s Magazine, XXXIV (1764), 493.
4.		Sir J.Fielding, Extracts from such of the Penal Laws, as Particularly relate to the Peace and Good Order of this Metropolis, new edition (1768), 144. Italics in the original.
5.		T.Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade (1808), I. 78–9.
6.		J.J.Hecht, Continental and Colonial Servants in Eighteenth Century England (1954), 43.
7.		Edward Brathwaite, The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica 1770–1820 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971), 159.
8.		The Diary and Letters of His Excellency Thomas Hutchinson, Esq., ed. Peter Orlando Hutchinson (Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1883–6), II. 276–7.
9.		Lorimer, 14.
10.		Gentleman’s Magazine, XI (1741), 186; Hecht, 39.
11.		Diary and Letters of. . . Thomas Hutchinson, ed. Hutchinson, II. 274–5; G.Williams, History of the Liverpool Privateers (1897), 563–4.
12.		Lorimer, 12.
13.		And. S .Cunningham, Rambles in the parishes ofScoonie and Wemyss (Leven, Purves & Cunningham, [1905]), 154–6.
14.		Lorimer, 15.
15.		Nicholas Rogers, ‘London politics from Walpole to Pitt: patriotism and independency in an era of commercial imperialism, 1738–63’ (unpublished University of Toronto PhD thesis, 1974), 508–9, as quoted by Robert W.Malcolmson, Life and Labour in England 1700–1780 (Hutchinson, 1981), 132.
16.		Malcolmson, 133.
17.		E.P.Thompson, ‘Eighteenth-century English society: class struggle without class’, Social History, III (1978), 154, 158, 165.
18.		E.P.Thompson, ‘Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture’, Journal of Social History, VII (1973–4), 400.
19.		It follows, therefore, that in Britain as in the United States ‘the slave community itself was the heart of the abolitionist movement’ (C.L.RJames, ‘The Atlantic Slave Trade and Slavery: Some Interpretations of Their Significance in the Development of the United States and the Western World’, Amistad 1, ed. John A.Williams and Charles F.Harris (New York, Random House, 1970), 147). James continues: ‘This is a claim that must seem most extraordinarily outrageous to those who think of abolitionism as a movement which required organizations, offices, officers, financiers, printing presses and newspapers, public platforms and orators, writers and petitions. Yet the center of activity of abolitionism lay in the movement of the slaves for their own liberation.’

Abolitionists and radicals

1.		William Edward Hartpole Lecky, History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne (Longmans, Green, & Co., 1869), I. 169.
2.		Dr.Franz Hochstetter, ‘Die wirtschlaftlichen und politischen Motive fur die Abschaffung der britischen Sklavenhandels im Jahre 1806/1807’, in Staats-; und sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, ed. Gustav Schmoller & Max Sering, XXV/1 (Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, 1905). See also Franz Hochstetter, ‘Die Abschaffung des britischen Sklavenhandels im Jahre 1806/07: Ein Kapitel aus der britischen Schiffahrtspolitik’, Meereskunde: Sammlung volkstümlicher Vorträge, V/52 (1911).
3.		C.L.R.James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution (Seeker & Warburg, 1938), 311.
4.		E.Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, third impression (1972), 149, 152, 178, 210.
5.		See, e.g., G.R.Mellor, British Imperial Trusteeship, 1783–1856 (1951); Roger T. Anstey, ‘Capitalism and Slavery: a Critique’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser. XXI (1968), 307–20; Seymour Drescher, ‘Capitalism and abolition: values and forces in Britain, 1783–1814’, in Liverpool the African Slave Trade, and Abolition, ed. R. Anstey and P.E.H.Hair (1976), [167]–195; S.Drescher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (1977); Stanley L.Engerman and David Eltis, ‘Economic Aspects of the Abolition Debate’, in Anti-Slavery, Religion, and Reform: Essays in Memory of Roger Anstey, ed. Christine Bolt and Seymour Drescher (Dawson, Archon, 1980), [272]–293. A useful survey of the controversy up to the mid-1970s is Roger Anstey, ‘The historical debate on the abolition of the British slave trade’, in Liverpool, the African Slave Trade, and Abolition, ed. Anstey and Hair, [157]–166.
