CONCERNING THE SACRAMENTS IN PARTICULAR
ARTICLE ONE
CONCERNING THE TIME OF INSTITUTION OF THE SACRAMENTS AND THEIR NUMBER
QUESTION ONE
WHETHER ANY TIME PERIOD WOULD HAVE BEEN SUITABLE FOR THE INSTITUTION OF THE SACRAMENTS1
And that any time period was suitable for the institution of the sacraments is demonstrated:
a. First of all, the time during the Institution of Nature is considered.2 This time was suitable because it was at that time that the sacrament of Matrimony was instituted. Therefore if this sacrament is considered less efficacious than the other sacraments, it is seen that the others even more so ought to have been instituted at that time. If you should say that the use of Matrimony was fitting for that time during the Institution of Nature, because it served not only as a remedy but also as an office, while the other sacraments were instituted as medicinal, and therefore not before the fall, I would argue the contrary. At the same time God created an angel, God created a punishment, or fire, so that if it should sin, it would be punished, because its sin was incurable. Therefore, for the same reason, when God created humans whose sin was curable, God should also have provided the cure.
b. Likewise, the Master says in the previous distinction, that the use of the sacraments is “for humbling, training, and instructing.”3 These three apply to the sick as well as the healthy; therefore, etc.
c. Likewise, it would seem that the time of the natural law after the fall was appropriate. The good and wise doctor delays medicine to a time of need, and thus offers it when the need is apparent. Therefore, if the time of natural law after the fall was such, then he was bound to institute sacraments without delay or anticipation.
d. Likewise, it would seem that the time of the written law was more appropriate. This is shown in that the sacraments were not prescribed because they were good, but were good because they were prescribed and instituted. However, such precepts are best suited to the written law, and not to the Gospel or to Nature, in which there are moral laws: so thus also the institution of the sacraments.
e. Yet, that the time of Gospel Law was suitable appears insofar as the sacraments are medicines. That time was most suitable for their institution because that is when the doctor arrived. Again, they are vases of grace. They therefore fit into that time which is the time of grace.
To the contrary: It is shown that the time of the Institution of Nature was not suitable for the institution of the sacraments because one who hopes to arise the more easily abandons himself to fall. Therefore if there had been remedies prepared for the first human, that would have provided him an occasion to sin. Thus if the sacraments were to be a means to rise up, and not to fall, they should not have been instituted at that time.
1. Again, it is seen that the time of natural law is not appropriate because in that time only natural law was binding. The things natural law commands are in themselves good, but they are also unalterable.4 Therefore, if the sacraments are not of this sort, they were not suitable for that time.
2. Again, the time of the written law was not suitable because the Written Law was given as a burden and to convict of impotence, as Hugh says.5 Therefore if the sacraments are medicinal for restoring virtue they are in no way compatible with the written law.
3. Again, it is seen that they do not suit the Gospel Law because this law tends to eliminate figures and signs in that it openly proclaims the truth. Therefore, if the sacraments are of figurative nature, in no way are they suitable for Gospel Law.
4. Again, the law of the Gospel is the law of liberty, as is written in Galatians 5:13: But you, brothers, have been called into liberty. Therefore, at the very least, the sacraments should not have been instituted by precept, but only by way of counsel. This is what Hugh seems to say in De sacramentis: “First he nourished his little ones with counsel; second he tried the grown up with a precept; third he permitted the fully grown to walk in liberty.”6 But this cannot stand, because it says in John 3:3, Unless one be born again, etc.
I respond: It must be said that all the sacraments were specially and principally instituted as a remedy, except for Matrimony which was at first instituted as an office.7 Because the time for remedy began at the fall, advanced in the Law, and was consummated in the Gospel, all three ages are appropriate for their institution, but yet only more or less appropriate.8
To the objections: a. To the objection that the time of the Institution of Nature was an appropriate time on account of Matrimony, the response is that Matrimony was instituted then because it was instituted as an office. To the objection posed on account of the punishment of the angels, the response is clear, because punishment or fire restrains from fault, but a medicine provides an occasion to utilize the medicine. Therefore medicine should not have existed at that time by reason of its own purpose.
b. To the objection concerning use, it must be said that to be humbled below other created things, to be instructed by them, and to be freed in them from aversion does not belong to the nature of humans as instituted. This is rather required by the punishment of the damned, because humans occupy a middle place between God and created things. Thus, humans were aware of God more clearly in themselves than in other created things. Thus they took delight in God, and did not require the variety of things to avoid aversion.
