1. Quoted in R. Kershaw, War Without Garlands, 3.
2. Diary entry 31 May 1941, Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, 152.
3. Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 74–5.
4. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1.
5. For example, both Erickson and Bellamy refer to this first period as the ‘Battle of the Frontiers’ but do not mention the Poles at all.
6. Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, 118–21; A. Chor’kov, ‘The Red Army during the Initial Phase of the Great Patriotic War’, in Wegner, From Peace to War, 415–29; G. Kumanev, ‘The Soviet Economy and the 1941 Evacuation’, in Wieczyński, Operation Barbarossa, 163–93.
7. Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 66.
8. Rowecki to London, 5 August 1941, AK Documents, vol. II, 29.
9. Brigadier General Edel Lingenthal, quoted in Glantz, Initial Period of War, 337.
10. Diary entry 5 July 1941, Felix Landau, in Klee, Dressen & Riess, ‘The Good Old Days’, 90–91.
11. Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 88.
12. Halina Ostrowska, in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 130.
13. Kosyk, Third Reich, 46–7.
14. Kamenetsky, Hitler’s Occupation of Ukraine, 43.
15. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 87, 166–7.
17. Kamenetsky, Hitler’s Occupation of Ukraine, 49.
18. Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 88–9. Krüger later arrested and interrogated Countess Lanckorońska in Stanisławów, during which he revealed that he had ordered the murder of the Lwów professors. He was later reprimanded by the SS, not for the murders, but for having revealed his part in them.
19. Olszański, Kresy Kresów Stanisławów, 115.
20. Ibid., 120–23.
21. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 281.
22. Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 4.
23. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 219.
24. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 545.
25. Gross, Polish Society, 107.
26. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 192.
27. Housden, Hans Frank, 181.
28. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 219–20.
29. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 26.
30. S. Piotrowski, Hans Frank’s Diary, 106.
31. Friedrich, ‘Collaboration in a “Land without a Quisling” ’.
32. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 222.
33. Łuczak, Polska i Polacy, 315–19.
34. Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 108–9.
35. Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, 173.
36. C. Streit, ‘Partisans – Resistance – Prisoners of War’, in Wieczyński, Operation Barbarossa, 260–75; Snyder, Bloodlands, 180.
37. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 59.
38. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 299.
39. Homze, Foreign Labour, 165.
40. Housden, Hans Frank, 196.
41. Herbert, Hitler’s Foreign Workers, 391.
42. Quoted in Lukas, Forgotten Survivors, 35.
43. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 536.
44. L. Collingham, Taste of War, 371.
45. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 531–2.
46. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 28.
47. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 60.
48. Gebhardt was later hanged for his crimes. Deák, Essays on Hitler’s Europe, 76; Lanckorońska, Those Who Trespass Against Us, 203–40; Wanda Półtawska wrote of her experience in And I Am Afraid of My Dreams.
49. Housden, Hans Frank, 185–7.
50. Quoted in Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 33.
51. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1.
52. Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 466–7; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 214; Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 22.
53. S. Piotrowski, Hans Frank’s Diary, 276.
54. Diary entry 10 August 1943, Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, 276. Globocnik was sent to govern a part of German-occupied Italy in September 1943.
55. Housden, Hans Frank, 187–90, 209–10.
56. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 21–2; Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 468.
57. S. Milton, ‘Non-Jewish Children in the Camps’, in Berenbaum, Mosaic of Victims, 150–60.
58. Hrabar, Tokarz & Wilczur, Fate of Polish Children, 206 and passim; Lukas, Did the Children Cry, 112–31.
59. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 337–8.
60. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–45’.
61. Stanley Sagan, quoted in Lukas, Forgotten Survivors, 162.
62. See Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, for a detailed description of its activities.
63. Ibid., 166–99.
64. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 169.
65. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–45’; Davies, Rising ’44, 200.
66. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–45’.
67. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 79.
68. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 67–8; Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 200–14.
69. Stoltman, Trust Me You Will Survive, 114, 121.
70. Zbigniew Bokiewicz, quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 28.
71. Davies-Scourfield, In Presence of My Foes, 94–120; London to Rowecki, 6 December 1941, AK Documents, vol. II, 162.
72. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 83–4. Jan Kiliński was one of the leaders of the Kościuszko uprising against the Russians in 1794.
73. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 102.
74. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 477.
75. Gross, Polish Society, 117–19; Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 141.
76. Kunicki, ‘Unwanted Collaborators’.
77. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 221–2.
78. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 137–8.
79. Friedrich, ‘Collaboration in a “Land without a Quisling” ’.
80. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 137–8.
81. Connelly, ‘Why the Poles Collaborated so Little’.
82. Chodakiewicz, Between Nazis and Soviets, 84.
83. Mayevski, Fire Without Smoke, 93–4.
84. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 142–3; Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 40.
85. German Crimes in Poland, 28.
86. Ibid., 184; Snyder, Bloodlands, 294–5.
87. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 44.
88. Author’s interview with Anna Skowerski.
89. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska. He had never actually laid eyes on this parishioner who was suspected of being a communist but had been asked to support him by the man’s girlfriend; the man survived the war.
90. Jędrzejewicz, Poland in the British Parliament, 124–8.
91. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 171.
92. Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, passim.
93. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 28.
94. Friedrich, ‘Collaboration in a “Land without a Quisling” ’; Connelly, ‘Why the Poles Collaborated so Little’.
95. J. Węgierski, ‘Kim Byli “Hilary” i “Hugo” ’.
96. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 95.
97. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 93. Świerczewski, Kalkstein and Kaczorowska were all sentenced to death for high treason by an underground court. Świerczewski was hanged in the basement of his house in Warsaw by the AK. Kalkstein was protected by the Gestapo and went on to fight with an SS unit during the Warsaw Uprising and survived the war. Kaczorowska’s sentence was commuted because she was pregnant; she also survived the war.
98. War Cabinet meeting, 19 July 1943, TNA, CAB 65/35; Mikołajczyk to Churchill, 20 July 1943 and Churchill to Mikołajczyk, 1 August 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, 42–5, 52.
99. Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 96–8
100. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–1945’; Bór-Komorowski, Situation Report no. 5, 20 April 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, 413–17.
101. I. Gutman, ‘The Victimisation of the Poles’, in Berenbaum, Mosaic of Victims, 96–100.
102. Harrison, ‘The British Special Operations Executive and Poland’.
103. Bór-Komorowski, The Secret Army, 125.
104. Ibid., 75–7.
105. K. Piekarski, Escaping Hell, 126–7.
106. Ibid., 145.
107. Garliński, Fighting Auschwitz, passim.
108. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 215–16; author’s interview with Teresa Kicińska; A. Huberman, IWM 18050.
109. Frank Blaichman, IWM 02/23/1. He had escaped from the ghetto in Lubartów.
110. Lowell Armstrong, ‘The Polish Underground and the Jews’.
111. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
112. Quoted in Lowell Armstrong, ‘The Polish Underground and the Jews’.
113. Ainsztein and Karkowski have taken selective quotations from Organization Report 220 of 31 August 1943, which mentioned Jews only in passing and was sent to the Polish Government in London but not to AK commanders in Poland: Ainsztein, Jewish Resistance; Krakowski, War of the Doomed.
114. AK Documents, vol. III, no. 482, 62.
115. Lowell Armstrong, ‘The Polish Underground and the Jews’.
116. Quoted in ibid.
117. Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 75.
118. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 26.
119. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1.
120. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–45’.
121. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 126–7.
122. Baluk, Silent and Unseen, 123–5; Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 115–16; Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 79; G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, passim.
123. Destiny Can Wait, 214–15.
124. Harrison, ‘The British Special Operations Executive and Poland’.
125. Destiny Can Wait, 217; Stafford, Britain and European Resistance, 184.
126. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 193.
127. Alanbrooke to Sikorski, 14 May 1942, AK Documents, vol. II, no. 304, 230–31; Stafford, Britain and European Resistance, 133–6; Wilkinson & Astley, Gubbins and SOE, 110–12; 130–31; Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 119–21, 141–3, 145–9.
128. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 105.
129. Housden, Hans Frank, 196–7, 209; Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 85–7.
130. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 113.
131. Mayevski, Fire Without Smoke, 114.
132. Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 31.
133. R. Lukas, ‘The Polish Experience of the Holocaust’, in Berenbaum, Mosaic of Victims, 88–95.
1. Gilbert, Righteous, 31.
2. Diary entry 5 July 1941, Felix Landau, in Klee, Dressen & Riess, ‘The Good Old Days’, 90–91.
3. Interview with Alicia Melamed Adams, IWM 18670.
4. Gross, Neighbors; Dean, ‘Where Did All the Collaborators Go?’; Dean, ‘Poles in the German Local Police in Eastern Poland’; Connelly, ‘Poles and Jews in the Second World War’.
5. Quoted in P. Longerich, ‘From Mass Murder to the “Final Solution” ’, in Wegner, From Peace to War, 253–75.
6. Situation report of Gebeitskommissar Gerhard Erren, 25 January 1942, quoted in Klee, Dressen & Riess, ‘The Good Old Days’, 178–9.
7. Pohl, ‘Hans Krüger and the Murder of the Jews’.
8. Quoted in Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 140–41.
9. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, 316.
10. Olszański, Kresy Kresów Stanisławów, 115.
11. Snyder, Bloodlands, 199–200.
12. Tec, When Light Pierced, 21. The author survived the occupation as a Jew by passing as a Pole.
13. Łuczak, Polska i Polacy, 315–19.
14. Diary entry 4 December 1941, Hilberg, Staron & Kernisz, Warsaw Diary, 305.
15. Quoted in Smith, Forgotten Voices, 108.
16. Lewin, Cup of Tears, 116.
17. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 36, 74.
18. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 23.
19. Gutman & Krakowski, Unequal Victims, 185.
20. Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 57.
21. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 31–2.
22. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 49.
23. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1.
24. Author’s interview with Teresa Kicińska.
25. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
26. German Crimes in Poland, 158.
27. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 283.
28. I. Kershaw, ‘Improvised Genocide?’
29. German Crimes in Poland, 109–10; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 380–81.
30. Decree by Himmler, 19 July 1942, Documents on the Holocaust, 275–6.
31. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, vol. III, 1219. The Sonderkommand0 disposed of the corpses of the exterminated Jews.
32. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 287.
33. Beevor & Vinogradova, Writer at War, 280–306.
34. German Crimes in Poland, 95–104.
35. J. Wiernik, ‘One Year in Treblinka’, in Langer, Art from the Ashes, 18–51.
36. Statement by Höss, quoted in Klee, Dressen & Riess, ‘The Good Old Days’, 269.
37. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 409.
38. Zdzisław Rozbicki, quoted in Turski, Polish Witnesses, 106.
39. Wiernik, ‘One Year in Treblinka’, in Langer, Art from the Ashes.
40. Interview with Michael Etkind, IWM 10486.
41. Interview with Kitty Hart-Moxon, IWM 16632.
42. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 223–4.
43. Paulsson, Secret City; Gutman, Jews of Warsaw, 265.
44. Deák, Essays on Hitler’s Europe, 71.
45. Katsch, Scroll of Agony, 385.
46. Announcement of the evacuation of the Jews from the Warsaw ghetto, 22 July 1942, Documents on the Holocaust, 281–2.
47. Interview with Stanley Faull, IWM 18272.
48. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 50–51.
49. Quoted in Smith, Forgotten Voices, 122.
50. Quoted in ibid., 121.
51. Lewin, Cup of Tears, 179.
52. Ringelblum, Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto, 330.
53. Gutman, Jews of Warsaw, 447.
54. Wiesenthal, Justice Not Vengeance, 231.
55. Wiernik, ‘One Year in Treblinka’, in Langer, Art from the Ashes, 29.
56. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 66; Grynberg, Words to Outlive Us, 162, 175; Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 118.
57. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 74.
58. Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 15.
59. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, 307.
60. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 608.
61. Ibid., 368.
62. Adelson & Lapides, Łódź Ghetto, 330.
63. Interview with Roman Halter, IWM 17183.
64. Grynberg, Words to Outlive Us, 444; Yad Vashem Resource Centre, Jerusalem.
65. Report by Jäcklein, 14 September 1942, quoted in Klee, Dressen & Riess, ‘The Good Old Days’, 233–4.
66. Wiernik, ‘One Year in Treblinka’, in Langer, Art from the Ashes.
67. Longerich, Holocaust, 353.
68. Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, 385–6.
69. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 172; Tzvetan Todorov quoted in Deák, Essays on Hitler’s Europe, 163.
70. Rowecki to London, 4 January 1943, AK Documents, vol. II, 282.
71. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 86.
72. Sikorski Institute, Polskie Siły Zbrojne, vol. III, 234.
73. Lukas, Holocaust, 175.
74. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 105.
75. Gutman & Krakowski, Unequal Victims, 162; research by Teresa Prekerowa, quoted in T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 108.
76. Quoted in Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust, 174.
77. Edelman, Ghetto Fights, 35.
78. Interview with D. Falkner, IWM 19783.
79. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 558–9.
80. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 133.
81. Korboński, Jews and the Poles, 58.
82. Deák, Essays on Hitler’s Europe, 73.
83. Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 178–9.
84. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 108.
85. Edelman, Ghetto Fights, 41.
86. Gilbert, The Holocaust, 563–5.
87. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 133.
88. Stefan Ernest, quoted in Grynberg, Words to Outlive Us, 290. Ernest escaped from the ghetto in January 1943 and died that May.
89. Report on the Warsaw ghetto revolt, 4 May 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, 4–6.
90. Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 70–71.
91. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 452.
92. Gross, ‘Tangled Web’, in Deák, Gross & Judt, Politics of Retribution.
93. Frank decree, 15 October 1941, AK Documents, vol. VI, 208.
94. Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 152–3; F. Tych, ‘Witnessing the Holocaust: Polish Diaries, Memoirs and Reminiscences’, in Bankier & Gutman, Nazi Europe, 175–98.
95. Interview with M. Ossowski, IWM 19794.
96. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 61.
97. Interview with R. Halter, IWM 17183.
98. Quoted in W. Bartoszewski, ‘Polish-Jewish Relations in Occupied Poland, 1939–1945’, in Abramsky, Jachimczyk & Polonsky, Jews in Poland, 147–60.
99. Neuman-Nowicki, Struggle for Life, 52–3.
100. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 121.
101. Tec, When Light Pierced, 75.
102. Ringelblum, Polish-Jewish Relations, 100–101.
103. Chodakiewicz, Between Nazis and Soviets, 148–9.
104. Gut Opdyke, In My Hands, 217.
105. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 88.
106. Tec, When Light Pierced, 51.
107. For example, Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 165.
108. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 12.
109. Tec, When Light Pierced, 4.
110. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 32–5. Twelve of the Jews survived: one was killed in a camp after the Warsaw Uprising when he was identified as a Jew by the Germans.
111. K. Kakol, ‘The Eighty-First Blow’, in Polonsky, ‘My Brother’s Keeper?’, 144–9.
112. Korboński, Jews and the Poles, viii, 67; Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 13.
113. Browning, Ordinary Men, 149.
114. Quoted in Gilbert, Righteous, 43.
115. Gutman & Krakowski, Unequal Victims, 69, 144, 147.
116. Bartoszewski, ‘Polish-Jewish Relations in Occupied Poland’, in Abramsky, Jachimczyk & Polonsky, Jews in Poland; D. Engel, ‘Possibilities of Rescuing Polish Jewry under German Occupation and the Influence of the Polish Government-in-Exile’, and S. Krakowski, ‘The Polish Underground and the Jews in the Years of the Second World War’, both in Bankier & Gutman, Nazi Europe, 136–48, 215–30.
117. Gilbert, Righteous, 120.
118. Reproduced in Tec, When Light Pierced, 111–12.
119. T. Prekerowa, ‘The “Just” and the “Passive” ’, in Polonsky, ‘My Brother’s Keeper?’, 72–80.
120. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 149–50.
121. Gilbert, Righteous, 120–22; Lukas, Forgotten Survivors, 166–70.
122. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 163.
123. K. Iranek-Osmecki, He Who Saves One Life, 50.
124. Gilbert, Holocaust Journey, 142–3.
125. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 170.
126. Karski, Secret State, 261–77.
127. Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 21–2.
128. Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies, 103.
129. Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. VII, 287.
130. Breitman, Official Secrets, 116–20.
131. Wood & Jankowski, Karski, 152.
132. Ibid., 188.
133. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 274–5. There is far more on this subject in Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies.
134. Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 429.
135. Bartoszewski, ‘Polish-Jewish Relations in Occupied Poland’, in Abramsky, Jachimczyk & Polonsky, Jews in Poland.
136. Polonsky, Introduction, ‘My Brother’s Keeper?’, 1–33.
1. Biddle to Hull, 2 February 1942, FRUS 1942, vol. III, 102; see, for example, Raczyński, In Allied London, 161–3, and biographers, most notably Terlecki, Generał Sikorski.
2. Rex Leeper, Head of Political Intelligence Department to Strang, Foreign Office, 25 November 1939, quoted in Polonsky, Great Powers, 75–6.
3. Government Delegate to London, 15 August 1941, no. 211; Rowecki to Sikorski, 15 September 1941, no. 236, Sikorski to Rowecki, 10 October 1941, no. 251, all in AK Documents, vol. II, 42, 70, 126–8.
4. Polish-Soviet Agreement, 30 July 1941, DPSR, vol. I, no. 106, 141.
5. Conversation between Sikorski and Stalin, 4 December 1941, DPSR, vol. I, no. 160, 245.
6. Report on Sikorski’s journey to the Middle East and Russia, presented by him to the Council of Ministers, 12 January 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 171, 264–6.
7. Diary entry 9 January 1942, quoted in Terry, Poland’s Place in Europe, 128.
8. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 295.
9. Gardner, Spheres of Influence, 91.
10. For the text of the Atlantic Charter, see FRUS 1941, vol. I, 367–9; Biddle to Hull, 12 September 1941; and Polish Government memorandum to the State Department, 12 September 1941, both in ibid., vol. I, 373–8.
11. Conversation between Sikorski and Cripps, 26 January 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 176, 269–71.
12. Meeting of the Council of Ministers, 4 February 1942, Protokoły, vol. IV, 136–45. Hong Kong fell on Christmas Day 1941 and Singapore on 15 February 1942. Supplies earmarked for the Polish forces in the Soviet Union were rushed to the Pacific. The British were in retreat in the Western Desert.
13. Sikorski to Eden, 9 March 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 189, 289–4; Stoler, ‘The “Second Front” ’.
14. Churchill to Roosevelt, 7 March 1942, Loewenheim, Langley & Jonas, Roosevelt and Churchill, 186.
15. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 154.
16. Quoted in Rees, World War Two, 128.
17. Conversation between Sikorski and Roosevelt, 24 March 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 194, 310–11; report on visit to United States presented to Council of Ministers, 14 April 1942; and report on meeting with Litvinov, both in Protokoły, vol. IV, 207–16, 242–4.
18. Memo from Polish Government to the Foreign Office, 27 March 1942; Raczyński to Eden, 13 April 1942; Sikorski to Eden, 16 April 1942; Raczyński to Eden, 21 April 1942; conversation between Sikorski, Churchill and Cripps, 26 April 1942, all in DPSR, vol. I, nos. 196, 202, 204, 209, 211; 312–17, 321–2, 324–5, 332–5, 336–40.
19. Diary entry 7 May 1942, Dilks, Diaries, 450–51.
20. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 117.
21. Text of Anglo-Soviet Treaty, 26 May 1942, TNA, FO 371/33017.
22. Conversation between Sikorski and Eden, 8 June 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 225, 364–6.
23. Sikorski to Roosevelt, 17 June 1942, FRUS 1942, vol. III, 155–7.
24. Quoted in the introduction to Protokoły, vol. IV.
25. Beneš, Memoirs, 149; record of talks between Sikorski and Molotov, 10 June 1942, in Rzheshevsky, War and Diplomacy, document 117, 291–4; Sikorski to Beneš, 23 July 1942, Protokoły, vol. IV, 377–84; Mastny, Russia’s Road, 56–9; memorandum from the Polish Foreign Ministry to the State Department, 17 May 1943, DPSR, vol. II, no. 16, 19.
26. Diary entry 21 May 1942, Pimlott, Second World War Diary, 441–2.
27. See Terry, Poland’s Place in Europe, passim.
28. Resolution of the Council of Ministers on approach to the frontier with Germany, 7 October 1942, Protokoły, vol. V, 29–31.
29. Instruction from Sikorski to Rowecki, 28 November 1942, AK Documents, Vol. II, no. 357, 369–72.
30. Memorandum by Sikorski presented to Sumner Welles, 23 December 1942, DPSR, vol. I, no. 283, 469–73.
31. Resolution of the Council of Ministers on approach to the frontier with Germany, 7 October 1942, Protokoły, vol. V, 29–31.
32. Report by Sikorski on his visit to the United States, 21 January 1943, Protokoły, vol. V, 158–75; memorandum for Welles, 4 December 1942, PISM, A.XII.23/42; meeting between Sikorski and Welles, 4 December 1942, FRUS 1942, vol. III, 199–202.
33. Minute by G. D. Allen, Central Department, Foreign Office, 20 January 1943, in Polonsky, Great Powers, 113–14; Courtovidis & Reynolds, Poland, 85–6.
34. Eden to Dormer, 22 January 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 115–16.
35. Conversations between Romer and Stalin, 26–27 February 1943, DPSR, vol. I, no. 295, 489–501.
36. Biddle to Hull, 28 January 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 324–5.
37. Standley to Hull, 9 March 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 346–7.
38. Minutes of the meeting of the Council of Ministers, 11 February 1943, Protokoły, vol. V, 265–75.
39. The Times, 10 March 1943.
40. Raczyński, In Allied London, 136.
41. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 372–3; Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin, 122–3.
42. Cadogan to Churchill, 31 March 1943, in Polonsky, Great Powers, 119–20.
43. DPSR, vol. I, 523–4.
44. Broadcast by Berlin radio station, 15 April 1943, no. 305; TASS communiqué, 15 April 1943, no. 306; communiqué by Kukiel, 16 April 1943, no. 307; statement by the Polish Government, 17 April 1943, no. 308, all in DPSR, vol. I, 523–8; Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 61.
45. Biddle to Hull, 2 May 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 404–5.
46. Conversation between Sikorski and Eden, 24 April 1943, DPSR, vol. II, supplement 15, 696–702.
47. Molotov to Romer, 25 April 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 126–8.
48. Quoted in Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 189.
49. Werth, Russia at War, 648.
50. Quoted in Paul, Katyń, 230.
51. Government Delegate and AK commander to London, 29 April 1943, AK Documents, vol. VI, no. 1761, 313; Rowecki to Sikorski, 5 May 1943, no. 438; Sikorski to Rowecki, 10 May 1943, no. 440; Rowecki to London, 13 May 1943, no. 441; Rowecki, Special Report no. 198, May 1943, no. 445, all in AK Documents, vol. III, 6–7, 10–13.
