Six years before Apollo reached its goal in 1969, a cartoon depicted two men standing atop two extremely tall stacks of paper. One man, as he stepped out onto the lunar surface, said to the other: “I told you we would get to the moon.” The cartoonist may not have been too far off the mark when one considers the documentation generated by Apollo. Some 200 linear meters of that paper, more than half of it covering the period through the first lunar landing, came to rest in the History Archives of the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. And this small percentage of the whole represents what was left after numerous screenings and cullings by historians, archivists, and editors. These materials were collected in a variety of ways over a period of years.
While the research for this Apollo history was being done, government engineers connected with manned space flight evolved into three-program veterans—Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. Of these participants, many became pack rats, collecting documents and creating what might be called “desk archives.” Much of this material contains engineering marginalia that leads the researcher on to more and more documents, with a snow-balling effect. As the engineers moved to new positions and were forced to clean out their desks, many were happy to find a historical archives function that might preserve some of their more treasured papers. Along with material collected during research and documentary forays by historians, archivists, and editors to NASA Headquarters in Washington and to its other centers scattered over the nation and during visits to institutions and industrial concerns connected with Apollo, these holdings—covering the years 1957 through 1972 and including letters, memoranda, studies, reports, etc.—became extensive (25 five-drawer filing cabinets) .
Another, somewhat similar, collection exists, because NASA like all federal agencies is required to retire its documents to regional Federal Records Centers on a regular schedule. Government paperwork falls into two categories: record, or official, copies that must be retired, and duplicate copies and unofficial working papers that may be retained in reading files as long as they are needed. But even here NASA had to exercise control, sponsoring a spring-housecleaning “Records Roundup” annually to screen and dispose of some of these reading files. The Records Management Officer has encouraged organizational elements to send their reading files to the historian, to gain credit for “destroyed records.” Several major accessions resulted from this procedure.
Among the major additions to the JSC History Archives were the complete Houston Apollo Spacecraft Program Office reading files, covering 1960 through 1972 (17 five-drawer filing cabinets) . This collection contains a cross-section of materials on almost every phase, event, or subject of the Apollo program. It includes matter from every organizational element in the spacecraft program office, as well as correspondence from other divisions of the Houston center, from other NASA centers, from NASA Headquarters, and from industry and institutions that worked on Apollo. Research in these files turned up information on technical problems in the program, from the time problems were discovered until they were finally resolved, and on program decisions, failures, and successes. A number of summary documents evaluated Apollo at specific times, to measure performance and progress against costs and schedules.
Research in this extensive collection, by three historians with the help of an editor and an archivist, was a physical, as well as mental, task. Even with the mass of documentation, however, there was no mystery about what subjects would be important in the development of the Apollo spacecraft. For example, it was obvious from the start that the mode issue—how NASA intended to fly men to the moon and back—was a major influence on spacecraft, launch vehicle, and launch preparation, and facility designs. Subjects such as this had generated so much paperwork at so many locations that there is probably enough material to write lengthy monographs on each. Most of the source notes to this volume, therefore, form small bibliographies for the narrative discussions. Again, the historians had to make arbitrary selections of which documents to cite because of the physical limitations on the number of citations possible in one book.
Another source, unique to the writing of contemporary (or near-contemporary) history, added to the archives collection: tape-recorded oral history interviews (two-thirds of them transcribed) of many key program participants. This research began before Apollo reached its goal, continued after the program ended, and gave the historians an opportunity to see the hardware at the factory, test, and launch sites. Thus, when the book was written, authors had some personal knowledge of the persons, hardware, and operations. Quite often, these contacts later helped the authors explain the solutions to technical problems in a language that both the writer and the reader could understand. How the engineers settled on the number, arrangement, and folding of the lunar module’s legs required several telephone calls to clarify the solution. The answers to who decided which American would be the first to step out onto the lunar surface and why the decision was made required more calls. Such conversations often uncovered more formal documentation on the subject, and the archives continued to grow.
As may be easily discerned, this history of the Apollo spacecraft, and subjects directly related to the spacecraft, represents what might be called the internalist approach. One member of the academic community who reviewed this work commented that he no longer worried that the text would be “court history,” presenting events too much from the program participants’ point of view. He did, however, complain that the historians had become too intrigued with the mass of available information to “raise their heads out of the files.” Other reviewers contended that the historians paid too much attention to outside influences on the program and not enough to the technical descriptions and development of the machines. These diverse comments were appreciated and responded to, in some degree—although not, perhaps, to the satisfaction of either side. We hope we have presented enough of the story of the program, as well as its technical problems and solutions, to capture the interest of the reader whose opinions fall somewhere between the two extremes. At any rate, this history is largely based on a portion of the documents that the Apollo program generated. A listing follows of persons talked with, selected samples of the documentation, and other sources used.