1. To the objection concerning the time of Natural Law, it must be said that natural law demands some things as necessary, and others as expedient. Likewise it demands some things of itself, and others with the assistance of faith and inspiration. I say that it demands the precepts of morals in the first way; in the second way it demands the precepts in a general way; such would be making sacrifices to God. Thus faith along with inspiration will further determine these. So that is clear.
2. To the objection concerning the Written Law, I say that the written law and its sacraments were observed carnally by the hard of heart, and among such it had no efficacy. But it was observed spiritually by the spiritual-minded, and for them it was not principally a burden but a way of salvation, and for these the sacraments were medicinal.9
3. To the objection concerning the Gospel, that it empties figures, it must be said that some figures were meant for signifying only, while others were for signifying and for sanctifying. The first type of figures the Gospel emptied, but the second it established, because it is the law of sanctifying, and not only of truth.
4. To the objection that the law of the Gospel is the law of freedom, etc., it must be said that precepts lead to slavery for those who fear, but they lead to freedom for those who love. Therefore because the Gospel Law is the law of love, it is called the law of freedom, not because it commanded, but because it drew not to fear but to love.
Second, there is the question whether in different times different sacraments should have been instituted or whether the same sacraments were instituted for all times. It is reasonably demonstrated that there should not have always been the same ones, but that the sacraments should be changeable.
a. Hugh speaks thus: “The order and plan of the dispensation requires this. Just as from the beginning with the passing of time the arrival of the Savior more and more approached, so likewise more and more the effect of salvation and knowledge of the truth should increase. For this reason the signs of salvation themselves had to be altered, some supplanting others through the passing of the ages, so that the effect of divine grace should increase toward salvation. Thus in like manner, sanctification itself should become more evident in its visible signs.”10
b. Likewise the same can be shown from reason. With the change of the illness and the condition of the sick person, the remedy must be changed. Therefore, since in these times people were in diverse conditions when sickness spread, it was necessary that medicines of different sorts be employed.
But to the contrary: 1. The institution of the sacraments was not done by just anyone, but by the greatest physician, whose judgment is immutable and comes with the highest recommendation. If God’s judgment is immutable, so the sacraments too which have been instituted according to God’s judgment must also be immutable. If it is worthy of highest praise, therefore they must be the best possible. So following this, since the sacraments of the law of grace are the best possible, they must always have been sacraments. Neither earlier nor later should others have been instituted or changed.
2. Likewise, the disease of original sin was always the same; it neither increased nor decreased. Also, the condition of the infirm was always the same. Therefore it seems that the medicine to treat the illness should have been the same and not changeable.
3. Likewise, all the sacraments draw their efficacy first from the passion, and immediately from faith in the passion. This, faith in the passion, is the power to heal through grace. Therefore since the passion is the same and faith is the same, as Augustine says,11 and similarly grace is the same, therefore the sacraments should be the same, and not changed.
I respond: To understand what was said before, it should be noted that the sacraments are for instruction, are for medicine, and are for beautifying.12 In their perfect state, they serve as an open teaching13 of the divine secret, as an efficacious remedy for sickness, and as a beautiful ornament for the bride of Christ.
Therefore, just as the revelation of secrets should not take place in just any way or in any time, but in that in which human understanding is more capable, so then the perfect sacraments were put off until such a time. But this time was, just as it is in the life of a human, the sixth age, which is called old age, according to that passage in Sirach 25:7, O how comely is wisdom for the aged, and understanding and counsel to men of honor! Similarly the time for perfect sacraments is the sixth age of the world, which is after Christ, and in which age men are more wise and capable. Therefore, the fullness of the sacraments is delayed to this time.14
Again, because sacraments are efficacious in treating disease, they should be given at a time when they could more effectively cure. A spiritual infirmity is not effectively cured except when it is recognized and felt; otherwise a person is rendered ungrateful and is inflicted with a more serious wound. Therefore, it was necessary to put off the sacraments to such time as the illness had become so strong that humans would recognize it and seek a remedy. This happened in the time of grace, because during the time of Natural Law, humans were convicted of being blind. Then came the Law teaching and burdening, and then humans were convicted of impotence. Then came the time of grace in which the illness already recognized would be cured, and in this age, the sacraments were given in full.