52. E. Thompson, ‘The Katyn Massacre and the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in the Soviet-Nazi Propaganda War’, in Garrard and Garrard, World War 2, 215–30.
53. Churchill to Stalin, 24 April 1943, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 151, 126–7; Roosevelt to Stalin, 26 April 1943, ibid., vol. II, no. 81, 56.
54. Clark Kerr to Eden, 21 April 1943, TNA, PREM 3/354/8.
55. Diary entry 18 June 1943, Dilks, Diaries, 537.
56. TNA, FO 371/34577.
57. Churchill to Roosevelt, 13 August 1943, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, vol. II, 389.
58. Paul, Katyń, 220.
59. Bell, John Bull, 117–18.
60. Diary entry 30 April 1943, Dilks, Diaries, 525.
61. Standley to Hull, 28 April 1943; Biddle to Hull, 2 May 1943, both in FRUS 1943, vol. III, 400–402, 404–5.
62. Certainly Wanda Wasilewska and her Polish communist allies believed that Stalin had been waiting for an opportunity to break with the Polish Government in London. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 12.
63. Stalin to Churchill, 4 May 1943; Churchill to Stalin, 12 May 1943, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, nos. 156, 159, 131–2, 134.
64. Churchill to Stalin, 12 May 1943, in Stalin Correspondence vol. I, no. 159, 134; Roosevelt to Sikorski, 7 June 1943, Protokoły, vol. VI, 20–25; Biddle to Welles, 2 June 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 424–6.
65. Anders, Bez ostatniego rodzialu, 148–9. This belief is corroborated by the report of General Beaumont-Nesbitt in his report to the Foreign Office (TNA, FO371/34594).
66. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 215.
67. Danchev & Todman, War Diaries, 429–30.
68. Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 134.
69. For more details, see Terlecki, Generał Sikorski, vol. II, 270–73 and 289–91.
70. R. Hochhuth, The Soldiers, a play produced in 1967.
71. Frank Roberts interviewed by Keith Sword, SSEES archives, SWO 1/3.
72. Retinger, Memoirs, 144.
73. Anders, Bez ostatniego rodzialu, 144–5.
74. Sarner, General Anders, 155–6.
75. Nicolson, Harold Nicolson, 303.
76. Diary entry 6 July 1943, Dilks, Diaries, 541–2; diary entry 8 July 1943, J. Harvey, War Diaries, 272–3; Raczyński, In Allied London, 150–51; Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 144.
77. Retinger, Memoirs, 144; Raczyński, In Allied London, 151, 156; Government Delegate to Mikołajczyk and Kot, 15 August 1943; Bór-Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 19 August 1943, both in AK Documents, vol. III, 55–8, 60–62; Schwonek, ‘Kazimierz Sosnkowski as Commander in Chief’.
78. Litvinov was replaced by Andrei Gromyko. Churchill to Roosevelt, 28 June 1943, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, 285; Clark Kerr, quoted in Kitchen, British Policy, 160; diary entry 28 March 1944, Nicolson, Harold Nicolson, 357.
79. Memoranda by Warner, Sargent and Cadogan, 28 July 1943; Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, 3 August 1943, all in TNA, FO 371/36925.
80. Retinger, Memoirs, 144; Frank Roberts interviewed by Keith Sword, SSEES archives, SWO 1/3.
81. Government Delegate to Mikołajczyk and Minister of the Interior, 15 August 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 477, 55–8.
82. Memorandum by Eden, 5 October 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 151–4.
83. Meeting between Mikołajczyk, Retinger, Raczyński, Eden and Strang, 9 September 1943, DPSR, vol. II, 49–50.
84. Conversation between Mikołajczyk, Romer, Raczyński, Eden and Cadogan, 5 October 1943; memorandum by Polish Government to Eden, 5 October 1943, both in DPSR, vol. II, 61–4, 65–8.
85. Eden to O’Malley, 6 October 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 155–7.
86. Strang, At Home and Abroad, 74.
87. Memorandum by Eden, 5 October 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 151–5. In fact there were around 6,000,000 Polish-American voters.
88. Harriman to Roosevelt, 4 November 1943, FRUS Teheran, 152–5; Eden to Foreign Office, 6 November 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 157–8; FRUS 1943, vol. I, 667–8.
89. Conversation between Mikołajczyk, Romer, Raczyński, Eden, Sargent and Strang, 12 November 1943, DPSR, vol. II, 74–8.
90. Ciechanowski to State Department, 17 November 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 478–81.
91. Memorandum by the Polish Government for Churchill and Roosevelt, 16 November 1943, DPSR, vol. II, no. 51, 53–6.
92. Conversation between Mikołajczyk, Raczyński, Romer and Eden, 22 November 1943, DPSR, vol. II, no. 55, 90–93.
93. Bohlen, Witness to History, 136.
94. Roosevelt to Churchill, 18 March 1942, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, vol. I, 421.
95. Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin, 276; Mastny, Russia’s Road, 122; Eubank, Summit at Teheran, passim; for more on the Anglo-American differences in strategy, see A. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, passim.
96. Memorandum, 22 November 1943, CAB 66/43/04911; Mastny, Russia’s Road, 131.
97. Diary entry 29 November 1943, Dilks, Diaries, 580.
98. Conversation between Churchill and Stalin, 28 November 1943, FRUS Teheran, 511–12.
99. Conversation between Roosevelt and Stalin, 1 December 1943, FRUS Teheran, 594–5.
100. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 29.
101. Plenary session, 1 December 1943, FRUS Teheran, 597–604.
1. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 247.
2. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 507.
3. T. Piotrowski, Genocide and Rescue, 65, 85.
4. Ibid., 52.
5. For example, Rowecki to London, 4 May 1943; Situation Report, 23 March 1944, both in AK Documents, vol. III, nos. 437, 582, 4–5; 380–84. The situation regarding the Ukrainians featured in numerous Situation Reports transmitted by Komorowski to London.
6. Kosyk, Third Reich, 160; T. Piotrowski, Genocide and Rescue, 24.
7. Snyder, ‘The Causes of Ukrainian-Polish Ethnic Cleansing 1943’.
8. Snyder, Reconstruction, 174.
9. Dmytryshn, ‘The Nazis and the SS Volunteer Division “Galicia” ’.
10. M. Yukkevich, ‘Galician Ukrainians in German Military Formations and in the German Administration’, in Boshyk, Ukraine During World War II, 67–87; Snyder, Reconstruction, 165–6.
11. T. Piotrowski, Genocide and Rescue, 173.
12. Ibid., 80.
13. Ibid., 21.
14. Tec, Defiance, 143.
15. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 101.
16. G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 144, 149.
17. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 101.
18. Tec, Defiance, 113.
19. Ibid., 158; Ainsztein, Jewish Resistance, 390.
20. Mayevski, Fire Without Smoke, 5.
21. Snyder, Reconstruction, 164–5.
22. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 506.
23. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 115–17.
24. G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 148.
25. Prusin, Lands Between, 188.
26. Ibid., 189.
27. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 146–7.
28. G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 152–7.
29. Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 113.
30. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 88.
31. Lowell Armstrong, ‘The Polish Underground and the Jews’; T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 91.
32. Quoted in Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 21.
33. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 95; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 22.
34. Author’s interview with Iwona Skowerski.
35. Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 8 December 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 511, 215.
36. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 114; A. Paczkowski, ‘Poland, the “Enemy Nation” ’, in Courtois, et al., Black Book of Communism, 363–93.
37. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 103; Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 41–2.
38. Cienciala, ‘The Activities of Polish Communists’; Biddle to Secretary of State, 3 March 1943, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 338–42.
39. Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 42. The case of who murdered Nowotko and why has never been satisfactorily resolved.
40. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 10–11; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 19.
41. Wanda Wasilewska had been active in the Polish socialist movement since her early youth and in the mid-1930s drew closer to communism. Jakub Berman had joined the KPP in 1928. Interview with J. Berman, in Torańska, ‘Them’, 217.
42. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 10; Cienciala, ‘The Activities of Polish Communists’.
43. K. Nussbaum, ‘Jews in the Kościuszko Division and First Polish Army’, in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland, 183–208; Werth, Russia at War, 642–3.
44. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 131; Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 11–14.
45. Torańska, ‘Them’, 231.
46. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 36.
47. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katynń, 214.
48. Quoted in Kot, Conversations with the Kremlin, 271.
49. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 111–12.
50. Zajdlerowa, Dark Side of the Moon, 205–11.
51. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 150–60; documents handed to Stalin by Clark Kerr and Admiral Standley, 11 August 1943, Polonsky, Great Powers, 139–42.
52. Woodward, British Foreign Policy, vol. II, 623–4.
53. Ibid., vol. II, 637.
54. T. Piesakowski, Fate of Poles, 134–5.
55. Diary entry 5 May 1943, Dilks, Diaries, 527.
56. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 136–7.
57. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 208.
58. Nussbaum, ‘Jews in the Kościuszko Division and First Polish Army’, in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland.
59. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 194–5; Sword, Deportation and Exile, 122–3.
60. TNA, FO 371 34576.
61. Biddle to Secretary of State, 6 July 1944, FRUS 1943, vol. III, 1291–2.
62. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
63. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 195–6.
64. Berling, Wspomnienia, vol. II, 113.
65. Nussbaum, ‘Jews in the Kościuszko Division and First Polish Army’, in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland.
66. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 12.
67. Nussbaum, ‘Jews in the Kościuszko Division and First Polish Army’, in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland.
68. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 127–8.
69. Nussbaum, ‘Jews in the Kościuszko Division and First Polish Army’, in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland.
70. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
71. Werth, Russia at War, 656.
72. Ibid., 657–61.
73. Wasilewska, Wspomnienia, 388.
74. Erickson, Road to Berlin, 131–2.
75. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
76. For example, neither John Erickson nor Chris Bellamy mentions the battle.
77. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 156–61; Berling, Wspomnienia, vol. II, 335–424.
78. Wasilewska, Wspomnienia, 391; Sword, Deportation and Exile, 130.
1. Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 305.
2. DPSR, vol. II, no. 74, 132–4.
3. Hanson, Civilian Population, 60; Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–1945’.
4. Declaration by the RJN, 15 March 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 573, 361–70.
5. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland, 19.
6. Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 74–8; Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland, 15; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 60–64.
7. Stalin to Churchill, 28 July 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 301, 245–6.
8. Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 78.
9. Ciechanowski, Warsaw Rising, 132–47.
10. Bór-Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 2 August 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 474, 52.
11. Polish Government to Bór-Komorowski, 26 October 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 496, 182–5.
12. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 180.
13. Bór-Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 26 November 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 509, 209–13.
14. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 231.
15. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 45.
16. Sosnkowski to Bór-Komorowski, 11 January 1944; Sosnkowski to Mikołajczyk, 5 January 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 527, 239–42, no. 520, 227.
17. Sosnkowski to Bór-Komorowski, 17 February 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 552, 282–4.
18. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 183–4.
19. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 73.
20. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 186–7.
21. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 74.
22. G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 180.
23. Paczkowski, ‘Poland, the “Enemy Nation” ’, in Courtois et al., Black Book of Communism.
24. Blood, ‘Securing Hitler’s Lebensraum’. The forest of Białowieża is now split between Poland and Belarus.
25. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 188–9.
26. Bór-Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 30 March 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 586, 386.
27. Mikołajczyk to Churchill, 21 February 1944; Churchill to Mikołajczyk, 7 April 1944, AK Documents, vol. VI, no. 1807, 373, no. 1817, 386.
28. For example, Raczyński to Eden, 24 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 207, 357–62.
29. Sosnkowski to Bór-Komorowski, 11 March 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 568, 355.
30. G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 90.
31. Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 228.
