Notes

Introduction

1 Page, 2014.

2 Negroponte, 2006.

3 Haraway, 1991.

4 NBC News, 2015.

5 McLuhan, 1962, 1994.

6 Turnbull, 2009, par. 4.

7 Agre, 2000b.

8 Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983.

9 Ellingson and Ellis, 2008.

10 Adelman, 1993; Lewin, 1946; Whitehead and McNiff, 2006.

11 O’Brien, 2001.

12 Gilmore, Krantz, and Ramirez, 1986.

13 Richard Winter (1996) identifies six key principles as the core of action research:

1. A critique of one’s reflexivity and bias;
2. Understanding shared language, including the language of conflict and divergence;
3. An understanding that both researcher and community are equals; no longer is the community an object of study but the leader of an initiative;
4. Understanding that risk to ego is necessary and healthy;
5.Taking multiple paths, actions, and interpretations so that research is neither over-instrumentalized nor viewed from a distance; and
6. Balancing actions and theory to reinforce and transform each other, with neither being stable or seen as having greater importance.

14 I have discussed this philosophical position from a level of abstraction, but how does one actually develop such initiatives using these ethical and methodological precepts? Information scholars Rudy Hirschheim and Heinz Klein (1994) suggest a few basic techniques:

1. Provide an equal opportunity to all participants to raise issues, points, and counterpoints to other views through discussion;
2. Place every participant on an equal footing with respect to their power positions;
3. Encourage a participant’s questioning of the clarity, veracity, sincerity, and social responsibility of the proposed actions proposed; and
4. Encourage all participants to take an equal opportunity to articulate their feelings or doubts or concerns.

15 Freire, 2000.

16 Freire, 2000, 72.

17 Various cultural critics (Cheah and Robbins, 1998; Joseph, 2002; Robbins, 1999) have argued that it is important to embrace existing inequalities and work to enact agendas from the grassroots up rather than simply apply a donor or a bureaucratic “poverty alleviation agenda” (Gujit and Shah, 1998). Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), often seen as important enactors of development programs, are frequently complicit, as they have to balance downward versus upward accountability (Lewis and Madon, 2004). The further a researcher can step away from standardization and embrace multiple practices on the ground, the higher the possibility of achieving a more democratized vision of a project.