6.		D.B.Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1966), 153n.
7.		E.Williams, From Columbus to Castro (1970), 280–327.
8.		Gentleman’s Magazine, LVIII (1788), ii. 460; see also ii. 311–12, 322, 326, 416, 417, 419, 514, 515.
9.		T.Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade (1808), I. 415–16.
10.		As quoted by Donald Read, The English Provinces c. 1760–1960: A study in influence (Edward Arnold, 1964), 41.
11.		James Walvin, ‘The Impact of Slavery on British Radical Politics: 1787–1838’, in Comparative Perspectives on Slavery in New World Plantation Societies, ed. Vera Rubin and Arthur Tuden (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, CCXCII, 1977), 344. I owe some of the facts and references in this section to this essay of Walvin’s, some to its companion-piece, ‘The Rise of British Popular Sentiment for Abolition, 1787–1832’, in Anti-Slavery, Religion, and Reform, ed. Bolt and Drescher, [149]–162. See also James Walvin, ‘The Public Campaign in England against Slavery, 1787–1834’, in The Abolition of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Origins and Effects in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, ed. David Eltis and J. Walvin (University of Wisconsin Press, 1981), 63–79; Seymour Drescher, ‘Public Opinion and the Destruction of British Colonial Slavery’, in Slavery and British Society 1776–1846, ed. J.Walvin (Macmillan Press Ltd, 1982), [22]–48; J. Walvin, ‘The Propaganda of Anti-Slavery’, in Slavery and British Society, ed. Walvin, [49]–68.
12.		Eighth Report of the Directors of the African Institution (1814), 51–67, listing 519 petitions for abolition of the slave trade presented to the Commons between 9 February and 25 April 1792.
13.		Lydia Hardy to Thomas Hardy, 2 April 1792, PRO TS 24/12/1.
14.		Read, 42.
15.		The Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, ed. F.D. Cartwright (Henry Colburn, 1826), I. 179.
16.		Annual Register, 1792, ‘The History of Europe’, 153.
17.		Annual Register, 1792, ‘The History of Europe’, 150–1, 154.
18.		Annual Register, 1793, ‘The History of Europe’, 90; Parliamentary History, XXX (1792–4), cols. 654–5.
19.		R.I. and S.Wilberforce, Life of William Wilberforce (1838), II. 18; Earl Leslie Griggs, Thomas Clarkson: The Friend of Slaves (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1936), 70–1; Sir Reginald Coupland, Wilberforce, second edition (Collins, 1945), 127–8; Robin Furneaux, William Wilberforce (Hamish Hamilton, 1974), 109.
20.		A Very new pamphlet indeed! Being the truth addressed to the people at large: containing some strictures on the English Jacobins (1792), 3.
21.		Proceedings of the Public Meeting, held at Sheffield, in the open air, On the Seventh of April, 1794 (Sheffield Constitutional Society, 1794), 22–5.
22.		The Tribune, a periodical publication consisting chiefly of the political lectures of J.Thelwall (D.I.Eaton etc., 1795–6), II. 167.
23.		Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lectures 1795 On Politics and Religion, ed. Lewis Patton and Peter Mann (Collected Works of S.T. Coleridge, I, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 236–7.
24.		Walvin, ‘The Impact of Slavery on British Radical Politics’, 348.
25.		Walvin, ‘The Impact of Slavery’, 349.
26.		Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, ed. Cartwright, II. 84.
27.		Walvin, ‘The Rise of British Popular Sentiment for Abolition’, 155.
28.		‘List of the leadeing [sic] Reformers’, October 1819, PRO HO 42/197.
29.		G.D.H.Cole, A Short History of the British Working-Class Movement, 1788–1947, revised edition (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1948), 44; E.P.Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1963), 162; T.M.Parssinen, ‘The Revolutionary Party in London, 1816–20’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, XLV (1972), 267.
30.		T.M.Parssinen, ‘Association, convention and anti-parliament in British radical politics, 1771–1848’, English Historical Review, LXXXVIII (1973), 516.

The black radicals

1.		Cobbett’s Weekly Register, XXXVI/8 (6 May 1820), cols. 590–8; Observer, no. 1520 (7 May 1820), [4]; British Luminary and Weekly Intelligence, no. 84 (7 May 1820), 146.
2.		PRO HO 44/4/322, HO 44/5/51, HO 44/5/494–5.
3.		PRO HO 44/4/322.
4.		PRO HO 44/5/391.
5.		PRO HO 44/5/426.
6.		PRO HO 44/4/317, HO 44/5/38.
7.		PRO HO 44/5/202. Thisdewood later claimed that Davidson ‘would have killed right and left’ if an attempt had been made to seize the banner (Report of informer Stafford, 24 November 1819, PRO HO 42/199).