Lastly, they serve as a beautiful ornament. Christ was bound to give this beautiful ornament to that bride from whom he would never be separated.15 Since such was the Church gathered from the nations, and not the synagogue which deserted and denied him, he did not institute perfect sacraments until the time of grace. But nevertheless he provided some imperfect ones as nourishment as was suitable for those times. And thus it is clear that they were not always the same, but had to be instituted differently at different times.16
To the objections: 1. To the objection concerning judgment, it must be said, just as Augustine says in his De vera religione, “Just as the one physician according to the same unchanged art changes the remedy as the illness changes,”17 so thus, and even much more so in the case at hand. As to what is added about being worthy of highest praise etc., it must be said that divine wisdom is worthy of highest praise in his works, not because these works are all the best possible that he makes in themselves, but rather in their order. Thus Augustine says in De libero arbitrio, “If someone asks why God did not make two suns, does he not see that it would have been superfluous? If someone asks why he made the moon, does he not see that if the moon were missing, some good would be lacking in the order?”18 This should thus be noted in the argument made, that God created things in the most ordered way. Just as these sacraments are suited to this time, so others were suited to that time.19
2. To the objection that the disease was the same, it must be said that although the original disease did not essentially increase it nonetheless grew in effect, because people more and more followed their own desires and fell from one error into another.
3. To the objection that the faith and the passion are the same, etc. it must be said that although the passion is the same, still first it was only promised, and now it is accomplished. Hence, satisfaction being accepted, the mercy of God was more liberal in forgiveness than when it was only promised. Moreover, I say, also more liberal with respect to the effect, since God is in himself [in se] always the highest and always uniformly liberal. Hence the effect is greater.
Besides, even if faith is the same, it is nevertheless now more worthy and more efficacious in loving. The reason is that we believe more clearly than the ancients, and faith in the passion already accomplished, as well as forgiveness granted, stimulate us to love more than what was promised. Hence God, by reason of faith and by reason of the passion already accomplished, conferred greater efficacy to the sacraments.
Again, as faith is more explicit, the sacraments are more apparent. The faith expressed remains the same, because the reason for believing is the same. However the sacraments are otherwise, because the signs are different, and signs are not numbered according to what is signified, but rather according to the signifying species.20
WHETHER IN THE TIME OF GRACE ONE OR SEVERAL SACRAMENTS OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN INSTITUTED
Third, the question is asked concerning the number of sacraments in the time of the Gospel.
A. And that there should be but one is seen:
1. Because the Gospel yoke is a sweet yoke and a light burden. It is lighter to observe one sacrament than many. Therefore, since God is able to give the power of all the sacraments to one, it would seem that there should be only one.
2. Likewise it would seem that more than one would be superfluous. This is because in one sacrament, the Eucharist, the passion is signified, and from it all the sacraments have their efficacy. Again, in that sacrament Christ is contained, and in him is the fullness of grace. Therefore it would seem that the Eucharist alone could accomplish everything for which the others are instituted.
3. Likewise it would seem that one sacrament alone could accomplish what all the others accomplish. For Baptism destroys all guilt, as well as all punishment due to guilt. The evidence for this is that a baptized person, if he would die, immediately escapes these.
4. Likewise Baptism confers grace which heals the soul and empowers all the faculties. There is nothing else to which any of the sacraments is ordered. Therefore, Baptism suffices.
However, it is also seen that there should be several sacraments:
a. Because as was said in the previous distinction, “God instituted the remedies of the sacraments for the wound of sin.”21 However Jerome says, “what heals the heel does not heal the eye.”22 Therefore, since there are different wounds, consequently there should be different remedies, and therefore several sacraments.
b. Likewise the sacraments not only heal; they also signify. Therefore if the signification comes from institution, and is instituted toward signifying many things, its signification is multiple and dubious. If one sacrament has several effects and many significations, it would lead to doubt and not to knowledge.
c. Likewise, it is necessary that a sacrament have an explicit likeness. However a visible species which has an explicit similitude with all its effects cannot be found. Therefore there need to be many.
