1. Ben Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook (Amsterdam: 3D Hubs, 2017), p. 242.
2. Presentation by John D. Danko, president, Danko Arlington, Inc., to 2013 Additive Manufacturing Users Group (AMUG) Conference, Jacksonville, Florida, April 17, 2013, http://www.dankoarlington.com/the-use-of-additive-manufacturing-in-foundry-patternmaking-2/ and http://www.dankoarlington.com/danko-arlington-invests-3-d-sand-printing/
3. $6 billion budget reported in Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017 (Ft. Collins, CO: Wohlers Associates, 2017), p. 20.
6. Joe Pine wrote a book elaborating on a concept by Stan Davis. See Joseph Pine II, Mass Customization: The New Frontier in Business Competition (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1992) and Stan Davis, Future Perfect (New York: Basic, 1987).
7. Mark J. Burns, “Cleveland Indians’ Corey Kluber Wore Cleats with 3D-Printed Plate During Season Opener,” Sports Illustrated, April 4, 2017, https://www.si.com/tech-media/2017/04/04/cleveland-indians-corey-kluber-3d-printed-plate-cleats
8. John Koten, “A Revolution in the Making,” Wall Street Journal (June 10, 2013), https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324063304578522812684722382
10. Neil Gershenfeld, “How to Make Almost Anything: The Digital Fabrication Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 91, no 6 (November-December 2012): pp. 43–57.
12. Recent research suggests the facts of the original razor strategy were more complicated: Gillette’s competitors actually came upon the strategy as a response to his patent-supported high prices for razors. See Randal C. Picker, “The Razors-and-Blades Myth(s)” (John M. Olin Program in Law and Economics Working Paper No. 532, 2010).
13. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, p. 148.
14. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, pp. 167–168.
1. See for example J. W. Booth, J. Alperovich, P. Chawla, J. Ma, T. N. Reid, and K. Ramani, “The Design for Additive Manufacturing Worksheet,” Journal of Mechanical Design 139, no. 10 (2017): 100904, and Rémi Ponche, Olivier Kerbrat, Pascal Mognol, and Jean-Yves Hascoët, “A Novel Methodology of Design for Additive Manufacturing Applied to Additive Laser Manufacturing Process,” Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 30, no. 4 (2014): 389–398.
3. Timothy W. Simpson, “Will My AM Part Explode?” Modern Machine Shop (August 17, 2017), https://www.mmsonline.com/columns/will-my-am-part-explode/
4. Aaron Hall, “Powder Safety Awareness for Additive Manufacturing,” Sandia National Laboratories, 2014, https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1242062/
5. Moataz M. Attallah et al., “Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Metal ALM,” in Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts, ed. Linkan Bian et al. (New York: CRC Press, 2018), p. 106.
6. See John J. Lewandowski and Mohsen Seifi, “Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review of Mechanical Properties,” Annual Review of Materials Research 46 (2016): 151–186.
7. Amir Reza Ansari Dezfoli et al., “Determination and Controlling of Grain Structure of Metals after Laser Incidence: Theoretical Approach,” Scientific Reports 7, article number 41527 (2017), https://www.nature.com/articles/srep41527/
8. Y. Morris Wang et al., “Additively Manufactured Hierarchical Stainless Steels with High Strength and Ductility,” Nature Materials 17 (2018): 63–71, https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat5021/
9. John H. Martin et al., “3D Printing of High-Strength Aluminum Alloys,” Nature 549 (21 September 2017): 365–369, https://www.nature.com/articles/nature23894/
10. The US National Institute for Standards and Technology has been holding an annual summit to advance what they call “Model-Based Enterprise” (or Engineering). See for example https://www.nist.gov/news-events/events/2018/04/model-based-enterprise-summit-2018/
11. I. Gibson, D. Rosen, and B. Stucker, “Software Issues for Additive Manufacturing,” in Additive Manufacturing Technologies (Boston: Springer, 2010), pp. 357–377.
13. Zackary Snow, Brant Stoner, Timothy W. Simpson, and Richard Martukanitz, “Understanding the Digital Thread: Investigating the amount of data and file types generated during additive manufacturing,” Proceedings of the ASME 2017 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences & Computers and Information in Engineering Conference IDETC2017, August 6–9, 2017, Cleveland, Ohio.