8.		Percy Bysshe Shelley, The Masque of Anarchy: A Poem (Edward Moxon, 1832), 2.
9.		‘Precis of Secret Information as furnished by Mr.C. [i.e. John Williamson] from July 1819 to Feby 23,1820’, entry for 14 November 1819, PRO HO 42/197.
10.		The Republican, II/7 (3 March 1820), 219.
11.		PRO HO 44/4/100, HO 44/4/322.
12.		‘Precis of Secret Information as furnished by Mr.C.’, entry for 18 November 1819, PRO HO 42/197; report of informer BC [i.e. William Sallebanks], 18 November 1819, PRO HO 42/199; report of informer BC, 5 December 1819, PRO HO 42/200; PRO HO 44/4/318, HO 44/5/278, HO 44/5/289.
13.		Report of Bow Street constable George Ruthven, 24 February 1820, PRO HO 44/4/74.
14.		F.K.Donnelly and J.L.Baxter, ‘Sheffield and the English Revolutionary Tradition, 1791–1820’, International Review of Social History, XX/3 (1975), 419–20.
15.		Jurors’ lists were ‘pricked’ to indicate which were ‘disloyal’ or ‘strong friends of the Prisoners’ and which ‘loyal subjects’ or ‘very loyal’; see PRO HO 44/6/31–6, and cf. E.P.Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (1963), 468 and n. 1.
16.		PRO HO 44/6/206–7. Edwards’s key report, dated 22 February 1820, is in PRO HO 42/199. His reports were normally signed ‘W——r’
17.		Cf. the report of Bow Street constable R. Birnie, 28 February 1820, PRO HO 44/4/291: ‘Davison’s [sic] Hovel was most carefully searched, but nothing found, there was an officer in possession distraining for Rent.’
18.		The Trials of Arthur Thistlewood, James Ings, John Thomas Brunt, Richard Tidd, William Davidson, and others, for High Treason (J.Butterworth & Son, 1820), 634–5. I am grateful to Iain McCalman for telling me about this book. See also Cobbett’s Weekly Register, XXXVI/8 (6 May 1820), cols. 560–6.
19.		British Luminary and Weekly Intelligence, no. 84 (7 May 1820), 146.
20.		PRO HO 44/6/271.
21.		Besides the sources already cited, the foregoing account of the Cato Street attempt and Davidson’s part in it is based on: The Trials of Arthur Thistlewood . . . to which is added, a copious account of the execution, second edition (John Fairburn & T.Dolby, [1820]); Annual Register, 1820, ‘Chronicle’, 29–34, 55–66; W[illiam]. C[ar]r, in DNB, LVI. 142–5; Sir Charles Oman, The Unfortunate ColonelDespard and other studies (Edward Arnold & Co., 1922), 22–48; John Stanhope, The Cato Street Conspiracy (Jonathan Cape, 1962); Thompson, 700ff.; Howard Mackey, ‘ “The Complexion of the Accused”: William Davidson, The Black Revolutionary In The Cato Street Conspiracy of 1820’, Negro Educational Review, XXIII (1972), 132–47 (I am grateful to Iain McCalman for this reference and to the British Library for obtaining a photostat for me); David Johnson, Regency Revolution: The case of Arthur Thistlewood (Compton Russell, 1974); V.S.Anand and F.A.Ridley, The Cato Street Conspiracy (Medusa Press, 1977); Howard Mackey, in Biographical Dictionary of Modern British Radicals, 1: 1770–1830, ed. Joseph O.Baylen and NorbertJ.Gossman (Hassocks, Sussex, Harvester Press, 1979), 113–14; I.J.Prothero, Artisans and Politics in Early Nineteenth-Century London: John Gast and his Times (Dawson, 1979), 123ff.
22.		The Republican, II/7 (3 March 1820), [217]–223; III/2 (5 May 1820), 44–5. See also the edited version in Theophila Carlile Campbell, The Battle of the Press As Told in the Story of the Life of Richard Carlile (A.& H.B.Bonner, 1899), 78–83.
23.		The Horrors of Slavery: exemplified in The Life and History of the Rev. Robert Wedderburn, V.D.M. (R. Wedderburn, 1824), 4–9.