[Asterisks indicate telephone conversations. Key to
abbreviations of affiliations is at the end of the list.]
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
| AC Electronics | AC Electronics Division, General Motors Corp. |
| Aerojet-General | Aerojet-General Corp., Div., The General Tire and Rubber Co. |
| AiResearch | AiResearch Manufacturing Co., The Garrett Corp. |
| Airlock | Airlock, Inc. |
| ARC | Ames Research Center, NASA |
| Bell Aerospace | Bell Aerospace Co., Div., Textron Inc. |
| Bendix | Aerospace Systems Division, The Bendix Corp. |
| Collins Radio | Collins Radio Co. |
| David Clark | David Clark Co., Inc. |
| Edwards AFB | Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. |
| FRC | Flight Research Center, NASA (renamed Dryden Flight Research Center in January 1976) |
| GE | General Electric Co. |
| GSFC | Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA |
| Gen. Dynamics | General Dynamics Corp. |
| Gen. Precision | General Precision Systems, Inc., General Precision Equipment Corp. |
| Grumman | Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp. |
| Hamilton Standard | Hamilton Standard Division, United Aircraft Corp. |
| Honeywell | Honeywell, Inc. |
| IBM | International Business Machines Corp. |
| Int‘l Latex | International Latex Corp. |
| JPL | Jet Propulsion Laboratory, operated by California Institute of Technology for NASA |
| KSC | Kennedy Space Center, NASA |
| LaRC | Langley Research Center, NASA |
| LeRC | Lewis Research Center, NASA |
| McDonnell | McDonnell Aircraft Corp. (merged into McDonnell Douglas Corp. in April 1967) |
| Marquardt | The Marquardt Corp. |
| Martin | Martin Marietta Corp. |
| MIT | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
| MSC | Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA (renamed Johnson Space Center in February 1973) |
| MSFC | Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA |
| OSD/DOD | Office of the Secretary of Defense, Department of Defense |
| NAR | North American Rockwell (North American Aviation, Inc., before September 1967; Rockwell International from February 1973) |
| NASA Hq. | National Aeronautics and Space Administration Headquarters |
| Northrop-Ventura | Northrop-Ventura, Northrop Corp. |
| Philco-Ford | Philco-Ford Corp., Ford Motor Corp. |
| Raytheon | Raytheon Co. |
| Rocketdyne | Rocketdyne Division, North American Rockwell (formerly North American Aviation, Inc.) |
| TRW | TRW Inc. |
| UCSC | University of California, San Diego |
Bird, John D. “A Short History of the Lunar-Orbit-Rendezvous Plan at the Langley Research Center.” Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va., 6 Sept. 1963 (supplemented 5 Feb. 1965 and 17 Feb. 1966).
Buwalda, P.; Dcvwnhawer, W. J.; Eckman, P. K.; Pounder, E.; Rieder, R. A.; Sola, F. L. “Man-to-the-Moan and Return Mission Utilizing Lunar-Surface Rendezvous.” JPL TM 33-53. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., 3 Aug. 1961.
[Disher, John H.] “Preliminary Project Development Plan for Apollo Spacecraft.” NASA, Washington, 9 Aug. 1961.
Gardner, James P.; Ruppe, Harry O.; and Straly, Warren H. “Comments on Problems Relating to the Lunar Landing Vehicle.” ABMA Report DSP-TN-13-58. Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Huntsville, Ala., 4 Nov. 1958.
General Dynamics Corp., Convair Div., and Avco Corp. “Apollo: Final Study Report.” AE10363. San Diego, 15 May 1961.
General Electric Co., Missile and Space Vehicle Dept. “Project Apollo: A Feasibility Study of an Advanced Manned Spacecraft and System, Final Report.” Philadelphia, 15 May 1961.
George, Martha Wheeler. “The Impact of Sputnik I: Case-Study of American Public Opinion at the Break of the Space-Age, October 4, 1957.” NASA Historical Note 22. Washington, 15 July 1963.
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp. “Project Apollo Feasibility Study Summary.” PDR-279-2. Bethpage, N.Y., 15 May 1961.
Hazard, Allyn B. “A Plan for Manned Lunar and Planetary Exploration.” Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., November 1959.
Heaton, Donald H. “U.S. Lunar Travel Program.” Paper presented before Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, 8 Dec. 1960.
Hornig, Donald F.; Hebb, Malcolm H.; Hyland, Lawrence A.; Ling, Donald P.; McMillan, Brockway; and Schwarzschild, J. Martin. “Report of Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space.” President’s Science Advisory Committee, Washington, 1960.