14. Ben Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook (Amsterdam: 3D Hubs, 2017), pp. 158–162.
15. J. Jhabvala, E. Boillat, C. André, and R. Glardon, “An Innovative Method to Build Support Structures with a Pulsed Laser in the Selective Laser Melting Process,” International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 59 (March 2012): 137–142.
16. My discussion here relies heavily on Michael Molitch-Hou, “7 Issues to Look Out for in Metal 3D Printing,” engineering.com, posted July 10, 2017, https://www.engineering.com/3DPrinting/3DPrintingArticles/ArticleID/15202/7-Issues-to-Look-Out-for-in-Metal-3D-Printing.aspx
17. Li Yang et al., “Design for Additive Manufacturing,” in Additive Manufacturing of Metals: The Technology, Materials, Design and Production, ed. Li Yang (Berlin: Springer, 2017), p. 82.
18. See for example Reza Molaeia and Ali Fatemiab, “Fatigue Design with Additive Manufactured Metals: Issues to Consider and Perspective for Future Research,” Procedia Engineering 213 (2018): 5–16.
19. Li Yang et al., “Introduction to Additive Manufacturing,” in Li Yang et al., Additive Manufacturing of Metals: The Technology, Materials, Design and Production (Berlin: Springer, 2017), p. 8.
20. See Steve Daniewicz et al., “Structural Integrity of Additive Manufactured Parts,” in Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Metal Parts, ed. Linkan Bian et al. (New York: CRC Press, 2018), pp. 111–137, especially pp. 119–130.
21. Greg Morris, “Post-Processing of Metal Parts,” in Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, pp. 50–53.
1. John Hornick, “HP’s Multi Jet Fusion: An IP Perspective,” 3D Printing Industry, May 27, 2016, https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/hp-multi-jet-fusion-ip-36247/
2. The ISO standard is here: https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso-astm:52900:ed-1:v1:en. My discussion relies on a number of sources, but Chee Kai Chua and Kah Fai Leong, 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing (Singapore: World Scientific, 2015) and Ben Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook (Amsterdam: 3D Hubs, 2017) were particularly helpful.
3. John R. Tumbleston et al., “Continuous Liquid Interface Production of 3D Objects,” Science 347, no. 6228 (March 20, 2015): 1349–1352.
4. Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook, p. 165.
5. Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook, pp. 28, 30, 32.
6. J. Cesarano, T. Baer, and P. Calvert, “Recent Developments in Freeform Fabrication of Dense Ceramics from Slurry Deposition,” Proceedings of the Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, 1997, 25–32.
7. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, p. 35.
8. Peter Zelinski, “MarkForged Metal Printer: Sintering Can Wait,” Additive Manufacturing, 1 May 2017, https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/articles/markforged-metal-printer-sintering-can-wait
2. Dale Dougherty, “The Maker Movement,” Innovations 7, no. 30 (summer 2012): 11–14. His quotation comes from p. 11, https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/INOV_a_00135
7. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, p. 24.
9. John Hauer, “3D Printing’s Role in Digitally Manufacturing Consumer Products,” HP white paper, no date, http://bit.ly/2kR2YY0/
10. Chris Anderson, Makers: The New Industrial Revolution (New York: Crown Business, 2012), p. 20.
11. Lucas Mearian, “3D Printing Is Now Entrenched at Ford,” CIO, August 21, 2017, https://www.cio.com/article/3214471/3d-printing/3d-printing-is-now-entrenched-at-ford.html
16. My discussion here relies on several pieces: Joris Peels, “3D Printing in Education,” 3DPrint.com, February 21, 2017, https://3dprint.com/165585/3d-printing-in-education/; Jeannette McConnell, “7 Benefits of using 3D Printing Technology in Education,” Makersempire.com, no date, https://www.makersempire.com/7-benefits-of-using-3d-printing-technology-in-education/; kristiel (sic), “How 3D Printing in Education Improves Learning,” Studica.com, March 19, 2014, http://www.studica.com/blog/3d-printing-in-education-benefits; Paul Croft, “Reaping the Benefits of 3D printing,” Education Technology, October 28, 2016, http://edtechnology.co.uk/Article/reaping-the-benefits-of-3d-printing/
18. Peels, “3D Printing in Education.”
19. Yale Center for Teaching and Learning, “Using 3D Print Models in the Classroom,” https://ctl.yale.edu/faculty-resources/instructional-tools/using-3d-print-models-classroom/
20. Igor Verner and Amir Merksamer, “Digital Design and 3D Printing in Technology Teacher Education,” Procedia CIRP 36 (2015): 182, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221282711500894X#!