18 Gujit and Shah, 1998.

19 Cooke and Kothari, 2001.

20 Chambers, 1997, 196.

Chapter 1. Technology Myths and Histories

1 Gustin, 2011, www.wired.com

2 Dubai School of Government, 2011.

3 Hier and Greenberg, 2007; Lyon, 2013; Marx and Muschert, 2007.

4 Aneesh, 2001; Suchman, 2007.

5 C. Anderson, 2006; Brownstone, 2014; Galloway, 2004.

6 Jenkins, 2006.

7 McChesney, 2013.

8 Galloway, 2004.

9 Gillespie, 2013.

10 Terranova, 2004.

11 Noble, 2011.

12 C. Anderson, 2006.

13 Shirky, 2010.

14 Lovink and Rossiter, 2007; Rossiter, 2003; Terranova, 2000.

15 Fromm, 1941.

16 Feenberg, 1995, 87.

17 Bowker, Baker, Millerand, and Ribes, 2010; Graham, 2010.

18 Bowen, 2015.

19 Wells and Mayne, 1938.

20 Bush, 1945.

21 Shirky, 2008, 2010.

22 Shirky, 2008, 2010, 2011.

23 Brown and Duguid, 2002.

24 Knobel and Bowker, 2011.

25 Gitelman, 2006; Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort, 2003.

26 Fish, 2013.

27 Kay, 2000.

28 Ingalls, Kaehler, Maloney, Wallace, and Kay, 1997.

29 Bardini and Friedewald, 2003, 204.

30 Bardini and Friedewald, 2003; Bardini, 2000.

31 Engelbart, 2001; Goldberg and Kay, 1977; Kay, 1990.

32 Rousseau, 2002.

33 De Bellaigue, 2007.

34 Buck and Hull, 1966.

35 Diderot and d’Alembert, 1751.

36 Shapiro, 1996.

37 Meinong, 1904.

38 Husserl, 1913.

39 Corrazon, 2010.

40 Woolgar and Lezaun, 2013.

41 Law, 2002; Mol, 1999, 2002.

42 Law and Mol, 1995, 277.

43 Balsamo, 2011.

44 Heidegger, 1954.

45 Boast, forthcoming.

46 T. Mitchell, 1992.

47 Manovich, 2001.

48 Chun, 2008b, 159.

49 Vítĕzslav, 1996.

50 Chun, 2008b, 160.

51 Chun, 2008b, 160.

52 Latour, 1986.

53 E. G. Coleman, 2013; Nissen, 1998.

54 Dourish and Mazmanian, 2012.

55 Parks, 2013.

56 Bowker and Star, 2000.

57 Bogost and Montfort, 2009.

58 Montfort, 2012.

59 A Timeline of Database History,” n.d.

60 Anderson and Zalta, 2004.

61 Dourish, 2014.

62 Dourish and Bell, 2007.

63 Geismar and Mohns, 2011, 152.

64 Bijker and Law, 1992.

65 Bodker, Kensing and Simonsen, 2004.

66 Bidwell and Winschiers-Theophilus, 2014.

Chapter 2. Digital Stories from the Developing World

1 Couldry, 2008; Lambert, 2013; Nelson and Hull, 2008.

2 Ito, 2003, 2006.

3 Tulloch and Jenkins, 1995.

4 Michaels, Hebdige, and Langton, 1994.

5 Hardt and Negri, 2009.

6 Friedman, 2000, 2006.

7 Appiah, 2010; Kant, 1784; Poster, 2008.

8 Castells, 1996, 2000.

9 DiMaggio, Hargittai, Celeste, and Shafer, 2004; Hargittai, 2008; Zillien and Hargittai, 2009.

10 Parikh and Lazowska, 2006.

11 Internet and Mobile Association of India, 2007.

12 Hargittai, 2008; Howard, Busch, and Sheets, 2010; Warschauer, 2006.

13 Rogers, 2010.

14 Zillien and Hargittai, 2009, 288.

15 Warschauer, 2003, 13.

16 Lanier, 2014, 9.

17 Lanier, 2014.

18 Chun, 2011.

19 Chun, 2008a.

20 Hardt and Negri, 2009.

21 Orlikowski, 2008, 411.

22 Ginsburg, 2008; Srinivasan, 2013b.

23 Castells, 2000, 2011.

24 Koolhaas, 2007.

25 Aneesh, 2006; Shome, 2006.

26 Sassen, 1998, 2000, 2003.

27 Srinivasan, 2013a.

28 Appadurai, 2000, 5.

29 Tongia and Wilson III, 2011.

30 Samarijava and Shields, 1990.

31 Prahalad, 2004.

32 Rajagopal, 2013.

33 Keniston and Kumar, 2003; Van Dijk and Hacker, 2003; Warschauer, 2003.

34 Srinivasan, 2012a.

35 Mitra, 2003, 2005.

36 Negroponte, Bender, Battro, and Cavallo, 2006.

37 Arora, 2007; Warschauer, 2001, 2004.

38 Warschauer, 2001, 2003.

39 Warschauer, 2006.

40 Philip, Irani, and Dourish, 2010.

41 Philip, Irani, and Dourish, 2010, 3.

42 Philip, Irani, and Dourish, 2010, 3.

43 W. Anderson, 2002.

44 Negroponte, 2006, 3:54.

45 These include: Economic barriers: The lack of access to information, markets, and opportunities; Physical barriers: The problems with distances and infrastructures that disadvantage primary rural and occasionally inner-city communities; Political barriers: The lack of transparency to governmental, legal and human rights services; Social and health barriers: The divisions that end up marginalizing who fail to speak, write, or read particular languages, and those who lack access to educational or health resources.

46 Appadurai, 2000, 3.

47 Kothari, 1999.

48 Gandhi, Verraraghavan, Toyama, and Wang, 2007.

49 Wallack and Srinivasan, 2009.

50 F. Cleaver, 1999.

51 Puri and Sahay, 2003.

52 Banerjee, Duflo, Chattopadhyay, and Shapiro, 2007; Scott, 1998; Wallack and Srinivasan, 2009.

53 Barzilai-Nahon, 2006.

54 Keniston and Kumar, 2003.

55 Burrell and Toyama, 2009.

56 These authors argue that all ICTD research must consider:

1. Accuracy through a justification of one’s methods.
2. Transparency by making explicit the methods and approaches taken to study an issue.
3. Empiricism by considering evidence “of the world” as opposed to speculation alone.
4. Novelty by advancing the field and building on rather than repeating established insights or biases.
5. Disciplinary relevance: Build on an emerging field and show its relationship to other studies, theories, and/or research.
6. Generalizability: Maintain a mindfulness of how case studies and statistics may be generalizable, and recognize the limits of the generalizability of what one studies.