24.		Horrors of Slavery, 10–11.
25.		Horrors of Slavery, 13–14.
26.		The Axe Laid to the Root, or a Fatal Blow to Oppressors, being an address to the Planters and Negroes of the Island of Jamaica, no. 1 [1817], cols. 12–13.
27.		Report of Thomas Lea and William Plush on meeting at Hopkins Street chapel, 6 October 1819, PRO HO 42/196.
28.		Robert Wedderburn, Truth, Self-supported; or, A refutation of certain doctrinal errors, generally adopted In the Christian Church (G.Riebau, [c. 1790]), [3], 4; The Trial of the Rev. Rob1. Wedderburn, (A Dissenting Minister of the Unitarian persuasion,) for blasphemy, ed. Erasmus Perkins (Mrs Carlile etc., 1820), 7, 8.
29.		Thompson, 615.
30.		The ‘Forlorn Hope’, or A Call to the Supine, To rouse from Indolence and assert Public Rights, [no. 1, 1817], cols. [1], 4.
31.		Report of informer A [i.e. James Hanley], 15 April 1819, PRO HO 42/190; Prothero, Artisans and Politics, 110, 360 n. 26.
32.		PRO HO 40/7(3)/906–7, HO 40/7(3)/2036–7; Olive D.Rudkin, Thomas Spence and His Connections (George Allen & Unwin, 1927), 148–9.
33.		Report of informer A, 15 April 1819, PRO HO 42/190; R. Wedderburn, A few Plain Questions for an Apostate [1819], A few lines for a Double-Faced Politician [1819], copies in PRO HO 42/202.
34.		Handbill advertising debate at Hopkins Street chapel, 13 September 1819, copy in PRO HO 42/194; Prothero, Artisans and Politics, 110, 115, 121. Allen Davenport helped to form the East London Democratic Association in 1837 ‘and gave it its extremist and Citizen terminology’ (Iorwerth Prothero, ‘Chartism in London’, Past & Present, no. 44 (August 1969), 87).
35.		Report of John Eshelby on meetings at Hopkins Street chapel, 14 November 1819, PRO HO 42/198.
36.		Handbill advertising meeting at Hopkins Street chapel, 16 August 1819, copy in PRO HO 42/192. Italics in the original.
37.		Annotated letter from Marlborough Street magistrates to Home Office, 12 August 1819, PRO HO 42/191.
38.		Copy in PRO HO 42/193.
39.		Handbill advertising debate at Hopkins Street chapel, 13 September 1819, copy in PRO HO 42/194; report of informer BC, 15 September 1819, PRO HO 42/194; report of informer BC, 29 September 1819, PRO HO 42/195; report of informer BC, 4 October 1819, PRO HO 42/196; report of Lea and Plush, 6 October 1819, PRO HO 42/196; report of informer BC, 11 October 1819, PRO HO 42/197; handbill enclosed with report of informer BC, 16 October 1819, PRO HO 42/197; report of Plush and Matthew Matthewson, 18 October 1819, fols. 5–6, PRO HO 42/197; ‘Substance of proceedings of the Debating Society held at “Hopkins Street Chapel” Wednesday Eveng. 3d Nov. 1819’, PRO HO 42/198; report of Plush and Matthewson, 3 November 1819, fols. 5–6, PRO HO 42/198.
40.		Reports of Chetwoode Eustace and Richard Dalton, 3 and 10 November 1819, and of Plush and Matthewson, 9 November 1819, on meetings at Hopkins Street chapel, PRO HO 42/198.
41.		J.M.Robertson, A history offreethought in the nineteenth century (Watts & Co., 1929), 61. A copy of the very rare Letter to the Chief Rabbi is enclosed with report by Dalton on meeting at Hopkins Street chapel, 15 November 1819, PRO HO 42/198.
42.		Axe Laid to the Root, no. 6 [1817], cols. 92–6.
43.		Axe Laid to the Root, no. 1 [1817], cols. 4–5, 7–8,12; no. 2 [1817], col. 26.
44.		Report of informer BC, 15 September 1819, PRO HO 42/194; T.M.Parssinen, ‘The Revolutionary Party in London, 1816–20’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, XLV (1972), 277 n. 3.
45.		‘Precis of Secret Information as furnished by Mr. C.’, entry for 20 October 1819, PRO HO 42/197; report of informer BC, 22 October 1819, PRO HO 42/197; report of James Hanley, 22 November 1819, PRO HO 42/199.