21. “The printed world,” The Economist, February 10, 2011, http://www.economist.com/node/18114221#print/
22. Andrew Dawood, Begoña Marti, and V. Sauret-Jackson, “3D Printing in Dentistry, British Dental Journal 219 (2015): 521–529, 10.1038/sj.bdj.2015.914, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286612886_3D_printing_in_dentistry/
23. Ben Redwood et al., The 3D Printing Handbook (Amsterdam: 3D Hubs, 2017), p. 254, and https://www.forbes.com/sites/rakeshsharma/2013/07/08/the-3d-printing-revolution-you-have-not-heard-about/#417866ba1a6b/
24. “Robot Bike Case Study,” Reinishaw.com, no date, http://www.renishaw.com/en/metal-additive-manufacturing-technology-used-for-customised-mountain-bikes--39741/
25. “Robot Bike Case Study.”
1. Dave Mosher, “How James Bond’s Aston Martin Survived a Huge Explosion in ‘Skyfall,’” Popular Science, November 13, 2012, https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2012-11/james-bond-aston-martin-db5-3d-printed-model/
2. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, “Applications” supplement, p. 6.
3. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, “Cast Metal Parts” supplement, p. 3.
4. Jeff Kerns, “Aerospace Opportunities Demand Quick Resolution to 3D-Printing Issues,” Machine Design, April 20, 2017, http://www.machinedesign.com/3d-printing/aerospace-opportunities-demand-quick-resolution-3d-printing-issues
5. “Double Water Inlet/Outlet Components for a Formula 1 Team,” caParts case study, no date, http://www.camodels.co.uk/industry-case-studies/motorsport.aspx
6. Tyler Koslow, “China Approves Use of Fully Functioning 3D Printed Hip Replacement,” 3D Printing Industry, September 4, 2015, https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/china-approves-use-of-fully-functioning-3d-printed-hip-replacement-56935/
7. John Schmelzle et al., “(Re)Designing for Part Consolidation: Understanding the Challenges of Metal Additive Manufacturing,” Journal of Mechanical Design 137, no. 11 (October 12, 2015): 111404.
8. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, p. 196.
9. The story is told here: Tomas Kellner, “An Epiphany of Disruption: GE Additive Chief Explains How 3D Printing Will Upend Manufacturing,” GE Reports, November 13, 2017, https://www.ge.com/reports/epiphany-disruption-ge-additive-chief-explains-3d-printing-will-upend-manufacturing/ and here: Rajiv Rao, “How GE Is Using 3D Printing to Unleash the Biggest Revolution in Large-Scale Manufacturing in Over a Century,” TechRepublic, no date https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-ge-is-using-3d-printing-to-unleash-the-biggest-revolution-in-large-scale-manufacturing/ and here: Peter Zelinski, “Video: The Additive Nozzle’s Origin Story,” Additive Manufacturing, November 27, 2015, https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/blog/post/video-the-additive-nozzles-origin-story/
10. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, pp. 190–191.
11. E. Atzeni and A. Salmi, “Economics of Additive Manufacturing for End-Usable Metal Parts,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 62, nos. 9–12 (October 2012): 1147–1155.
2. https://newsroom.porsche.com/en/company/porsche-classic-3d-printer-spare-parts-sls-printer-production-cars-innovative-14816.html
3. Warren D. Devine, “From Shafts to Wires: Historical Perspective on Electrification.” Journal of Economic History 43, no. 2 (1983): 347–372, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2120827/
4. See chapter 4 for a fuller description of this progression.
5. Marcel Bogers, Ronen Hadar, and Arne Bilberg, “Business Models for Additive Manufacturing: Exploring Digital Technologies, Consumer Roles, and Supply Chains,” Technological Forecasting & Social Change (July 28, 2015). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2638054/
6. L. F. C. S. Durão et al., “Additive Manufacturing Scenarios for Distributed Production of Spare Parts,” International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 93 (2017): 869, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0555-z/
7. Christian Weller, Robin Kleer, and Frank Piller, “Economic Implications of 3D Printing: Market Structure Models in Light of Additive Manufacturing Revisited,” International Journal of Production Economics 164 (March 2015): 54.