57 Suchman, 2002.

58 Gitelman, 2006.

59 Fast Company Staff, 2011.

60 Aker and Mbiti, 2010.

61 Porteous, 2006.

62 Chipchase, 2007.

63 Ndiwalana, Morawczynski, and Popov, 2010.

64 Geertz, 1978.

65 Michaels, Hebdige, and Langton, 1994.

66 Graham and Marvin, 2001; Horst and Miller, 2006; Larkin, 2008.

67 Parks, 2014a, 243.

68 Parks, 2014a, 244.

69 Zielinski, 2006.

70 D. Miller and Slater, 2000.

71 Horst and Miller, 2006.

72 Caron and Caronia, 2007.

73 Lechner, 1985.

74 Lievrouw, 2001, 12.

75 Bowker and Star, 2000.

76 Heeks, 2008.

77 Appadurai, 2004; Sen, 1995; Srinivasan, 2006b.

78 Bowker and Star, 2000, 379.

79 Spivak, 1988.

80 Sawhney and Suri, 2008.

81 Parks, 2014b.

82 Jenkins, 2003, 2006, 2013.

83 Barber, 2003; Shalom, 2008.

84 Berker, Hartmann, Punie, and Ward, 2005; Silverstone and Haddon, 1996; Silverstone and Hirsch, 1992.

85 Putnam, 2000.

86 Jenkins, 1992.

87 Fiske and Hartley, 1978; Poster, 2008.

88 Baym, 2000.

89 Watkins, 2005.

90 Hall, 1977.

91 Hebdige, 1984.

92 Williams, 1985.

93 Lipsitz, 1994, 2007.

94 Lipsitz, 2007.

95 Ginsburg, 2008.

96 Ginsburg, 2008, 139.

97 Ginsburg, 2008, 139.

98 T. Turner, 1992.

99 Ginsburg, Abu-Lughod, and Larkin, 2002.

100 Boast, Bravo, and Srinivasan, 2007; Srinivasan, 2006a.

101 Michaels, Hebdige, and Langton, 1994.

102 T. Turner, 1992.

103 Michaels, Hebdige, and Langton, 1994, 65.

104 Cleaver, 1998, par. 4.

105 Cleaver, 1998.

106 Ginsburg, 1991.

107 Arora, 2008.

108 Brookfield, 1998; Dewey, 1933; Ulrich, 2000.

109 Boud, Keogh, and Walker, 1985.

110 Heeks, 2008.

111 Appadurai, 2000, 6.

112 Appadurai, 2004, 66.

113 Srinivasan, M., 2016.

114 de Certeau, 1984; Goffman, 1959.

115 Appadurai, 2004.

116 Appadurai, 2000, 65.

117 Kundu, 2000.

118 Freire, 2000.

119 Lofland, Lofland, Delamont, and Coffey, 2001; Spradley, 1980.

120 Aronson, 1994.

121 Lievrouw et al, 1987.

122 Sen, 2007.

123 Rogers, 2010.

124 Girvin, 1947.

125 Kretzmann and McKnight, 1993.

126 Frankel, Miller, and Jeffrey, 2000; O’Donnell, 2011.

127 Fukuyama, 2002; Sen, 1993.

128 Searle, 1990.

129 McAdam, 2006.

130 Hirschman, 1970.

131 Heeks, 2008.

132 www.digitalgreen.org

Chapter 3. Native Americans, Networks, and Technology

1 Srinivasan, 2013b.

2 Suchman, 2002.

3 Néret-Minet Tessier and Sarrou, 2013.

4 Clifford and Marcus, 1986.

5 Derrida, 1996.

6 Crawford and Lipschutz, 1998; Galtung, 1990.

7 Galtung, 1969; Gilligan, 1996.

8 Foucault and Sheridan-Smith, 1972; Foucault, 1975.

9 Foucault, 1981.

10 Isaac, 2005.

11 Enote, 2013, par. 1.

12 “Paris auction house sells Hopi masks despite tribe’s objection,” 2013.