B. Supposing, then, that there should be many, the question arises, Why only seven?
1. Because, since there are only two wounds, namely punishment and guilt, it would seem that there should only two sacraments. If you should say that guilt and punishment are multiplied by differences, then on the contrary there should be more than seven, because the seven types of sins have many differences. Likewise, punishments are as multiple as the disorders of sin, such as desire related to taste and related to touch, for which there are no correcting sacraments.
2. Likewise, the sacraments of the Gospel add to the sacraments of the written law, just as the sacraments of the written law add to the sacraments found in the law of nature. Therefore, since there are more sacraments in the written law than in the natural law, there ought to be more sacraments in the Gospel Law than in the written law.
I respond: It must be said, as has been shown, that there must be many sacraments: Many indeed, because they are for frequent training, and only one would give rise to aversion; many also because their purpose is instruction, and one only would give rise to ambiguity. Further, they are seven and not more because they serve as medicine, and because medicines apply to the wounds that they heal. Then by healing wounds it assists the virtues, and in assisting the virtues it arms and defends against infirmities.23
Accordingly therefore as the sacraments heal infirmities, their number is arrived at in this way: for there is the illness of guilt and of punishment. The illness of guilt in general is original sin, against which there is Baptism. Then actual mortal sin, against which is Penance; and venial sin, against which is Extreme Unction. Now the illness of punishment is fourfold, namely ignorance, against which is Orders, in which the power of discernment is given; the second is weakness, against which is Confirmation; the third is malice, against which is the Eucharist; the fourth is lust, against which is Matrimony.
Inasmuch as the sacraments are an aid to the virtues, the number is arrived at in this way: as an aid to faith, such is Baptism, which is the gate to the sacraments as faith is to the virtues; an aid to hope, such is Extreme Unction; an aid to charity, such is the Eucharist, which unites and incorporates; an aid to prudence, which is Orders; an aid to justice, which Penance is; an aid to temperance, Matrimony; an aid to fortitude, Confirmation.
And inasmuch as the sacraments are the armor and weapons of the Church militant, their number is arrived at in this way: because she is, as Song of Songs 6:4 says, awe-inspiring as an army set in array; she is awe-inspiring because she is strong and defended, and this through Confirmation; drawn for battle, because bound and united through the Eucharist; and ordered through Orders. This battle array is variable in that it is found in this life.24 Hence, some are taken from it by death, others cast down by guilt; hence, the necessity of a sacrament to multiply offspring for divine worship, and that is Matrimony; one is also needed for rising again after a fall, and that is Penance. However only in this battle array is salvation found; hence a person enters it to do battle and exits from it in death to be crowned. No one is accepted into battle unless he has the sign and arms of Christ; hence the necessity of a sacrament in which these are conferred, as Baptism, and this is the gateway for those who enter. Likewise no one exits from this battle array to be received in triumph unless he has the pledge and anointing of the Holy Spirit, in whose signing Extreme Unction consists, which is the sacrament of those who are departing. Thus, it is clear that they are only seven, whether they are considered as medicinal, or as helps, or as arms for battle.25
To the objections: A. 1. To the objection then, that there should be one on account of the ease, it must be said that while a divine work should have ease as a sign of his power, it should also have fittingness as a sign of his wisdom, and also usefulness as a sign of his goodness. Therefore, although an easier way would consist of one, nevertheless it would not be as fitting as in many. Thus, they are many.26
2. To the objection concerning the efficacy of the Eucharist, it must be said that although the passion is signified in the Eucharist, and Christ is contained in it, in whom there is the fullness of grace, the passion is still not signified as to all of its effects, nor is the fullness of grace contained for the purpose of providing every grace, but rather grace for the particular effect of a meal.
3-4. To the objection concerning Baptism, it must be said that Baptism is directed against original sin. Hence it is not repeatable. However, the wounds of sins are repeatable. Likewise, though it absolves from the punishment of satisfaction, it does not absolve from the punishment that is the consequence of fault. It is against these punishments that the sacraments exist. They are not only for the forgiveness of guilt. Thus Baptism does not suffice.