46.		Report of informer BC, 5 August 1819, PRO HO 42/191; ‘Precis of Secret Information as furnished by Mr.C.’, entry for 5 August 1819, PRO HO 42/197.
47.		Cf. William H.Wickwar, The Struggle for the Freedom of the Press 1819–1832 (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1928), 89.
48.		Trial of . . . Wedderburn, 4.
49.		Trial of . . . Wedderburn, title–page.
50.		Trial of . . . Wedderburn, 17–19.
51.		Revd Erasmus Perkins, A few hints relative to the texture of mind, and the manufacture of conscience (T.Davison, [c. 1820]), p. vi.
52.		Prothero, ‘Chartism in London’, 87; Parssinen, 281–2. For spenceans in the 1830s, see also Patricia Hollis, The Pauper Press: A study of working-class radicalism in the 1830s (Oxford University Press, 1970), 212–14.
53.		Horrors of Slavery, 24. Joel J. Wiener, Radicalism and Freethought in Nineteenth-Century Britain: The Life of Richard Carlile (Contributions in Labor History, no. 13, Westport, Conn. and London, Greenwood Press, 1983), 29 n. 2, says Wedderburn ‘gave lectures on theology until as late as 1828’, but provides no reference. I am grateful to Nicolas Walter for giving me a copy of this book.
54.		I owe this information to J.R.Sewell of the Corporation of London Records Office.

The everyday struggle 1787–1833

1.		Ninth Report of the Directors of the African Institution (1815), 69–71.
2.		G.B.Wood, ‘A Negro Trail in the North of England’, Country Life Annual, 1967, p. 43.
3.		Wood, 42–3.
4.		‘Collectanea’, comp. D.Lysons, I. 82v, 83r.
5.		‘Collectanea’, I. 84v and recto of following leaf.
6.		‘Collectanea’, I. 85v, 86r; Gentleman’s Magazine, n.s. VII (1837), i. 327; Henry Morley, Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair (Chapman & Hall, 1859), 483; The Book of Days: A miscellany of popular antiquities, ed. R.Chambers (W.R.Chambers, 1863–4), II. 267; Notes and Queries, 9th ser. V (1900), 456. Richardson, who died in 1837, desired in his will to be buried in the same grave (J[oseph]. K[night]., in DNB, XLVIII. 231).
7.		The Times, no. 8150 (26 November 1810), [3]; no. 8153 (29 November 1810), [3]; ‘Collectanea’, I. 100v–103r; Edward Hyde East, Reports of Cases argued and determined in the Court of King’s Bench, XIII (J.Butterworth &J.Cook, 1811), 195–6; G.Cuvier, ‘Extrait d’observations faites sur le cadavre d’une femme connue à Paris et à Londres sous le nom de Vénus Hottentotte’, Mémoires du Muséum d’histoire naturelle, III (1817), [259]–274 (reprinted in G.Cuvier, Discours sur les révolutions du globe (Paris, Passard, 1864), [211]–222); Mrs [Anne] Mathews, Memoirs of Charles Mathews, comedian (Richard Bentley, 1838–9), IV. 136–7; Book of Days, ed. Chambers, II. 621–2; R.V[erneau]., ‘Le centiéme anniversaire de la mort de Sarah Bartmann’, L’Anthropologie, XXVII (1916), 177–9; Jean Avalon, ‘Sarah, la “Vénus Hottentote” ’Æsculape, XVI (1926), [281]–288; Percival R.Kirby, ‘The Hottentot Venus’, Africana Notes and News, VI (1948–9), 55–62; Percival R.Kirby, ‘La Vénus Hottentote’, Æsculape, XXXIII (1952), [14]–21; Percival R.Kirby, ‘More about the Hottentot Venus’, Africana Notes and News, (1952–3), 124–34; Richard D.Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1978), [268]–272; Kunapipi, II/l (1980), 29 (photograph of the exhibit in the Musée de l’Homme); Bernth Lindfors, ‘The Hottentot Venus and other African Attractions in Nineteenth Century England’ (paper presented to the International Conference on the History of Blacks in Britain, London, 28–30 September 1981), to which I am indebted for many of the foregoing references.