13 Appadurai, 1990.

14 Turnbull, 2009, par. 4.

15 Davis, n.d.

16 Turnbull, 2009, par. 5.

17 Philip, Irani, and Dourish, 2010, 6.

18 Verran, 2002.

19 Verran, 2002, 730.

20 Verran, 2002, 743.

21 Haraway and Teubner, 1991, 21.

22 Agrawal, 1995.

23 Bowker, 2005.

24 Bowker and Star, 2000.

25 Star and Griesemer, 1989.

26 Furner, 2007, 158.

27 Star and Griesemer, 1989.

28 Star, 1983, 1999, 2002.

29 Star, 2002.

30 Star, 1983, 2002.

31 Bowker and Star, 2000, 605.

32 Kwasnik, 1992.

33 Kwasnik, 2000, 24.

34 Buckland, 1991; Houser, 1986; Lund, 2009; Riles, 2006.

35 Olson, 2000, 2007.

36 Plumwood, 1993, 437.

37 www.cidoc-crm.org

38 Allen, Karanasios, and Norman, 2013; Slater, 2012.

39 Ihde, 2005; Winsberg, 2010.

40 Berggren, 1985.

41 Pariser, 2011.

42 A. Aneesh describes the hybridity of algorithm and human labor as “algocracy” (Aneesh, 2001, 2006), explaining that we must look carefully at the hidden patterns and practices of labor and power as they influence algorithms, technologies, corporations, and eventually, users. This question becomes even more challenging when we consider digital social enterprises, which wield labor and algorithms for an ostensibly socially conscious outcome (Fish and Srinivasan, 2012). Algorithms are not just implicated in conversations centered on labor and ethics, but also discussions around surveillance and privacy. Citing the work of scholars like Robert McChesney (2013) and Dan Schiller (2000), Lucas Introna and Helen Nissenbaum (2000) argue that the work of corporate algorithms continues a larger assault on public spheres by regimes that have economic and social power (Agre, 2000a).

43 Minsky, 1988.

44 One such system with which I became familiar is CyC (www.cyc.com), which at the time was one of the largest knowledge representation databases found in Artificial Intelligence. Thematically similar to CyC, the ABC ontology (Lagoze and Hunter, 2006) that I also learned about at this time was developed with the purpose of supporting interoperability between different types of metadata while providing users with a framework they could use to develop their own descriptions within the ABC structure. Other ontology models within the computer and information sciences include the OWL Web Ontology Language (www.w3.org) used for publishing and sharing ontologies across the World Wide Web and XML Topic Maps (www.topicmaps.org), which provide a model and the grammar to represent the structure of the information resources used to describe topics and their associations.

45 Boast, Bravo, and Srivasan, 2007; Srinivasan and Huang, 2005; Srinivasan, 2006a.

46 de Certeau, 1984.