8. https://www.tctmagazine.com/tct-events/tct-show-uk/carbon-mass-3d-printing-adidas-futurecraft-4d-shoe/
10. See S. Robertson, “Mechanical Fatigue and Fracture of Nitinol,” International Materials Reviews 57, no. 1 (2012): 1–37.
11. Jorma Ryhänen, “Biocompatibility Evaluation of Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Metal Alloy,” PhD dissertation, University of Oulu School of Medicine, 1999, p. 19, http://jultika.oulu.fi/files/isbn9514252217.pdf
13. http://www.disruptivemagazine.com/features/additive-manufacturing-mass-customization-ski-boots-made-order/
17. D. R. Gress and R. V. Kalafsky, “Geographies of Production in 3D: Theoretical and Research Implications Stemming from Additive Manufacturing,” Geoforum 60 (2015): 43–52.
20. Wohlers Associates, Wohlers Report 2017, p. 57.
22. https://www.nist.gov/el/intelligent-systems-division-73500/production-systems-group/nist-additive-manufacturing-test/
23. John Schmelzle et al, “(Re)Designing for Part Consolidation: Understanding the Challenges of Metal Additive Manufacturing,” Journal of Mechanical Design 137, no. 11 (October 12, 2015): 111404.
24. Phillip Keane, “The New Age of Highly Efficient Products Made with Generative Design,” https://www.engineering.com, June 30, 2017, https://www.engineering.com/DesignSoftware/DesignSoftwareArticles/ArticleID/15136/The-New-Age-of-Highly-Efficient-Products-Made-with-Generative-Design.aspx
25. Keane, “The New Age of Highly Efficient Products Made with Generative Design.”
26. Prachi Patel, “More Teachers, Fewer 3D Printers: How to Improve K-12 Computer Science Education,” IEEE Spectrum, October 2, 2017, https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/at-work/education/what-500-million-could-mean-for-k12-computer-science-education/
27. Brent Donaldson, “Closing Additive Manufacturing’s Skills Gap,” December 8, 2017, https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/blog/post/closing-additive-manufacturings-skills-gap/
29. Sarah Saunders, “GE Additive Education Program Selects Over 400 Schools to Receive 3D Printers, Impacting Over 180,000 Students Around the World,” 3DPrint.com, May 31, 2017, https://3dprint.com/176254/ge-aep-400-schools-3d-printers/
30. Sony Corp. of Am. et al., v. Universal City Studios, Inc. et al., 464 U.S. 442 (1980).
31. Bryan J. Vogel, “Intellectual Property and Additive Manufacturing / 3D Printing: Strategies and Challenges of Applying Traditional IP Laws to a Transformative Technology,” 17 Minn. J.L. Sci. & Tech. 881 (2016): 885, http://scholarship.law.umn.edu/mjlst/vol17/iss2/8
32. See Daniel Garrie, “The Legal Status of Software,” John Marshall Journal of Computer & Information Law, forthcoming, https://ssrn.com/abstract=907107; https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=907107/
33. See T. Kurfess and W. J. Cass, “Rethinking Additive Manufacturing and Intellectual Property Protection,” Research Technology Management 57, no. 5 (2014): 35–42.
34. Vogel, “Intellectual Property and Additive Manufacturing / 3D Printing,” p. 892, n. 65.
35. Vogel, “Intellectual Property and Additive Manufacturing / 3D Printing,” pp. 894–896.
36. The quotation is from the Federal Circuit Court’s decision in Oracle vs Google (2014), quoted in Vogel, “Intellectual Property and Additive Manufacturing / 3D Printing,” p. 901.
37. Pedro Malaquias, “The 3D Printing Revolution: An Intellectual Property Analysis” (August 8, 2014), p. 21, https://ssrn.com/abstract=2495416
38. Mohammad Abdullah Al Faruque, Sujit Rokka Chhetri, Arquimedes Canedo, and Jiang Wan. 2016. “Acoustic Side-Channel Attacks on Additive Manufacturing Systems,” in Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems (ICCPS ’16) (Piscataway, N.J., IEEE Press, 2016), article 19, 10 pp.
39. On September 21, 2018, Cody Wilson was arrested on the charge of sexual assault of a minor and stepped down as director of Defense Distributed.