8.		Report from Committee on the State of Mendicity in The Metropolis (1815), 41.
9.		Second Report of the Society for the Suppression of Mendicity (1820), 3; Third Report etc. (1821), 3; Fourth Report etc. (1822), 4; Fifth Report etc. (1823), 5; Seventh Report etc. (1825), 13; Eighth Report etc. (1826), 14.
10.		Ninth Report of the Society for the Suppression of Mendicity (1827), 12.
11.		M.Banton, The Coloured Quarter (1955), 26.
12.		First Report of the Society established in London for the Suppression of Mendicity (1819), 33; Second Report etc. (1820), 32, 29–30.
13.		Fourth Report of the Society for the Suppression of Mendicity (1822), 9, 52.
14.		Report from Select Committee on the State of Mendicity in The Metropolis (1816), 15.
15.		Report from Committee on the State of Mendicity in The Metropolis (1815), 16.
16.		Third Report of the Society for the Suppression of Mendicity (1821), 27–8.
17.		See, e.g., James Grant, Sketches in London (W.S.Orr & Co., 1838), 27, 44.
18.		Pierce Egan, Life in London; or The day and night scenes of Jerry Hawthorn, Esq. and his elegant friend Corinthian Tom (Sherwood, Neely, & Jones, 1821), 347; J[ames]. C[atnach]., The Death, Last Will, and Funeral of ‘Black Billy’, tenth edition (1823); M.Dorothy George, Hogarth to Cruikshank: Social change in graphic satire (Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1967), 169–70.
19.		John Thomas Smith, Vagabondia; or Anecdotes of mendicant wanderers through the streets of London (J. and A. Arch etc., 1817), 35; Grant, 26–7.
20.		Smith, 36.
21.		Smith, 33.
22.		Smith, 35.
23.		Smith, 26.
24.		Copy of all Correspondence between the Commissioners for the Affairs of India, and any other public Body, relative to the Care and Maintenance of Lascar Sailors, during their Stay in England (1816), 5.
25.		Lascars and Chinese: A short address to Young Men, of the several orthodox denominations of Christians (W.Harris etc., 1814), 17; Copy of all Correspondence 13–14
26.		R.I. and S. Wilberforce, Life of William Wilberforce (1838), IV. 154.
27.		Report from Committee on Lascars and other Asiatic Seamen (1815), 4–5.
28.		Copy of all Correspondence, 14.
29.		Lascars and Chinese, 3–4, 9–10.
30.		First Report from the Committee On the State of the Police of The Metropolis (1817), 195.
31.		[Benjamin Silliman], A journal of travels in England, Holland, and Scotland, and of two passages over the Atlantic, in the years 1805 and 1806 (Boston, Mass., Howe & Deforest etc., 1812), I. 210.
32.		Eighth Report of the Directors of the African Institution (1814), 22–3.
33.		The Intimate Letters of Hester Piozzi and Penelope Pennington 1788–1821, ed. Oswald G. Knapp (John Lane, 1914), 243.
34.		See Joseph Marryat, More thoughts, occasioned by two publications (J.M.Richardson &J.Ridgway, 1816), lOOff.; Sanders’s preface to Haytian Papers (W.Reed, 1816), pp. [i]–vi; Benjamin Quarles, Black Abolitionists (New York, Oxford University Press, 1969), 130.
35.		Henry Noble Sherwood, ‘Paul Cuffe’ Journal of Negro History, VIII (1923), 177; Quarles, 129–30.
36.		John Jeremie, Four Essays on Colonial Slavery (J.Hatchard & Son, 1831), 49.
37.		Letter of Richard Raikes, 5 July 1815, in Gloucester County Record Office, as quoted by J.Walvin, Black and White (1973), 60–1.
38.		Marryat, 99–100.
39.		Cobbett’s Weekly Political Register, V/24 (16 June 1804), col. 935.
40.		Marryat, 105.
41.		Alltud Eifion, John Ystumllyn neu Jack Black’ (Tremadoc, R.Isaac Jones, 1888; reprinted Criccieth, Ngwasg y Castell, 1966). I am grateful to Ziggi Alexander for making a translation of this booklet available to me.
42.		See Ian Law and Linda Loy, ‘A History of Racism and Resistance in Liverpool, 1760–1960 (Summary)’ (paper presented to the International Conference on the History of Blacks in Britain, London, 28–30 September 1981); A History of Race and Racism in Liverpool, 1660–1950, comp. Ian Law, ed. June Henfrey (Liverpool, Merseyside Community Relations Council, 1981).