32. Selborne to Sosnkowski, 3 May 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 610, 431.
33. Adair, Hitler’s Greatest Defeat, passim; Erickson, Road to Berlin, passim; Overy, Russia’s War, 243–4.
34. Bellamy, Absolute War, 616
35. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
36. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 198.
37. Pravda, 27 March 1944, quoted in Rozek, Allied Wartime Diplomacy, 203–4. Romuald Traugutt was the commander of the 1863 uprising against the Russians.
38. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 250–51.
39. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 141.
40. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
41. Zbigniew Wolak, quoted in Rees, World War Two, 296.
42. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 50–52.
43. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 75; Halina Kalwajt, quoted in Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 130; G. Iranek-Osmecki, Unseen and Silent, 182–5. Aleksander Krzyżanowski was released in 1947 and returned to Poland. He was rearrested by the Polish Security Police in 1948 and died in prison in 1951.
44. Filipkowski remained in prison in the Soviet Union until 1947, when he was handed over to the Polish authorities, interrogated and released. Ostrowski was soon released and held public office in the post-war Polish Government and served as Poland’s ambassador to Sweden.
45. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 197–8; Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 76.
46. Chuikov, End of the Third Reich, 43; Rokossovsky also made similar comments in his memoirs.
47. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 198.
48. Reynolds, ‘ “Lublin” versus “London” ’; Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 198.
49. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 154.
50. Werth, Russia at War, 898–9.
51. AK Command to London, 21 July 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 676, 571. This information was passed by Raczyński to Eden on 27 July, ibid., vol. III, no. 685, 580–85.
52. AK Command and Government Delegate to London, 30 July 1944, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 693, 590.
53. Diary entry 19 March 1944, Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation, 311.
54. Wiesenthal, Murderers Among Us, 41.
55. T. Piotrowski, Poland’s Holocaust, 27.
56. Klukowski, Red Shadow, 345–6.
57. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 154.
58. Bór-Komorowski to London, 14 October 1943, AK Documents, vol. III, no. 492, 157–79.
59. Harrison, ‘The British Special Operations Executive and Poland’; Walker, Poland Alone, 189. During the same period, over 3,400 tons of supplies were dropped in Yugoslavia.
60. Sosnkowski to Bór-Komorowski, 28 July 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 724, 17.
61. Ciechanowski, Warsaw Uprising, 296.
62. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 15.
63. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, passim; interview in 1969 with Rzepecki, in Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 71.
64. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 212–13; Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 440.
65. Hanson, Civilian Population, 69.
66. Davies, Rising ’44, 117.
67. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 333–4; for details of the deliberations, see Ciechanowski, Warsaw Uprising, 215–40.
68. Ciechanowski, Warsaw Uprising, 237–40.
69. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 215.
70. Ciechanowski, Warsaw Uprising, 212.
71. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 25, 30.
72. Ibid., 33.
73. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 75.
74. Hanson, Civilian Population, 67.
75. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 29, 24–5; Gilbert, Holocaust Journey, 314–15.
76. Walker, Poland Alone, 218.
77. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 75.
78. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 190.
79. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 99–101. Kaminski was born in Russia and had a Polish father. In 1941 his offer to form a locally recruited force to fight against the Soviet partisans was accepted by the Germans, and Kaminski’s brigade became notorious for its brutality against the partisans in Belorussia. His brigade was withdrawn from Warsaw on von dem Bach’s orders at the end of August 1944. Kaminski himself was court-martialled by the Germans, sentenced to death and shot on 4 October 1944. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 56.
80. Von dem Bach-Zelewski had the Zelewski part of his surname removed in 1941 because of its Polish-sounding origin.
81. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 63.
82. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 111.
83. Irene Barbarska, quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 19.
84. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 348–9; Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 64.
85. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 194.
86. Harrison, ‘The British Special Operations Executive and Poland’.
87. Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 191–4.
88. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 211.
89. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Stalin, 9 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 189, 336.
90. Churchill to Stalin, 4 August 1944; Stalin to Churchill, 5 August 1944, both in Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, nos. 311 and 313, 251–3; Mikołajczyk to Polish Government, 9 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 89, 336; Harriman to Cordell Hull, 10 August 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1308–10; Vyshinsky to Harriman, 15 August 1944, TNA, FO 371 1075/8/55; Churchill and Roosevelt to Stalin, 20 August 1944, Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 565; Stalin to Churchill and Roosevelt, 22 August 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol I, no. 323, 258. Shuttle bombing began on 2 June 1944 with US bombers flying from bases in Britain, bombing targets such as the marshalling yards at Debrecen in Hungary or the oil installations in Rumania before landing at the Soviet airfield at Poltava in the Ukraine for refuelling.
91. Hugh Lunghi, quoted in Rees, World War Two, 289. Lunghi was the interpreter with the mission.
92. Bohlen, Witness to History, 161.
93. Bór-Komorowski to Sosnkowski, 6 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 776, 61.
94. Jankowski to Raczkiewicz, 10 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 801, 85.
95. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 200.
96. John Ward to The Times, 24 August 1944, quoted in Hanson, Civilian Population, 1.
97. 6 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1006, 282–3.
98. Destiny Can Wait, 222–3.
99. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 358.
100. P. Siudak to Korboński, 30 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 959, 237.
101. Bór-Komorowski to AK commanders, 31 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 968, 245.
102. Chmielarz, ‘Warsaw Fought Alone’.
103. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 287–8.
104. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 367.
105. Hanson, Civilian Population, 107.
106. Note written by Borowiec in Stalag XIA in January 1945 and incorporated into his book Destroy Warsaw, 129.
107. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 149.
108. Churchill to Roosevelt, 25 August 1944; Roosevelt to Churchill, 26 August 1944, both in Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, 295–6.
109. British Government to Molotov, 4 September 1944, in Polonsky, Great Powers, 218–19. Molotov replied on 9 September with another refusal.
110. The reaction of the press and public opinion in Britain is covered in detail in Bell, John Bull, 161–8.
111. Churchill to Roosevelt, 4 September 1944; Roosevelt to Churchill, 5 September 1944, both in Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 571–2.
112. Declaration by the British Government, 29 August 1944; declaration by the United States Government, 29 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, nos. 952 and 953, 225–8. Eisenhower had issued a similar declaration regarding the French Resistance.
113. Declaration by the British Government, 9 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1030, 303.
114. The Times, 10 September 1944.
115. Bór-Komorowski to London, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1007, 284.
116. Jankowski and Bór-Komorowski to London, 6 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1006, 282–4.
117. Bartoszewski, Powstanie Warszawskie, 213–20; Hanson, Civilian Population, 156–8.
118. Hanson, Civilian Population, 158–9.
119. Bór-Komorowski to London, 10 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1034, 306.
120. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 186–8.
121. Stalin to Churchill, 16 August 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 321, 257.
122. Rokossovsky, Soldier’s Duty, 255.
123. Destiny Can Wait, 225.
124. Davies, Rising ’44, 270–71; Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 109. Kalugin remained in Warsaw until the end of September, when he crossed the Vistula to join the Soviet Army.
125. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 166–75; Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 72–4; Zawodny goes into great detail, examining the case of whether the capture of Warsaw was part of the Soviet plans and whether the Soviet armies could have attacked the city; Davies, Rising ’44, 271.
126. Quoted in Polonsky and Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 286.
127. Wanda Bitner, quoted in Stalin’s Ethnic Cleansing, 306.
128. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
129. Minutes of a meeting of the PKWN, 15 September 1944, quoted in Polonsky and Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 281–3.
130. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 184–5.
131. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 274.
132. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 202. The author lists the attempts to establish communications during September 1944.
133. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 379; Chmielarz, ‘Warsaw Fought Alone’.
134. Bór-Komorowski to AK units, 14 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 829, 107.
135. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 67–8.
136. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 177–8.
137. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 151.
138. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 182; Davies, Rising ’44, 396.
139. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 388; Davies, Rising ’44, 396.
140. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 384–5.
141. Hanson, Civilian Population, 194.
142. Ibid., 194–6.
143. Mikołajczyk to Stalin, 29 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1180, 409. At this time Bór-Komorowski was sending daily information reports to Rokossovsky.
144. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 386.
145. Paulsson, Secret City, 235–6.
146. Davies, Rising ’44, 437.
147. Altbeker Cyprys, Jump for Life, 217, 226.
148. Bór-Komorowski to London, 1 and 4 October 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, nos. 1201, 1217, 423, 441; Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 372. Bór-Komorowski and his fellow commanders were imprisoned in various camps (Oflag 73 in Langwasser near Nuremberg; Colditz; a civilian camp at Laufen in Czechoslovakia) before being handed over to the Swiss on 4 May 1945.
149. Baluk, Silent and Unseen, 249.
150. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 401.
151. Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 194.
152. Skrzynska, ‘A Brief Outline of the History of Women POWs’.
153. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 179; Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 210–11.
154. Korboński, Fighting Warsaw, 407.
155. Borowiec, Destroy Warsaw, 179; Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich, 109.
156. Quoted in Rees, World War Two, 297.
157. Hastings, Armageddon, 123–4.
158. Quoted in Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 72.
159. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 398.
160. Zenon Frank, quoted in Gill, Journey Back, 341.
161. Bór-Komorowski, Secret Army, 380–83.
162. Waskiewicz, ‘The Polish Home Army’.
163. Affidavit by Hans Frank in evidence to the Nuremberg Trial, Yale Avalon Project.
164. Pierkarski, Escaping Hell, passim.
165. Walker, Poland Alone, 264–5.
166. Author’s interviews with Teresa and Anna Kicińska.
167. Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 113–14.
168. Kopański to Okulicki, 17 October 1944, AKDocuments, vol. V, no. 1257, 75. Okulicki was given fewer powers than his predecessor. Mikołajczyk asked Jankowski to obtain the opinion of surviving AK commanders regarding Okulicki, Mikołajczyk to Jankowski, 25 October 1944, ibid., vol. V, no. 1279, 97.
169. Okulicki to Raczkiewicz, 9 December 1944, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1344, 170–84.
170. Staff Group Kampinos to AK Command, 19 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 1110, 356–8; Davies, Rising ’44, 397.
171. Garliński, Poland in the Second World War, 307.
172. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1; Gut Opdyke, In My Hands, 214.
173. Quoted in Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 115.
174. Gilbert, Churchill, vol. VII, 1068.
175. TNA, PREM 3/352/11.
176. Eden to Raczyński, 22 December 1944, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1361, 202–4.
177. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 25.
178. A. Paczkowski, Spring Will Be Ours, 132.
179. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 33.
180. Diary entry 10 October 1944, Klukowski, Red Shadow, 24.
181. Quoted in Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 56.
182. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 159.
183. Torańska, ‘Them’, 228–9.
184. Sword, Deportation and Exile, 159–60.
185. Quoted in Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 101.
186. S. Kujawiński, IWM 12018.
187. Quoted in Davies, Rising ’44, 487.
188. Paczkowski, Spring Will Be Ours, 130.
189. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 32.
190. Ibid., 66.
1. Meeting between Eden and Mikołajczyk, 22 December 1943, Eden, Eden Memoirs, 434; O’Malley to Mikołajczyk, 3 January 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 69, 122; Churchill to Eden, 6 January 1944, TNA, PREM 3/399/6; Churchill to Roosevelt, 6 January 1944, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, 651; Churchill to Eden, 7 January 1944, TNA, PREM 3/355/7, FO 371/39386; conversation between Mikołajczyk, Romer, Raczyński, Churchill, Eden and Cadogan, 20 January 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 83, 144–9; War Cabinet, 25 January 1944, TNA, CAB 65/45/11/1.