40. Janus Kopfstein, “Guns Want to Be Free: What Happens When 3D Printing and Crypto-anarchy Collide,” The Verge, April 12, 2013, https://www.theverge.com/2013/4/12/4209364/guns-want-to-be-free-what-happens-when-3d-printing-and-crypto-anarchy/
41. Andy Greenberg, “I Made an Untraceable AR-15 ‘Ghost Gun’ in My Office—And It Was Easy,” Wired, June 3, 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/06/i-made-an-untraceable-ar-15-ghost-gun/
42. Brett Williams, “The 3D-Printed Sarco Pod Could Use Tech to Help Terminal Patients End Their Own Lives,” Mashable, December 7, 2017, https://mashable.com/2017/12/07/sarco-3d-printed-assisted-suicide/#DpzHhuRXiiql/
1. Margaret Rhodes, “Inside L’Oreal’s Plan to 3-D Print Human Skin,” Wired, May 28, 2015, https://jobs.newscientist.com/minisites/l-oreal-/l-oreal-announces-plan-to-3-d-print-skin/
2. See Sean V. Murphy and Anthony Atala, “3D Bioprinting of Tissues and Organs,” Nature Biotechnology 32, no. 8 (August 2014): 773–785.
3. Ibrahim T. Ozbolat, 3D Bioprinting: Fundamentals, Principles and Applications (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2016), p. 3.
4. Connie Gomez, “A Unit Cell Based Multi-scale Modeling and Design Approach for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds” (PhD thesis [mechanical engineering], Drexel University, 2007), summarized in Ozbolat, 3D Bioprinting, p. 17.
5. Ozbolat, 3D Bioprinting, pp. 71–75.
6. Ozbolat, 3D Bioprinting, pp. 226–232.
7. Ozbolat, 3D Bioprinting, pp. 226–232.
8. Andrew Zaleski, “How to Print a House,” Curbed, May 3, 2017, https://www.curbed.com/2017/5/3/15504458/3d-printed-houses-construction-apis-cor
10. Zaleski, “How to Print a House,” https://www.curbed.com/2017/5/3/15504458/3d-printed-houses-construction-apis-cor
11. Kelsey Campbell-Dollaghan, “How a Chinese Company 3D-Printed Ten Houses in a Single Day,” Gizmodo, April 3, 2014, https://gizmodo.com/how-a-chinese-company-3d-printed-ten-houses-in-a-single-1557613229
12. “Parametric Design: A Brief History,” AIA California Council, June 25, 2012, http://www.aiacc.org/2012/06/25/parametric-design-a-brief-history/
13. Fernanda C. Godoi, Sangeeta Prakash, and Bhesh R. Bhandari, “3d Printing Technologies Applied for Food Design: Status and Prospects,” Journal of Food Engineering 179 (June 2016): 45.
14. Terrence O’Brien, “The CocoJet Lets You Print in Delicious 3D Chocolate,” Engadget, January 6, 2015, https://www.engadget.com/2015/01/06/the-cocojet-lets-you-print-in-delicious-3d-chocolate/
15. Jonathan Chadwick, “Here’s How 3D Food Printers Are Changing What We Eat,” TechRepublic, November 7, 2017, https://www.techrepublic.com/article/heres-how-3d-food-printers-are-changing-the-way-we-cook/
16. Chadwick, “Here’s How 3D Food Printers Are Changing What We Eat.”
17. See for example R. Melnikova, A. Ehrmann, and K. Finsterbusch, “3D Printing of Textile-Based Structures by Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) with Different Polymer Materials,” IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 62, conference 1, figure 1.1.
20. S. Tibbits, “4D Printing: Multi-material Shape Change,” Architectural Design 84 (2014): 116–121.
21. A. Sydney Gladman et al., “Biomimetic 4D Printing,” Nature Materials, 25 January 2016, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a645/0377766224564d53b0924fdd289df21babc0.pdf
22. Kathryn J. De Laurentis and Constantinos Mavroidis, “Rapid Fabrication of a Non-assembly Robotic Hand with Embedded Components,” Assembly Automation (2004), 394–405.
23. Eric MacDonald and Ryan Wicker, “Multiprocess 3D Printing for Increasing Component Functionality,” Science 353 (30 September 2016), http://science.sciencemag.org/content/353/6307/aaf2093