[Houbolt, John C., et al.] “Manned Lunar Landing through Use of Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous.” 2 vols. Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va., 31 Oct. 1961.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory. “Some Interrelationships and Long-Range Implications of the C-3 Lunar Rendezvous and Solid Nova Concepts.” TM 33-52. Pasadena, Calif., 2 Oct. 1961.
Lina, Lindsay J., and Vogeley, Arthur W. “Preliminary Study of a Piloted Rendezvous Operation from the Lunar Surface to an Orbiting Space Vehicle.” Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va., 21 Feb. 1961.
Lundin, Bruce T.; Downhower, Walter J.; Eggers, A. J., Jr.; Johnson, Lt. Col. George W. S.; Loftin, Laurence K.; Ruppe, Harry O.; Escher, William J. D.; and May, Ralph W., Jr. “A Survey of Various Vehicle Systems for the Manned Lunar Mission.” NASA, Washington, 10 June 1961.
——————; Hjornevik, Wesley L.; Pearson, E. O.; and Rothrock, A. M. “Report of Special Working Group on Location of Manned Space Flight Activity.” NASA, Washington, 14 Oct. 1960.
Maggin, B.; McGolrick, J.; Paraghamian, B.; Nelson, A.; Hall, E.; Disher, J.; and Sloop, J. “Guidelines for a Program for Manned and Unmanned Orbital Operations,.” NASA, Washington, May 1961.
Martin Co. “Apollo: Final Report.” Baltimore, Md., May 1961.
Michael, William H., Jr. “Weight Advantages of Use of Parking Orbit for Lunar Soft Landing Mission.” In Jack W. Crenshaw et al., “Studies Related to Lunar and Planetary Missions.” Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va., 26 May 1960.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “NASA-Industry Apollo Technical Conference: A Compilation of the Papers Presented, Washington, D.C., 18, 19, 20 July 1961.” Washington, 1961.
——————. “Procurement Plan for Project Apollo Space Vehicle Integration Analysis, Reliability Assessment, and Checkout.” February 1962.
——————, Ad Hoc Saturn Study Committee. “Presentation of Results of Saturn Study.” 30 Sept. 1960.
——————, Ad Hoc Task Group Study (Fleming Committee) . “A Feasible Approach for an Early Manned Lunar Landing.” 16 June 1961.
——————, Ad Hoc Task Group Study (Heaton Committee) . “Earth Orbital Rendezvous for an Early Manned Lunar Landing.” August 1961.
——————, Combined Working Group on Vehicles for Manned Space Flight (Rosen Committee) . “Report.” 1961.
——————, Manned Lunar Working Group (Low Committee). “A Plan for Manned Lunar Landing.” January 1961.
——————, Office of Manned Space Flight. “Manned Lunar Landing Mode Comparison.” 16 June 1962.
——————. “Manned Lunar Landing Mode Comparison.” 30 July 1962.
——————. “Manned Lunar Landing Mode Comparison.” 24 Oct. 1962.
——————, Office of Program Planning and Evaluation. “The Ten Year Plan of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.” 18 Dec. 1959.
——————, Propulsion Staff. “A National Space Vehicle Program: A Report to the President.” 27 Jan. 1959.
——————, Special Committee on Space Technology. “Recommendations Regarding a National Civil Space Program.” 28 Oct. 1958.
NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center. “A Ground Instrumentation Support Plan for the Near-Earth Phases of Apollo Missions.” X-520-62-211. Greenbelt, Md., 23 Nov. 1962.
NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center. “Lunar Orbital Techniques for Performing the Lunar Mission.” Houston, April 1962.
NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center. “MSFC Thoughts on the NASA Long-Range Plan (LPR63) .” M-CP-P(R-21). Huntsville, Ala., 4 Sept. 1962.
NASA, Space Task Group. “A Lunar Landing Proposal Using Rendezvous.” Hampton, Va., 30 Aug. 1961.
——————. “Preliminary Project Development Plan for an Advanced Manned Spacecraft Program Utilizing the Mark II Two Man Spacecraft.” 14 Aug. 1961.
NASA and Department of Defense. “Joint Report on Facilities and Resources Required at Launch Site to Support NASA Manned Lunar Landing Program (Debus-Dacis Report]: Phase I Report.” Atlantic Missile Range, Fla., 31 July 1961.
——————, Large Launch Vehicle Planning Group (Golovin Committee) . “Final Report.” LLVPG 105. Washington, I Feb. 1962.