2. Memo by Polish Government, 16 January 1944; Mikołajczyk to Eden, 23 January 1944; Mikołajczyk to Churchill, 15 February 1944, all in Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 309–16; meeting between Mikołajczyk and Churchill, 6 February 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 96, 165–71; meeting between Mikołajczyk and Churchill, 16 February 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 103, 180–88.
3. Memo by Sargent, 24 January 1944, TNA, FO 371/39386.
4. Churchill to Stalin, 28 January 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 235, 196–9.
5. Stalin to Churchill, 4 February 1944, ibid., vol. I, no. 236, 199–201.
6. Churchill to Stalin, 20 February 1944, ibid., vol. I, no. 243, 205–8.
7. Copied in Churchill to Roosevelt, 21 February 1944, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, 740–41.
8. House of Commons, 22 February 1944, Hansard, vol. 397, 698–9, 733–6.
9. Resolution of the Council of National Unity, 15 February 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 102, 179–80.
10. Clark Kerr to Eden, 20 February 1944, TNA, FO 371/43312.
11. Harriman report on a meeting with Molotov, 18 January 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1230–31.
12. Clark Kerr to Eden, 28 February 1944, TNA, FO 371/43312.
13. Stalin to Churchill, 16 March 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 254, 214; diary entry 18 March 1944, Colville, Fringes of Power, 479; diary entry 20 March 1944, J. Harvey, War Diaries, 336; Churchill to Stalin, 21 March 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 256, 215; Stalin to Churchill, 25 March 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 258, 218; diary entry 26 March 1944, Colville, Fringes of Power, 480; Raczyński, In Allied London, 198; Churchill to Roosevelt, 4 March 1944, Kimball, Churchill & Roosevelt, 20–21.
14. Gardner, Spheres of Influence, 208–9.
15. Memorandum by James Dunn, Director of Office of European Affairs, 10 February 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1247.
16. Bliss Lane spent months in Washington meeting various State Department officials and the Polish ambassador. His departure for London was first delayed by the Yalta conference and then by the hope that the negotiations in Moscow would result in a new Polish government which could be recognised by all three members of the Grand Alliance.
17. Mikołajczyk report of his conversations with Schoenfeld, 15 February 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 101, 177–9.
18. Roosevelt to Mikołajczyk, 3 April 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 121, 215–16.
19. Karski, Great Powers, 458. Time magazine had made Hitler its Man of the Year in 1938.
20. T. Bennett, ‘Culture, Power, and Mission to Moscow’.
21. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 180.
22. Drag Korga, ‘The Information Policy of the Polish Government-in-Exile’.
23. Ibid.
24. Stettinius to Roosevelt, 8 March 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1402.
25. TNA, PREM 3/355/15.
26. Mikołajczyk’s report to the Council of Ministers on his visit to Washington, 19 June 1944, Protokoły, vol. VII, 170–92.
27. Mastny, Russia’s Road, 173–4; Szymczak, ‘Oskar Lange, American Polonia’; Time, 8 May 1944.
28. Lange report, 17 May 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 132, 235–40; Szymczak, ‘Oskar Lange, American Polonia’.
29. Lukas, Strange Allies, 55.
30. General Tabor was actually Major-General Stanisław Tatar.
31. Stettinius to Roosevelt, 12 June 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1274–6.
32. Mikołajczyk’s report to the Council of Ministers on his visit to Washington, 19 June 1944, Protokoły, vol. VII, 170–92.
33. Note of meeting between Mikołajczyk and Lange, 13 June 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 143, 258–63; Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 68–70.
34. Diary entries 7–14 June 1944, Campbell & Herring, Diaries, 77–87; memo by Mikołajczyk to the State Department, 12 June 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 141, 250–56.
35. Mikołajczyk’s report (see note 32); Hull to Harriman, 17 June 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1295–9.
36. Mikołajczyk to Government Delegate, 21 June 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 147, 269–70.
37. Roosevelt to Stalin, 17 June 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1284.
38. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 440; Hull to Harriman, 15 January 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1228–9.
39. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 56.
40. Schoenfeld, US Chargé d’affaires to Polish Government, to Hull, 9 July 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1292–6; Eden to Clark Kerr, 8 July 1944, Polonsky, Great Powers, 204–6.
41. Churchill to Stalin, 27 July 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 305, 249.
42. Mikołajczyk’s report (see note 32).
43. Stalin to Roosevelt, 24 June 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. II, no. 206, 139.
44. Kennan to Harriman, 27 July 1944, Kennan, Memoirs, 206.
45. Schoenfeld to Hull, 9 July 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1292–6.
46. For details of the Burdenko report, see Maresh, Katyń 1940, 153–60.
47. Clark Kerr to Romer, 2 August 1944, quoted in Zawodny, Nothing But Honour, 233–4.
48. Cienciala, ‘The Diplomatic Background of the Warsaw Rising’.
49. Kennan, Memoirs, 208.
50. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Stalin, 3 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 180, 309–22.
51. Clark Kerr to Eden, 4 August 1944, Polonsky, Great Powers, 209–11.
52. Minutes of the PKWN, 25 July 1944, quoted in Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 252.
53. Conversation between Mikołajczyk, Bierut and Osóbka-Morawski in the presence of Molotov, 8 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 186, 325–33.
54. Stalin to Churchill, 8 August 1944, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 315, 254.
55. Harriman to Hull, 10 August 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1308–10.
56. Mikołajczyk to Government Delegate, 18 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 868, 139–44.
57. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Stalin, 9 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 189, 334–9.
58. Memorandum on the organisation and programme of the Polish Government following the liberation of Poland, 29 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 214, 372–4.
59. Raczkiewicz to Government Delegate and chairman of Council of National Unity, 24 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 210, 366–8.
60. Bór-Komorowski to Mikołajczyk and Sosnkowski, 29 August 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 939, 213.
61. Council of National Unity to Mikołajczyk, 30 August 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 217, 376–7.
62. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Churchill, 1 September 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 220, 380–82.
63. Order of the Day, 1 September 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 975, 251–4.
64. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Eden, 5 September 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 223, 385–7.
65. Anders, Army in Exile, 213.
66. Manifesto by Council of National Unity, 3 October 1944, AK Documents, vol. IV, no. 233, 398–9.
67. Romer to British Government and to United States Government, 7 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 235, 400–404.
68. Mikołajczyk to Churchill, 9 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 236, 405.
69. For details of these talks see DPSR, vol. II, no. 237, 405–15 and TNA, PREM 3/355/13.
70. Churchill to the Commons, 28 September 1944, Hansard, vol. 403, 489–90.
71. Conversations between Mikołajczyk and Churchill, 14 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, nos. 239 and 241, 416–22, 423–4.
72. Report on the talks in Moscow, Eden, TNA, PREM 3/355/13.
73. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 486–7; Churchill to Attlee, 17 October 1944, TNA, PREM 3/355/13.
74. Harriman to Roosevelt, 14 October 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1324.
75. A. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 526; Churchill, Second World War, vol. VI, 198.
76. Conversation between Mikołajczyk and Churchill, 26 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 250, 439–41.
77. Mikołajczyk’s speech to National Council, 27 October 1944, Protokoły, vol. VII, 578–80; Mikołajczyk to Government Delegate, 27 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 251, 442–3.
78. Mikołajczyk to Roosevelt, 26 October 1944, FRUS Yalta, 207–9.
79. Cadogan to Romer, 2 November 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 256, 449–50.
80. Meeting of the Council of Ministers, 2 November 1944, Protokoły, vol. VII, 588–90.
81. Raczyński, In Allied London, 240.
82. Conversation between Mikołajczyk, Romer, Raczyński and Churchill, 2 November 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 257, 450–57.
83. Resolution passed by the Council of Ministers, 3 November 1944, Protokoły, vol. VII, 595–6.
84. Lukas, Strange Allies, 126–7; Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 37–9; Drag Korga, ‘The Information Policy of the Polish Government-in-Exile’.
85. Romer to Ciechanowski, 6 November 1944; Ciechanowski to Romer, 10 November 1944; Ciechanowski to Romer, 13 November 1944; Ciechanowski to Mikołajczyk and Romer, 16 November 1944, all in DPSR, vol. II, nos. 262–5, 461–5.
86. Harriman, Special Envoy, 369–70.
87. Roosevelt to Mikołajczyk, 17 November 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1334–5.
88. Conversations between Mikołajczyk, Romer and Harriman, 22–24 November 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 269, 469–70.
89. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 496–7.
90. M. Zgórniak, Introduction to Protokoły, vol. VII, xl–xlvix.
91. Eden to Churchill, 26 November 1944, TNA, FO 371/39418.
92. Churchill to Roosevelt, 16 December 1944, Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 632–3.
93. Churchill to Stalin, 3 December 1944; Stalin to Churchill, 8 December 1944; Roosevelt to Stalin, 16 December 1944, all in Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, nos 362, 367, 281–2, 284–5; vol. II, no. 248, 165.
94. Schoenfeld to Secretary of State, 21 December 1944, FRUS 1944, vol. III, 1350–53.
95. Churchill to Commons, 15 December 1944, Hansard, vol. 406, 1478–1578; Ball, Parliament and Politics, 436.
96. Nowak, Courier from Warsaw, 239.
97. Davies, Rising ’44, 55–6.
98. Retinger, All About Poland.
99. See Bell, John Bull, passim.
100. O’Malley, Phantom Caravan, 231. O’Malley had been in line for a Grade 1 post after his stint with the Polish Government. Instead he became ambassador to Portugal, a Grade 2 post.
101. Churchill to House of Commons, 24 May 1944, Hansard, vol. 400, 782.
102. Karski, Great Powers, 489–90.
103. Sarner, General Anders, 422–5; Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 108–37.
104. Diary entry 4 October 1944, Nicolson, Harold Nicolson, 404.
105. A. P. Herbert, Light the Lights, 43.
1. Memorandum and letter to Churchill, 17 November 1942, TNA, PREM 3 35/11.
2. A. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, passim.
3. Keegan, Second World War, 347–58.
4. Prażmowska, Britain and Poland, 1939–1943, 190.
5. W. Madeja, Polish Corps, 43.
6. H. Macmillan, The Blast of War, 485.
7. J. Piekałkiewicz, Cassino, 159.
8. Leese letter to his wife, 11 February 1944, quoted in Ryder, Oliver Leese, 158.
9. Parker, Monte Cassino, 171, 285–6; J. Ellis, Cassino, 267–8.
10. Z. Wawer, ‘General Anders and the Battle for Monte Cassino’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders, 55–76.
11. M. Polak, ‘An Alternative View – The Controversy surrounding the Military Decisions Taken by General Władysław Anders’, in ibid., 91–111.
12. Piatkowski, ‘The Second Polish Corps’.
13. II Polish Corps, ‘The Operations of II Polish Corps Against Monte Cassino’, TNA, WO 204/8221.
14. Piekałkiewicz, Cassino, 163; Holland, ‘The Approach to Battle’; Madeja, Polish Corps, 47–9; Anders, Army in Exile, 169–72; Linklater, The Campaign in Italy, 224–5; H. Stańczyk, ‘Dowodzenie gen. Dyw. Władysława Andersa 2. Korpusem Polskim w bitwie o Monte Cassino’, in Szczepaniak, Generał Władysław Anders, 81–104.