47 DiSalvo, 2009, 52.

48 Joseph, 2002; Robbins, 1999.

49 Srinivasan and Huang, 2005, 193.

50 Gilliland, Lau, and McKennish, 2013.

51 Flores, Graves, Hartfield, and Winograd, 1988, 152.

52 http://sctdv.net

53 Sandvig, 2013, 172.

54 Shipek, 1988.

55 Ackleson, 2005; M. Coleman, 2005; Dunn, 1996; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2006.

56 Shipek, 1988.

57 Durkheim, 1915/2012.

58 Sandvig, 2013.

59 Sandvig, 2013, 176.

60 Genachowski, 2010.

61 Brescia and Daily, 2007; Minority Rights Group International, 2009, U.S. Census Bureau, 2008.

62 Sandvig, 2013, 170.

63 Howe, 1998, 27.

64 Sandvig, 2013, 188.

65 Sandvig, 2013, 174.

66 James, 2006; Srinivasan, 2006a; Terranova, Thomas, and Wyatt, 2002.

67 Akrich, 1992.

68 Von Hippel, 2005; Zittrain, 2008.

69 Sandvig, 2013, 190.

70 Frank, in preparation.

71 B. Anderson, 2006.

72 Srinivasan, 2006a.

73 Said, 1978.

74 Couldry, 2008; Lambert, 2013; Lundby, 2008; Nelson and Hull, 2008.

75 Brown and Duguid, 2002.

76 Foucault, 1970.

77 Carey, 2008.

78 Sawhney and Suri, 2008.

79 Sawhney and Suri, 2008, 364.

80 Chan, 2014.

81 Medina, 2011.

82 Aki, 2014.

83 Bowker, 2005.

Chapter 4. Multiple Voices

1 Hemming and Rigney, 2010.

2 Boast, Bravo, and Srinivasan, 2007, 396.

3 Christen, 2012; 2006.

4 Lau, Gilliland, and Anderson, 2012; Stevens, Flinn, and Shepherd, 2010.

5 Clifford, 1997.

6 Eglash, 2004.

7 Eglash, 2004.

8 Colwell-Chanthaphonh and Ferguson, 2006.

9 Srinivasan, Becvar, Boast, and Enote, 2010, 738.

10 Dewey, J, 1927; 2002.

11 Smith, 1999.

12 O’Doherty, 1999.

13 Law and Mol, 1995.

14 Appadurai, 1996.

15 Appadurai, 1986.

16 Appadurai, 1986; Ingold, 2007.

17 Pearce, 1994.

18 Rule, 2013.

19 Dourish, 2004, 2013.

20 Fuller, 1992; Simpson, 2012.

21 Suro, 1990.

22 Boast and Enote, 2013.

23 Turnbull, 2000.

24 http://redis.io/topics/pubsub.

25 Palfrey and Gasser, 2012.

26 Bowker and Star, 2000.

27 Thierer, 2012.

28 Boyd and Crawford, 2012; Snijders, Matzat, and Reips, 2012; Borgman 2015.

29 Boellstorff, 2013, sec. 5, par. 6.

30 Geertz, 1973.

31 Auer, 1995, 2013.

32 Belkin, 1980.

33 Pickering, 2010.

34 D. Taylor, 2003.

35 D. Taylor, 2003, xvii.

36 Pickering, 2010, ix.

Chapter 5. Taking Back Our Media

1 Cleaver, 1998; Martinez-Torres, 2001; Russell, 2001.

2 Subcomandante Marcos/TKO/The Getaway Drivers, 1994.

3 Ghosh and Morrison, 1984; Hazeltine and Bull, 1998; Schumacker, 1973.

4 Urban, 2007, par. 9.

5 Castells, 1999; Virilio, 1986.

6 Virilio, 1986, 47.

7 Spider Rock Plaque, Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona.

8 Bird, 2002.

9 Turnbull, 2011.

10 Ha, 2014.

11 www.google.com/loon

12 Fish, 2015.

13 Foucault, 1978.

14 Rose, 1999.

15 Chakrabarty, 2009.

16 Coleman, 2010, 489.

17 Chipchase, 2007.

18 Zuckerman, 2013.

19 Morozov, 2013a.

20 Morozov, 2011.

21 Zittrain, 2008.

22 Morozov, 2013a, 68.

23 Galison and Hevly, 1992.

24 Latour, 2004.

25 Latour and Woolgar, 1979; Latour, 2004.

26 Lippmann, 1946.

27 Zuckerman, 2008, 2013.

28 Bhabha, 1994, 38.

29 Geertz, 1973.

30 Boellstorff, 2013.

31 Agre, 2000b.

32 Agre, 2000b, 76.

33 Schmidt and Cohen, 2013.

34 Morozov, 2013b.

35 Ginsburg, 2008, 130.

36 Tyler, 1995.

37 Harding, 2013, 54.

38 Howard and Parks, 2012; Iskandar, 2007; Srinivasan, 2013a.

39 Shirky, 2011.

40 Srinivasan and Fish, 2011; Srinivasan, 2012b, 2013a, 2013c.

41 Tufekci, 2011.

42 Srinivasan and Fish, 2011.

43 Time Magazine, cover, June 13, 2011.

44 Sundaram, 1999.

45 Jackson, Ahmed, and Rifat, 2014; Jackson and Kang, 2014; Jackson, 2014.

46 Star and Strauss, 1999.

47 Burrell, 2012.

48 Santos, Nunes, and Meneses, 2007, xix.

49 Amartya Sen Keynote, World Culture Forum: The Power of Culture in Sustainable Development, November 24–27, 2013, Bali, Indonesia.

50 Sen, 2007.

51 Sassen, 2000, 2003.

52 Scott, 1998.

53 Scott, 1998, 2.

54 Binder, Ehn, De Michelis, Jacucci, Linde, and Wagner, 2011; Bruckman, 2004; Schultz 2015; Fry, 2009; Escobar, 2012; Latour 2008; and much more.

55 Searls, 2008, par. 1.

56 Searls, 2008.

57 Thompson, 2013.

58 Statement of Subcomandante Marcos to the Freeing the Media Teach-In,” 1997.

59 Chamayou, 2011.