North American Aviation, Inc. “Feasibility Study for Apollo Advanced Manned Spacecraft and System.” NA-60-1247. Downey, Calif., 7 Oct. 1960.
Powers, Thomas L. “Lunar Landing Dynamics.” Bellcomm, Washington, 17 June 1963.
President’s Science Advisory Committee. “Report of the Space Vehicle Panel.” Washington, 3 Jan. 1962.
U.S. Air Force Systems Command, Space Systems Div. “Lunar Expedition Plan: Lunex.” WDLAR-S-458. Washington, May 1961.
U.S. Army Ordnance Missile Command, Army Ballistic Missile Agency. “A Lunar Exploration Program Based upon Saturn-Boosted Systems.” Redstone Arsenal, Ala., I Feb. 1960.
——————. “Project Horizon, Phase I Report: A U.S. Army Study for the Establishment of a Lunar Military Outpost.” Redstone Arsenal, Ala., 8 June 1959.
[Voas, Robert B.] “Preliminary Material for the Selection and Training of Astronauts for Advanced Space Flights.” Space Task Group, Hampton, Va., 31 Oct. 1961.
——————. “Program for Scientist Astronaut Selection: A Presentation to the Administrator, May 17, 1963.” Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 1963.
Von Braun, Wernher; Stuhlinger, Ernst; and Koelle, H. H. “ABMA Presentation to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.” ABMA Report D-TN-1-59. Huntsville, Ala., 15 Dec. 1958.
Wiesner, Jerome B.; BeLieu, Kenneth; Gardner, Trevor; Hornig, Donald F.; Land, Edwin H.; Lehrer, Maxwell; Purcell, Edward M.; Rossi, Bruno B.; and Watters, Harry J. “Report to the President-Elect of the Ad Hoc Committee on Space.” Washington, 10 Jan. 1961.
Abel, Robert W. “Lunar Excursion Module Visibility Requirements.” Apollo Working Paper 1115. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 15 June 1964.
Apollo Mission Planning Task Force, Thomas G. Barnes, chairman. “Phase I Progress Report.” Grumman LED-540-7. Bethpage, N.Y., 4 May 1964.
Casey, Frank W., Jr., and Maynard, Owen E. “A Hypothetical Model of the Lunar Surface for the Engineering Design of Terminal Touchdown Systems.” Apollo Working Paper 1033. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 30 Nov. 1961.
Cherne, Jack M. “Mechanical Design of the Lunar Module Descent Engine.” Paper presented at the 18th International Astronautical Congress, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 24-30 Sept. 1967.
Cohen, Aaron. “Powered Flight Steering and Control of Apollo Spacecraft.” Paper presented to Northrop Nortronics Society of Automotive Engineers Committee, Houston, 11-13 Dec. 1963.
Dahlen, J. M.; Felleman, P. G.; Goss, R. D.; Sears, N. E.; Trageser, M. B.; and White, R. L. “Guidance and Navigation System for Lunar Excursion Module.” MIT R-373. Cambridge, Mass., July 1962.
Davin, Edward M. “Apollo Lunar Science Program: Report of Planning Teams.” NASA, Washington, December 1964.
Draper, C. S. “The Evolution of Aerospace Guidance Technology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1935-1951.” Paper presented at the 5th IAA History Symposium, Brussels, Belgium, 19—25 Sept. 1971.
Ellis, Wilbert E., and Norris, D. William, Jr. “Lunar Excursion Module Environmental and Thermal Control System Optimization.” Apollo Working Paper 1102. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 8 Jan. 1964.
Ferguson, Richard B. “Propulsion Requirements for Lunar Landing Missions Employing a Detachable Lunar Lander.” Apollo Working Paper 1038. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 19 Dec. 1961.
General Electric Co., Apollo Support Dept. “Study of the Postlanding Tilt Angle of the LEM.” TIR 545-S64-03-00. Houston, 21 May 1964.
Gilruth, Robert R., and Faget, Maxime A. “The Manned Lunar Mission.” Paper presented before the American Rocket Society, Cleveland, Ohio, 17-19 July 1962.
——————, and McMillion, L. N. “Man’s Role in Apollo.” Paper presented at Institute of the Aerospace Sciences Man-Machine Competition Meeting, Seattle, Wash., 10-11 Aug. 1962.
Haines, C. Dale, and Taylor, J. T. “Considerations toward the Selection of Electrical Power Systems and Thermal Control Systems for the Lunar Excursion Module.” Apollo Working Paper 1055. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 18 Dec. 1962.