15. Anders, Army in Exile, 170.
16. Majdalany, Cassino, 68.
17. Rees, World War Two, 261.
18. Stanisław Kochański, diary entry 20 April 1944, in author’s possession.
19. J. Ellis, Cassino, 321.
20. Holland, Italy’s Sorrow, 9.
21. Stanisław Kochański diary entries May 1944.
22. Ryder, Oliver Leese, 165.
23. Interview with K. Bortkiewicz, IWM 21562.
24. II Polish Corps, ‘The Operations of II Polish Corps’ (see note 13).
25. J. Ellis, Cassino, 327.
26. Wawer, ‘General Anders’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders.
27. Rees, World War Two, 261.
28. J. Ellis, Cassino, 334.
29. Ibid., 335.
30. Ibid., 311.
31. Quoted in Piekałkiewicz, Cassino, 181.
32. J. Ellis, Cassino, 337.
33. Leese to his wife, 19 May 1944, Ryder, Oliver Leese, 169.
34. Anders to Sosnkowski, 22 May 1944, in Raczyński, In Allied London, 221–2.
35. Rees, World War Two, 261–2.
36. Stanisław Kochański, diary entry 24 May 1944. His health prevented him from being transferred to the infantry, but volunteers did transfer from the artillery to the infantry.
37. H. Alexander, Alexander Memoirs, 138–9.
38. Anders, Army in Exile, 186; Linklater, Campaign in Italy, 345–6; R. Orsetti, ‘The 2nd Polish Corps Commander in the Adriatic Campaign 1944–46 in Retrospect’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders, 113–28; Madeja, Polish Corps, 91.
39. Leese to his wife, 23 July 1944, Ryder, Oliver Leese, 179.
40. Anders, Army in Exile, 205, 190–91.
41. Leese to his wife, 27 July 1944, Ryder, Oliver Leese, 181–2.
42. Madeja, Polish Corps, 113; Anders, Army in Exile, 235. Leese had been appointed commander-in-chief of allied land forces in South East Asia.
43. Piekałkiewicz, Cassino, 165; Stanisław Kochański, diary entry 19 July 1944. Only five Poles deserted to the Germans during the whole Italian campaign.
44. T. Żukowski, IWM 8115 99/3/1.
45. Madeja, Polish Corps, 149.
46. Anders, Army in Exile, 256.
47. Madeja, Polish Corps, 149.
48. H. Macmillan, Blast of War, 696–7.
49. Bortkiewicz, IWM 21562.
50. Stanisław Kochański, diary entry 23 July 1944.
51. Madeja, Polish Corps, 173–4; Anders, Army in Exile, 266–8; Orsetti, ‘The 2nd Polish Corps Commander’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Anders.
52. Diary entry 22 April 1945, H. Macmillan, War Diaries, 741.
53. Author’s interview with Stanisław Kochański.
54. This article was published in Gellhorn, Face of War.
55. Peszke, Poland’s Navy, 152; Keegan, Six Armies, 271.
56. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 12.
57. Pickering, ‘Tales of Friendly Fire’.
58. R. Zolski, IWM 4211 83/24/1.
59. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 17–40; Potomski, Maczek, 232–8.
60. Koskodan, No Greater Ally, 144.
61. Keegan, Six Armies, 271, 275.
62. Beevor, D-Day, 468.
63. Keegan, Six Armies, 279–82.
64. Florentin, Stalingrad en Normandie, 426.
65. Koskodan, No Greater Ally, 147.
66. T. Potworowski, IWM 8288 06/38/1.
67. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 41–54; Potomski, Maczek, 259–75.
68. Zolski, IWM 4211 83/24/1.
69. Modelski, Polish Contribution, 154.
70. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 58–80.
71. Stella-Sawicki, Garliński & Mucha, First to Fight, 120; Modelski, Polish Contribution, 155–6.
72. Maczek, Od Powodny, 225–7.
73. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 81–99.
74. Koskodan, No Greater Ally, 151.
75. McGilvray, Black Devil’s March, 103–13.
76. Stella-Sawicki, Garliński & Mucha, First to Fight, 121.
77. Maczek, Od Powodny, 232–7.
78. PISM, A.XII.1/129.
79. Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 112, 191–4.
80. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 129–33.
81. Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 201.
82. Browning’s comment to Montgomery at the final planning conference for Operation Market Garden. Ryan, A Bridge Too Far, 7; Urquhart, Arnhem, 17. The comment by Sosabowski (played by Gene Hackman) was immortalised in the film A Bridge Too Far (1977).
83. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 78–9.
84. Peszke, Battle for Warsaw, 202; Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 145; Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 80.
85. Urquhart, Arnhem, 90–91.
86. Buckingham, Arnhem, 178.
87. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 7.
88. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 164–5.
89. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 145.
90. Urquhart, Arnhem, 143.
91. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 171; Buckingham, Arnhem, 188–9.
92. Buckingham, Arnhem, 191.
93. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 182–4.
94. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 221–4.
95. Stella-Sawicki, Garliński & Mucha, First to Fight, 126. The 1st Airborne Division lost 1,485 dead and 6,500 captured. Buckingham, Arnhem, 197.
96. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 277, 281.
97. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 191.
98. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 281, 292, 312.
99. Sosabowski, Freely I Served, 199, 202–3. In his memoirs Montgomery makes no criticism of the Polish Parachute Brigade; Montgomery, Memoirs.
100. Cholewczyński, Poles Apart, 292.
101. Buckingham, Arnhem, 199.
102. APHC, vol. I, 493–5, 502.
103. R. Wnuk, ‘Polish Intelligence and the German “Secret Weapons”: V-1 and V-2’, APHC, vol. I, 473–83. Some of the actual reports radioed back to London can be found in vol. II, 850–902.
104. Garliński, Hitler’s Last Weapons, passim.
105. Jones, Most Secret War, 559–60.
106. Stella-Sawicki, Garliński & Mucha, First to Fight, 110.
107. Destiny Can Wait, 251.
108. Olson & Cloud, For Your Freedom and Ours, 373.
109. Destiny Can Wait, 169.
110. Stella-Sawicki, Garliński & Mucha, First to Fight, 111.
1. Stalin to Churchill, 3 January 1945, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 381, 291–2. Edward Osóbka-Morawski was prime minister and Władysław Gomułka and Stanisław Janusz were deputy prime ministers.
2. Churchill to Stalin, 5 January 1945, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 382, 295; press release of the Polish Government, 6 January 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 294, 505.
3. Schoenfeld to Secretary of State, 27 January 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 115–21; memo by Sargent, 8 January 1945, memo on conversation with Mikołajczyk, 24 January 1945, memo by Mikołajczyk, 26 January 1945, all in TNA, FO 371/47575/2896; Hanson, ‘Stanisław Mikołajczyk’.
4. Memo from the Polish Government to the governments of the United States and Britain, 22 January 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 300, 511–12.
5. Raczyński’s note of his conversation with Cadogan, 23 January 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 301, 512–13; record of conversation between Cadogan and Tarnowski, 26 January 1945, TNA, FO 371/47575/2896; diary entries 23 and 26 January 1945, Dilks, Diaries, 698.
6. Foreign Office Briefing Paper, TNA, PREM 3/356/3; Cienciala, ‘Great Britain and Poland Before and After Yalta’.
7. State Department Briefing Paper, FRUS Yalta, 230–34.
8. Plokhy, Yalta, 78.
9. Fourth plenary session, 7 February 1945, FRUS Yalta, 717.
10. Third plenary session, 6 February 1945, FRUS Yalta, 667–71.
11. Roosevelt to Stalin, 6 February 1945, Stalin Correspondence, vol. II, no. 266, 177–9.
12. Fourth plenary session, 7 February 1945, FRUS Yalta, 711–17.
13. Eden, Eden Memoirs, 517.
14. Fifth plenary session, 8 February 1945, and sixth plenary session, 9 February 1945, FRUS Yalta, 776–81, 847–8; Plokhy, Yalta, 243–6.
15. Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 399.
16. Declaration on Liberated Europe, FRUS Yalta, 972.
17. Communiqué issued at the end of the conference, 12 February 1945, FRUS Yalta, 973–4.
18. Bohlen, Witness to History, 190.
19. Meeting between Alexander and Anders, 17 February 1945, TNA, FO 371/47578/2896.
20. Anders, Army in Exile, 256.
21. Gilbert, Churchill, vol. VII, 1237.
22. Government resolution on the army, 13 February 1945, Protokoły, vol. VIII, 240.
23. Protest by the Polish Government, 13 February 1945, Protokoły, vol. VIII, 238–40; Tarnowski to O’Malley, 18 February 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 312, 523–7; conversation between Raczyński and Eden, 20 February 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 314, 528–32.
24. Resolution of the RJN, 22 February 1945, AK Documents, vol. VI, no. 1916, 460–61.
25. 27 February 1945, Hansard, vol. 408, 1276–85.
26. Diary entry 27 February 1945, in Nicolson, Harold Nicolson, 436.
27. Diary entry 28 February 1945, in Colville, Fringes of Power, 565–6.
28. 28 February 1945, Hansard, vol. 408, 1422.
29. Bell, John Bull, 176–81.
30. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 123–4.
31. Churchill to Roosevelt, 8 March 1945, Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 660–65.
32. Eden to Clark Kerr, 18 February 1945, TNA, FO 371/47578/2896.
33. Acheson to Harriman, 18 March 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 172–6.
34. Harriman to Secretary of State, 23 March 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 176–8.
35. Bohlen, Witness to History, 192.
36. The full list was Mikołajczyk, Romer and Grabski from London; Archbishop Sapieha, Wincenty Witos (leader of the Peasant Party), Zygmunt Zuławski (Socialist trade union leader), Professor Franciszek Bujak (chemistry professor in Lwów), and Professor Stanisław Kutzreba (historian from Kraków and president of the Polish Academy of Sciences).
37. Harriman to Secretary of State, 23 March 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 176–8; the British correspondence on the Moscow conference is in TNA, FO 371/47582.
38. Gardner, Spheres of Influence, 245.
39. Memo by Clark Kerr, 27 March 1945, TNA, FO 371/47941.
40. Eden to Churchill, 24 March 1945, Eden, Eden Memoirs, 525–6.
41. Churchill to Roosevelt, 8 March 1945, Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 660–65.
42. Churchill to Roosevelt, 13, 16, 27, 30 and 31 March 1945; Roosevelt to Churchill, 15, 29 and 31 March 1945, all in Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 670–96.
43. Churchill to Roosevelt, 27 March 1945, Loewenheim, Roosevelt and Churchill, 684–7.
44. Roosevelt to Stalin, 31 March 1945, Stalin to Roosevelt, 7 April 1945, both in Stalin Correspondence, vol. II, nos. 284, 288, 191–3, 197–9; Churchill to Stalin, 31 March 1945, Stalin to Churchill, 7 April 1945, both in ibid., vol. I, nos. 416, 418, 310–11, 314.
45. Hanson, ‘Stanislaw Mikolajczyk’.
46. The Times, 15 April 1945.
47. Churchill and Truman to Stalin, 18 April 1945, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 430, 325–6; Truman to Stalin, 23 April 1945, ibid., vol. II, no. 297, 207–8; Stalin to Churchill, 18 and 24 April 1945 and 4 May 1945, Churchill to Stalin, 28 April 1945, all in ibid., vol. I, nos. 428, 439, 456, 450, 324, 331–2, 346–8, 339–44; Stettinius to Harriman, 14 April 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 213.
48. Soviet Embassy to State Department, 9 and 22 March 1945; meeting between Grew and Gromyko, 23 March 1945; State Department to Soviet Embassy, 29 March 1945; Soviet Embassy to State Department, 17 April 1945, all in FRUS 1945, vol. I, 113–14, 147–8, 164, 330; Polish Government to the governments of Britain, United States and China, 12 March 1945, and memo by Polish Government, 21 April 1945, both in DPSR, vol. II, nos. 324, 341, 544–5, 569–70; meeting between Ciechanowski and Bliss Lane, 15 March 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 165–7.