B. Therefore to the objection that there should be just two to oppose the twosome of guilt and punishment, the response is clear. One’s viewpoint should not remain with the first differences, which are punishment and guilt, because they are too general. Nor should one descend to the specifics. Consideration should be given to those that are of the same species, as for example original with all other original, and mortal sins with mortal ones, and venial with venial. Similarly one should not consider the different punishments, but the principal ones, which are the reasons that lead one to guilt. So it is with variable matters. It is similar concerning the appetite of the palate, which can of itself exist without sin, unless it be disordered by excessive desire. But desire of the flesh remains always disordered if not put in order.
2. To the last it must be said that the sacraments of the written law add to the sacraments of the natural law, insofar as concerns certainty of signification and difficulty of burden. The sacraments of the written law are therefore more and more apparent. However the sacraments of the Gospel add to the sacraments of the written law with respect to their expression and efficacy and lessen the rigor of their burden. Wherefore, they are more apparent and more efficacious, but nevertheless fewer.
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1 Cf. Alexander, Summa, p. 4, q. 1, m. 3, a. 3 and q. 2, m. 2, a - 1-2. This question pursues the inquiry into which period of salvation history was most appropriate for the institution of the sacraments. Four periods are considered: before the fall as the Institution of Nature, after the fall but before the Mosaic Law as the period of the natural law, the period of the Mosaic Law as the Written Law, and the period after Jesus Christ as the time of Gospel Law.
2 Institution. This refers to a period of salvation history as elucidated by Hugh. The first period of salvation was the Institution of Nature, followed by the Institution of Law, followed by the Institution of Grace. Cf. Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, b. 1, p. 11, c. 3 (PL 176:343D-344B; Corpus Victorinum, 244-45).
3 Lombard, Sententiae, IV, d. I, c. 5:1, 234-35: Triplici autem ex causa sacramenta instituta sunt: propter humiliationem, eruditionem, exercitationem. Closely following Peter Lombard, Bonaventure will continue to utilize these three uses of the sacraments throughout his sacramental theology. According to Peter, there is humility in the sacraments because the believer submits to sensible things below his own nature. There is instruction because through visible signs one is lead to the invisible. There is also training in doing good works which aids one in being able to overcome temptations. In this last use, exercitio, Peter cites Jerome who himself is commenting on Scripture. This shows the depth of the tradition which Bonaventure is utilizing. The text Lombard cited from Jerome is as follows: Jerome, Epistola 125 (ad Rusticum), n. 11 (PL 22, 1078; CSEL 56, 130): Facito aliquid operis, ut te semper diabolus inveniat occupatum.
4 Latin: …immobilia.
5 Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, II, p. 2, c. 1 (PL 176, 415BC; Corpus Victorinum, 335): Positum est ergo tempus naturalis legis ut natura per se operaretur, non quod per se quicquam posset, sed ut se non posse agnosceret. Illa ergo sibi relicta errare coepit a veritate per ignorantiam, et convicta est de caecitate; postmodum etiam convincenda de infirmitate.
6 Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, I, p. 11, c. 4 (PL 176, 345A; Corpus Victorinum, 245): Primum ergo ante legem parvulos consilio nutrivit. Postea sub lege exercitatos praecepto temptavit. Novissime sub gratia perfectos in libertate spiritus ambulare permittit.
7 Latin: Dicendum quod omnia sacramenta instituta sunt in remedium specialiter et principaliter, excepto Matrimonio quod primo institutum est in officium.
8 Here, Bonaventure follows Hugh closely. Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, I, p. 11, c. 6 (PL 176, 346D; Corpus Victorinum, 246): Prima ergo sacramenta umbra fuerunt, secunda imago, tertia corpus.
9 Cf. above, d. 1, a. 1, q. 5, res.
10 Hugh of St. Victor, De sacramentis, I, p. 11, c. 6 (PL 176, 345CD; Corpus Victorinum, 245-6): Sed sciendum quod divinae dispensationis ordo et ratio hoc poposcit, ut sicut ab initio, procurrente tempore, magis semper ac magis adventus salvatoris appropinquavit; sic semper magis ac magis effectus salutis cresceret, et cognitio veritatis. Propter quod et ipsa signa salutis per successionem temporum; alia post alia mutari debuerunt, ut cum effectus gratiae divinae in salutem cresceret, simul quoque et ipsa significatio in ipsis signis visibilibus evidentior appareret.