49. March 1945, Hansard, vol. 409, 835.
50. Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory, 387.
51. Diary entry 8 April 1945, in Trevor-Roper, Goebbels Diaries, 322.
52. Telegrams from San Francisco, Protokoły, vol. VIII, 500–502; Plokhy, Yalta, 382.
53. Jędrzejewicz, Poland in the British Parliament, 602.
54. The Polish issue was discussed at five meetings between the foreign ministers, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 237–51, 259–62, 272–6, 281–4.
55. Protest of the Polish Government, 28 April 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 346, 574–5.
56. Appeal by the Polish Government to Stettinius, 6 May 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 354, 589–90.
57. Sagajllo, Man in the Middle, 151.
58. U. Dudzic-Ranke, IWM 13318 05/14/1.
59. Quoted in Walker, Poland Alone, 277.
60. Rees, Auschwitz, 264.
61. Hitchcock, Liberation, 288–9.
62. Szpilman, Pianist, 177–87.
63. Beevor & Vinogradova, Writer at War, 324.
64. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 185–8.
65. Erickson, Road to Berlin, 447–76, 517–26; Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 188–90.
66. Duffy, Red Storm, 225–7.
67. Hastings, Armageddon, 287.
68. Klukowski, Diary of the Occupation, 562; Klukowski, Red Shadow, 57.
69. Hastings, Armageddon, 297.
70. Grzelak, Stańczyk & Zwoliński, Bez Możliwości Wyboru, 194–7.
71. Ibid., 198–208.
72. Zylberberg, Warsaw Diary, 210.
73. Hastings, Armageddon, 123–4.
74. R. Smorczewski, IWM 128787 03/41/1.
75. Author’s interview with Teresa Kicińska.
76. Jan Korzybska, quoted in Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 114.
77. Bessel, Germany 1945, 53.
78. Arciszewski to Churchill, 8 March 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 319, 536–41. Churchill included this information in a telegram to Roosevelt on 10 March 1945.
79. Quoted in Rogers & Williams, On the Bloody Road, 114.
80. For example, Okulicki to Raczkiewicz, 9 December 1944 and Okulicki to Kopański, 21 December 1944, both in AK Documents, vol. V, nos. 1344, 1367, 170–84, 211.
81. Okulicki Order, 19 January 1945, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1391, 239.
82. Okulicki, 22 January 1945, AK Documents, vol. VI, no. 1909, 455.
83. Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 150–51.
84. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 126.
85. Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 106–7; Reynolds, ‘ “Lublin” versus “London” ’; Paczkowski, ‘Poland, the “Enemy Nation” ’, in Courtois et al., Black Book of Communism.
86. Introduction and interrogation of Adam Ostrowski, in Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Operacja ‘Sejm’, 243–77. Ostrowski had been the regional government delegate for Lwów. After the war he joined the government and became the Polish ambassador first to Sweden and then to Italy.
87. Author’s interview with Nina Kochańska.
88. Arciszewski to Churchill, 8 March 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 319, 536–41.
89. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 95; Paczkowski, ‘Poland, the “Enemy Nation” ’, in Courtois et al., Black Book of Communism; Polonsky & Drukier, Beginnings of Communist Rule, 108–9.
90. Mikołajczyk to Churchill, 21 February 1944; Churchill to Mikołajczyk, 7 April 1944; Clark Kerr to Molotov, 2 November 1944, all in AK Documents, vol. VI, nos. 1807, 1817, 1888, 373, 386, 437; Walker, Poland Alone, 266, 274.
91. Bines, Operation Freston, passim; Kemp, Thorns of Memory, 233–65.
92. Raczyński to Eden, 28 January 1945, DPSR, vol. II, 515–16.
93. Raczyński to Eden, 9 March 1945, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1451, 321.
94. Pimienov to Okulicki, Pimienov to Jankowski, 6 March 1945, AK Documents, vol. V, nos. 1445, 1446, 315–16.
95. Jankowski to London, 20 March 1945, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1471, 346–7.
96. Garliński, ‘The Polish Underground State 1939–1945’; Okulicki to Kopański, 25 March 1945; Korboński to London, 1 April 1945, both in AK Documents, vol. V, nos. 1477, 1483, 352, 359; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 133–4.
97. Raczyński to Eden, 1 April 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 331, 553–4; Reynolds, ‘ “Lublin” versus “London” ’; Cienciala, ‘The Diplomatic Background of the Warsaw Rising’; Tarnowski to Eden and Stettinius, 27 April 1945, DPSR, vol. II, 573; diary entry 5 May 1945, Dilks, Diaries, 744; Eden, Eden Memoirs, 536; Stalin to Churchill, 4 May 1945, Stalin Correspondence, vol. I, no. 456, 346–8; statements by British delegation and by Stettinius on arrest of the sixteen, 5 May 1945, and communiqué by TASS, 5 May 1945, all in AK Documents, vol. V, 399–403.
98. Sarner, General Anders, 201.
99. Quoted in Hastings, Armageddon, 570.
100. Gilbert, Day the War Ended, 269–70.
101. Diary entry 15 May 1945, Klukowski, Red Shadow, 72.
102. Baluk, Silent and Unseen, 262.
103. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 164.
1. Gumkowski & Leszczyński, Poland Under Nazi Occupation, 215–17.
2. Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 17.
3. Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 30.
4. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 165–6; Lukas, Bitter Legacy, 32–3; Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 87, 113.
5. Hopkins to Truman, 14 June 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 337–8. The British chiefs of staff concluded that war against the Soviet Union was virtually impossible since the rearming of German forces would cause an international outcry and US support was far from guaranteed. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 566.
6. Hopkins Mission, 26 May–6 June 1945, FRUS Potsdam, vol. I, 24–62; Kennan to Secretary of State for Harriman, 14 May 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 195–6.
7. Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 134.
8. Quoted in W. Larsh, ‘Yalta and the American Approach’.
9. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 152–6.
10. Harriman to Secretary of State, 21 June 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 352–4.
11. Stypułkowski, Invitation to Moscow, 317; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 153–5.
12. Harriman to Secretary of State, 18 June 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 349–50.
13. The entire transcript of the trial can be found in Trial of the Organisers, Leaders and Members. The quotation is from pp. 236–8.
14. Raczyński to Eden, 6 July 1945, DPSR, vol. II, no. 378, 626–8.
15. Hope, Abandoned Legion, 80.
16. Raczyński, In Allied London, 297–8; Sword, Formation of the Polish Community, 185–93. Strasburger was recalled in 1949 but decided to remain in London.
17. Introduction to Protokoły, vol. VIII; Bevin to Cavendish-Bentinck, 14 December 1945, DBPO, series I, vol. 6, 269–73.
18. De Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, 50–51; Raack, ‘Stalin Fixes the Oder-Neisse Line’.
19. Harriman to Secretary of State, 9 April 1945; Stettinius to Kennan, 17 April 1945; Kennan to Secretary of State, 18 April 1945; Kennan to Secretary of State, 11 May 1945, all in FRUS 1945, vol. V, 205–7, 227–31, 293–5. Silesia was ruled by the Polish Piast dynasty from the tenth to the fourteenth century.
20. Quoted in Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 557.
21. Sixth plenary session, 22 July 1945, FRUS Potsdam, vol. II, 247–52.
22. For example, Modzelewski to Harriman, 10 July 1945, FRUS Potsdam, vol. I, 757–77; summary of statements made by the Polish delegation to the meeting of the foreign ministers, 24 July 1945, ibid., vol. II, 332–5, memo by Mikołajczyk, 24 July 1945, ibid., vol. I, 1128–9.
23. Meeting between Byrnes and Molotov, 31 July 1945; Eleventh plenary session, 31 July 1945, FRUS Potsdam, vol. II, 510, 627–8.
24. Protocols on the Berlin Conference, 1 August 1945, FRUS Potsdam, vol. II, 1490–92.
25. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 17 September and 3 October 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 494–5, 498–500; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 304.
26. Lukas, Bitter Legacy, 18.
27. Bessel, Germany 1945, 214–15.
28. FRUS Potsdam, vol. II, 1495 (see note 24).
29. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 4 and 12 December 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. II, 1318–19, 1323.
30. Ahonen, After the Expulsion, 272.
31. There is a large literature on the expulsion of the Germans from the east. Notable contributions include: P. Ther, ‘A Century of Forced Migration: The Origins and Consequences of “Ethnic Cleansing” ’; K. Kersten, ‘Forced Migration and the Transformation of Polish Society in the Post-War Period’; S. Jankowiak, ‘ “Cleansing” Poland of Germans: The Province of Pomerania, 1945–1949’, all in Ther & Siljak, Redrawing Nations, 43–72, 75–86, 87–105; E. Ochman, ‘Population Displacement and Regional Reconstruction in Postwar Poland: The Case of Upper Silesia’, in Gatrell & Baron, Warlands, 210–28; Rieber, Communist Studies, 16; De Zayas, Nemesis at Potsdam, 81; Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 177–82; Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 211–36; Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 124–32.
32. Kersten, ‘Forced Migration’, in Ther & Siljak, Redrawing Nations.
33. Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 544.
34. Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 92.
35. Quoted in Curp, A Clean Sweep, 42.
36. Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 156–7.
37. Torańska, ‘Them’, 250–51; conversation between Elbridge Durbrow, Chief of Eastern European Affairs at the State Department, and Mikołajczyk, 8 November 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 402–3. Mikołajczyk was in Washington on the Polish Economic Mission to secure funds for the reconstruction of Poland.
38. J. Kochanowski, ‘Gathering Poles into Poland: Forced Migration from Poland’s Former Eastern Territories’, in Ther & Siljak, Redrawing Nations, 135–54.
39. K. Stadnik, ‘Ukrainian-Polish Population Transfers, 1944–46: Moving in Opposite Directions’, in Gatrell & Baron, Warlands, 165–87; Czerniakiewicz, Repatriacja ludności polskiej z ZSRR 1944–1948; Plokhy, Yalta, 174; Snyder, Reconstruction, 187–8; Sword, Deportation and Exile, 176–95; Romer to British Government, 7 October 1944, DPSR, vol. II, no. 235, 400–404; Polish Government to Government Delegate, 14 March 1945, AK Documents, vol. V, no. 1462, 331; author’s interviews with Nina Kochańska and Igor Korczagin.
40. K. Zieliński, ‘To Pacify, Populate and Polonise: Territorial Transformations and the Displacement of Ethnic Minorities in Communist Poland, 1944–49’, in Gatrell & Baron, Warlands, 188–209; O. Subtelny, ‘Expulsion, Resettlement, Civil Strife: The Fate of Poland’s Ukrainians, 1944–1947’, in Ther & Siljak, Redrawing, Nations, 155–72; Snyder, Reconstruction, 188–94; Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, passim.
41. Gutman & Krakowski, Unequal Victims, 351–2, 363; Y. Litvak, ‘Polish-Jewish Refugees Repatriated from the Soviet Union to Poland at the End of the Second World War and Afterwards’; H. Shlomi, ‘The “Jewish Organising Committee” in Moscow and “The Jewish Central Committee” in Warsaw, June 1945–February 1946: Tackling Repatriation’, both in Davies & Polonsky, Jews in Eastern Poland, 227–39, 240–54.
42. Banas, Scapegoats, 23.
43. Gutman & Krakowski, Unequal Victims, 367.
44. Bliss Lane met Szuldenfrei, a Bundist, and Adolf Berman, brother of Jakub and a communist. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 11 January 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. V, 132–3.
45. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 15 July 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 478–80; Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 157–9.
46. Gross, Fear, 81–99.
47. Gross, ‘A Tangled Web’, in Deák, Gross & Judt, Politics of Retribution, 370–72.
48. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 215; Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 171–2.
49. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 16 December 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. II, 1214; Erhardt to Secretary of State, 3 August 1946; Acheson to Bliss Lane, 8 August 1946; Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 6 September 1946, all in FRUS 1946, vol. V, 175–6, 178, 186–7; Shephard, Long Road Home, 186; Sarner, General Anders, 226–9; Hitchcock, Liberation, 333–5.
50. TNA, CAB 66/62.
51. Biegański et al., Polski Czyn Zbrojny w II Wojnie Światowej, 716–17.
52. Col. B. Regulski to Lieut.-Col. J. Carlisle, War Office, 13 June 1945; Carlisle to Regulski, 20 August 1945, PISM, A.XII.42/19.
53. Memo on ‘The Future of the Polish Armed Forces at the Side of Great Britain’, Anders, 9 March 1945; Miss Gatehouse’s report, 6 April 1945, TNA, FO 371/47662.
54. PISM, A.XII.4/106; A.XII.42/19; TNA, FO 371/47660; WO 32/11090.
55. TNA, FO 371/47661; FO 371/47662; Sarner, General Anders, 231–3.
56. E. Maresch, ‘The Polish 2 Corps in Preparation for Action and its Disbandment 1943–1946’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders, 33–54.
57. Diary entry 2 May 1945, Danchev & Todman, War Diaries, 686.
58. TNA, FO 371/47667; FO 371/56468; WO 204/10454.
59. Bór-Komorowski to field commanders, 29 June 1945, PISM, A.XII.3/10.
60. Sword, Formation, 200–203; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 77.
61. Quoted in Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 168.
62. Author’s interview with Teresa Kicińska.
63. Orsetti, ‘The 2nd Polish Corps Commander’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders; Thornton, ‘The Second Polish Corps’.
64. TNA, FO 371/56366. In effect the Polish soldiers agreed to receive pay for a rank below their actual rank and the surplus went towards the welfare of the soldiers not officially on the establishment and of the civilians. Author’s interview with Stanisław Kochański.
65. FRUS Potsdam, vol. II, 1491 (see note 24).
66. TNA, FO 371/47676; FO 371/47691.
67. Hope, Abandoned Legion, 140–43.
68. Bevin to Cavendish-Bentinck, 9 September 1945; Cavendish-Bentinck to Bevin, 26 September 1945; Bevin to Cavendish-Bentinck, 11 November 1945; Bevin to Cavendish-Bentinck, 14 December 1945, all in DBPO, 75–6, 104–6, 201–4, 269–73.
69. Sarner, General Anders, 231; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 116–20; Maresch, ‘The Polish 2 Corps Commander’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders. Modelski had been deputy minister of national defence in the wartime Polish Government. Kot would later remain in Italy after his term as ambassador expired and then move to London.
70. See, for example, Bevin to Halifax, 11 February 1946, DBPO, 290; Tolstoy, Victims of Yalta, 340; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 138–9.
71. Hetherington & Chalmers, War Crimes; Wiesenthal, Justice Not Vengeance, 204–5.
72. Sarner, General Anders, 209–11.
73. Memo by L. D. Halliday, 13 November 1945, DBPO, 211–16.
74. Lieut.-Col. Kamiński to War Office, 28 August 1945, PISM, A.XII.42/19.
75. Quoted in Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler, 154.
76. Z. Wysecki interviewed by Keith Sword, SSEES archives, SWO 1/7.
77. Peszke, Poland’s Navy, 167; Proudfoot, European Refugees, 283; Anders, Army in Exile, 287; Sarner, General Anders, 242–3; Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler, 188; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 147–8. Some of the soldiers who returned to their pre-war homes in what had been eastern Poland and was now western Belorussia suffered a later deportation to northern parts of the Soviet Union in response to their perceived political unreliability and opposition to the establishment of kolkhozy. J. Szumski, ‘Collectivization of Western Belarus, 1947–1952’, in Malicki & Zasztowt, East and West, 169–78.
78. Sword, Formation, 200–203; TNA, FO 371/46776.
79. Anders, Army in Exile, 293–4; Thornton, ‘The Second Polish Corps’.
80. Bevin to Commons, 22 May 1946, Hansard, vol. 429, 299–306.
81. Sword, Formation, 229–45; Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler, 186–8; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 181–8; Sword, ‘ “Their Prospects Will Not Be Bright” ’.
82. Sword, Formation, 245–67; Sarner, General Anders, 245–64; Polak, ‘An Alternative View’, in Pyłat, Ciechanowski & Suchcitz, General Władysław Anders.
83. Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler, 198. School reports were issued in Polish and English. The author’s parents first met when they both were studying at the Polish University College.
84. Quoted in Stalin’s Ethnic Cleansing, 644–5.
85. Z. Wolak, quoted in Rees, World War Two, 392; Z. Kawencka, IWM 16847; S. Knapp, in Zamoyski, Forgotten Few, 207; Hope, Abandoned Legion, 196.
86. Davies, Rising ’44, 505; Commons, 4 June 1946, Hansard, vol. 423, 308; Daily Telegraph, 5 June 1946.
87. The definitions used by Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force were: ‘Refugees are civilians not outside the national boundaries of their country, who desire to return to their homes, but require assistance to do so, who are: (1) temporarily homeless because of military operations; (2) at some distance from their homes for reasons related to the war.’ Displaced Persons (DPs) are ‘civilians outside the national boundaries of their country by reason of the war, who are: (1) desirous but unable to return to their home or find homes without assistance; (2) to be returned to enemy or ex-enemy territory’. DPs sub-classified as evacuees; war or political fugitives; political prisoners; forced or involuntary workers; Todt workers; former members of forces under German command; deportees; intruded persons; extruded persons; civilian internees; ex-POWs; or stateless persons’. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 115.
88. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 130, 159.
89. Shephard, Long Road Home, 162–74; Wyman, DPs.
90. Quoted in Lukas, Out of the Inferno, 115.
91. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 28 November 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 420–12.
92. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 237, 281; Wyman, DPs, 83; Gallman, American Chargé d’affaires in London to Secretary of State, 28 February 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. V, 143–7.
93. Shephard, Long Road Home, 158.
94. McNeill, By the Rivers of Babylon, 37.
95. Ibid., 92.
96. Bessel, Germany 1945, 263.
97. Howard, Otherwise Occupied, 119–20; Cavendish-Bentinck to Bevin, 26 September 1945, DBPO, 104–6.
98. Wyman, DPs, 71; Hulme, Wild Place, 151–2; Shephard, Long Road Home, 91–4.
99. Proudfoot, European Refugees, 284. The letter-writing campaign could be manipulated. Józefa Kochańska wrote to her son Stanisław, now in Britain with the II Corps, describing all the good meals they were eating and contrasting them with rationing in Britain. Unknown to the Polish authorities, she was listing foods that she knew her son detested. Just in case his tastes had changed, she added the postscript, ‘Tell Inky not to return. We don’t want his kind here.’ Inky being Stanisław’s family nickname. Author’s interview with Stanisław Kochański.
100. Lukas, Bitter Legacy, 111–13.
101. Lane, Victims of Stalin and Hitler, 190–96.
102. Kelly, Finding Poland, 220.
103. Wyman, DPs, 136, 139, 145; Dallas, Poisoned Peace, 269.
104. Poles in India, 484.
105. Kelly, Finding Poland, 226.
106. TNA, WO 219/2427.
107. Giedroyć, Crater’s Edge, 177–8.
108. Hrabar, Tokarz & Wilczur, Fate of Polish Children, 147–50; Wyman, DPs, 91–3; Shephard, Long Road Home, 313–22.
109. Quoted in Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 187; Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 19–20, 43.
110. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 13 October 1945, FRUS 1945, vol. V, 388–90; Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 21 April 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 432; Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 136–8; Retinger, Memoirs, 197–201.
111. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 228; Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 233.
112. Torańska, ‘Them’, 272.
113. R. Hankey interviewed by Keith Sword, SSEES archives, SWO 1/3.
114. Courtois et al.,Black Book of Communism, 376.
115. Korboński,Warsaw in Chains, 244; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 222–79; Prażmowska, Civil War in Poland, 129–59; Paszkiewicz had held various commands in Britain, ending as the deputy commander of the 1st Corps before he returned to Poland.
116. Cavendish-Bentinck to Bevin, 10 October 1945, DBPO, 138–43; meeting between Acheson and Minc, 18 December 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 543–4.
117. Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 117.
118. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 257.
119. Quoted in Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 121. There was even a rumour that Kraków’s population would be resettled in retaliation for its opposition.
120. Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 122.
121. Kersten,Establishment of Communist Rule, 305–39; memo by the British Embassy to the State Department, 17 October 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 510–11. The text of Mikołajczyk’s protest is in Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 29 December 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 552–3; Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 31 December 1946, FRUS 1946, vol. VI, 554; Bedell Smith to Molotov, 5 January 1947, Bliss Lane to Rzymowski, 9 January 1947, Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 14 January 1947, Bedell Smith to Secretary of State, 15 January 1947, all in FRUS 1947, vol. IV, 402–8.
122. Bliss Lane, I Saw Freedom Betrayed, 176; Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 339; Bullock, Hitler and Stalin, 1022; Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 21 and 23 January 1947, FRUS 1947, vol. IV, 410–14.
123. Bliss Lane to Secretary of State, 18 January 1947, FRUS 1947, vol. IV, 408–10; Foot, SOE, 307.
124. Mikołajczyk, Rape of Poland, 267; Korboński, Warsaw in Chains, 263.
125. Kersten, Establishment of Communist Rule, 340.
126. Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. VIII, 200.
127. Quoted in Courtois et al., Black Book of Communism, 22.
1. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 235–7.
2. Maresch, Katyń 1940, 222.
3. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 236–7.
4. The Times, 18 July 1952.
5. Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 239.
6. Maresch, Katyń 1940, 245–7; Cienciala, Lebedeva & Materski, Katyń, 242–5; The Times, 23 April 1971, 27 June 1972, 19 March 1976, 17 September 1976.
7. The Times, 20 September 1980.
8. Kaczorowska, Children of the Katyń Massacre, 150.
9. The Times, 16 April 1981.
10. Paul, Katyń, 348–9.
11. Maresch, Katyń 1940, 261–2.
12. Borodziej, Warsaw Uprising, 11–12, 142–9; The Times, 17 April 1956; J. Chodakiewicz, ‘The Warsaw Rising 1944: Perception and Reality’, downloaded from www.warsawuprising.com, Project InPosterum; Bartoszewski, Powstanie Warszawskie, 387–445.
13. During the summer of 2011 there was an excellent exhibition on the rebuilding of Warsaw at the Dom Spotkań z Historią in Warsaw.
14. J. Tomaszewski, ‘Polish Historiography on the Holocaust’, in Bankier & Gutman, Nazi Europe, 111–35.
15. Finder & Prusin, ‘Jewish Collaborators on Trial’.
16. The debates surrounding the issues raised by Gross’s book can be found in Polonsky & Michlic, Neighbors Respond.
17. A list of members of the Polish armed forces who fell in action or died from other causes outside Poland during the Second World War was published in 1952: Sikorski Institute, Wykaz poległych i zmarłych żołnierzy Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na obczyźnie w latach 1939–1946.
18. Destiny Can Wait, 352–3.
19. Olson & Cloud, For Your Freedom and Ours, 427.