11 Cf. Augustine, Ennarationes in Psalmos 50, 14, n. 17; In Iohannis evangelium tr. 45, n. 9; De civitate Dei, XVIII, c. 47. Cf. Hugh, De sacramentis, I, p. 11, c. 6 (PL 176:345C-347A; Corpus Victorinum, 245-7).
12 Latin: Ad praedictorum intelligentiam est notandum quod sacramenta sunt in documentum, sunt medicamentum, sunt in ornamentum. Here Bonaventure takes a different approach than earlier above where he follows Lombard more closely. See above in d. 2, a. 1, q. 1.
13 Latin: …apertum documentum.
14 Latin: …sacramenta completa. It is important to note here that the fullness of the sacraments takes place after Christ, not in the age of Christ, which is the sixth age of the world, namely the age of the Church or the age of the Spirit. For a concise description of Bonaventure’s thoughts on the seven ages of the world, see Bonaventure, Breviloquium, Prologue, s. 2, n.2 (St. Bonaventure, NY: Franciscan Institute Publications, 2005), 8-9. Bonaventure inherits these divisions from Augustine. Cf. Augustine, De catechizandis rudibus, c. 22, n. 39-40 (PL 40, 338-9; CCSL 46, 163-4).
15 Here, for the first time in this text, Bonaventure accents the ecclesial significance of sacraments. Sacraments signify the Church as the spouse made beautiful. This concept of ornamenta is almost like a wedding ring.
16 Latin: …sed alia et alia debuerint institui.
17 Augustine, De vera religione 17, 34 (PL 34, 136; CCL 32, 208, 34-41; CSEL 77, 24, 24-31): Ut enim ars medicinae, cum eadem maneat neque ullo pacto ipsa mutetur, mutat tamen praecepta languentibus, quia mutabilis est nostra ualetudo, ita divina providentia, cum sit ipsa omnino incommutabilis, mutabili tamen creaturae uarie subvenit et pro diversitate morborum alias alia iubet aut uetat, ut a uitio, unde mors incipit, et ab ipsa morte ad naturam suam et essentiam ea quae deficiunt, id est ad nihilum tendunt, reducat et firmet.
18 Augustine, De libero arbitrio, III, 9, 24 (PL 32, 1283; CCL 29, 289-290, 22-27; CSEL 74, 111, 4-8): Quodsi non dicit: luna non esset, sed qualem solem uidet talem dicit lunam esse debuisse, non intellegit nihil aliud se dicere quam: non esset luna, sed essent soles duo. In quo dupliciter errat quod rerum perfectioni et addere aliquid cupit, cum desiderat alterum solem, et minuere, cum lunam uult detrahi.
19 Bonaventure interprets the two above citations from Augustine in a free and creative manner. Neither of these citations from Augustine is found in this context in Peter Lombard’s text.
20 Latin: …et signa non numerantur quantum ad significatum, sed quantum ad speciem significantem. Bonaventure concludes this argument by notating what will become an important principle in the further development of his sacramental theology; namely, sacraments are more about the visible signifying elements than about what is signified. So, of course the sacraments are different in earlier ages because the signs were different. Nevertheless, what is signified is very much the same.
21 Lombard, Sententiae, IV, d. 1, c. 1:1, 231: …quia contra peccati originalis et actualis vulnera sacramentorum remedia Deus instituit.
22 Pseudo-Jerome, Commentarius in evangelium secundum Marcum, 9:28 (PL 30:616C): Medicina cujusque vulneris adhibenda est ei. Non sanat oculum, quod calcaneo adhibetur.
23 Here again the threefold purpose of the sacraments is articulated: exercitandum, erudiendum, and humilitationem.
24 Bonaventure here uses the image of the bride as Jerusalem in awe-inspiring beauty. This corresponds to the Church militant armed for defense in view of acquiring salvation.
25 Bonaventure here confirms the number of seven sacraments not by appealing to Scripture, but by appealing to theological reflection on their role in healing, training, and their place in the life of the Church.
26 Latin: … quia non ita congrua. Again, he argues why “it is fitting” that there be more than one sacrament.