Kehlet, Alan B.; Smith, Richard F.; Mayo, Edward E.; and Canady, John E., Jr. “A Preliminary Study of a Fin-Stabilized Solid-Fuel Rocket Booster for Use with the Apollo Spacecraft.” Apollo Working Paper 1020. Space Task Group, Hampton, Va., 7 June 1961.
——————; Franklin, M. R.; McMillion, L. N.; Winterhalter, D. L.; Reed, J. D. “Notes on Project Apollo: January 1960-January 1962.” Manned Spacecraft Center, Hampton, Va. [sic], 8 Jan. 1962.
Kelly, Thomas J. “Apollo Lunar Module Mission and Development Status.” Paper presented at AIAA Fourth Annual Meeting and Technical Display, Anaheim, Calif., 23-27 Oct. 1967.
——————. “Technical Development Status of the Project Apollo Lunar Excursion Module.” Paper presented at 10th Annual Meeting, American Astronautical Society, New York, 4-7 May 1964.
Mason, Robert M. “A Preliminary Analysis of the Effects of Exhaust Impingement on the Lunar Surface during the Terminal Phases of Lunar Landing.” Apollo Working Paper 1052. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 21 Dec. 1962.
Maynard, Owen E. “A General Description of the Lunar Excursion Vehicle’s Systems for Excursions from Lunar Orbit to Lunar Landing and Back to Lunar Orbit.” Apollo Working Paper 1028. Space Task Group, Hampton, Va., 29 Sept. 1961.
National Academy of Sciences, Space Science Board. “Man’s Role in the National Space Program.” Washington, March 1961.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Manned Space Flight. “Apollo Configuration Management Manual.” NPC 500-1. Washington, November 1964. Also NHB 8040.2, January 1970.
——————. “Apollo Flight Missions Assignments.” Program Directive M-D E 8000.005A. 9 April 1963.
——————. “Apollo Program Development Plan.” NPC C500, MA 001000-1. 15 Jan. 1965.
——————. “Apollo System Specification.” Program Directive MD M 8000.001. 2 May 1963.
NASA, Manned Spacecraft Center. “Apollo Lunar Landing Mission Symposium: Proceedings and Compilation of Papers.” Houston, 25-27 June 1966.
——————. “Apollo Site Selection Board Briefings: Compilation of Presentation Material.” 15 Dec. 1967.
——————. “Apollo Subsystem Management Plan.” 16 Dec. 1963.
——————. “Command and Service Module Test Program through the First Manned Apollo Mission.” 15 July 1963.
——————. “Lunar Landing Site Selection Briefing, March 8, 1967: Compilation of Presentation Material.” 1967.
——————. “Major Test Facilities of the Engineering and Development Directorate.” April 1965.
——————, Flight Operations Div. “Manned Spacecraft Center Apollo Program Development Plan.” January 1966.
NASA, Space Task Group. “A General Description of the Apollo ‘Bug’ Systems.” Hampton, Va., 11 Sept. 1961.
Reid, Richard. “Simulation and Evaluation of Landing Gear Probe for Sensing Engine Cutoff During Landing.” MSC Internal Note MSC-IN-65-EG-10. Houston, 15 March 1965.
Strass, H. Kurt. “A Lunar Landing Concept.” In Strass, ed., “Project Apollo Space Task Group Study Report, February 15, 1961.” Apollo Working Paper 1015. Space Task Group, Hampton, Va., 21 April 1961.
Trageser, Milton B., and Hoag, David G. “Apollo Spacecraft Guidance System.” MIT-IL R495. Paper presented at the IFAC Symposium on Automatic Control in the Peaceful Uses of Space, Stavanger, Norway, June 1965.
U.S. Air Force Systems Command. “Configuration Management during the Definition and Acquisition Phases.” 375-1. June 1962 (rev. June 1964) .
Baron, Thomas Ronald. “An Apollo Report.” Typescript. Kennedy Space Center, Fla., ca. January 1967.
Campos, Arturo B. “Lunar Module Electrical Power Subsystem.” Apollo Experience Report (AER) TN S-337. Review copy. Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, April 1972.
Chandler, William A.; Rice, Robert R.; and Allgeier, Robert K., Jr. “The Cryogenic Storage System.” AER TN S-321. Review copy. MSC, Houston, November 1972.
Dotts, Robert L. “Spacecraft Heating Environment and Thermal Protection for Launch through the Atmosphere of the Earth.” AER TN S-350. Review copy. MSC, Houston, July 1972.
Farkas, Andrew J. “Lunar Module Display and Control Subsystem.” AER TN S-285. Review copy. MSC, Houston, May 1971.
General Dynamics, Convair Div. “Little Joe II Test Launch Vehicle, NASA Project Apollo: Final Report.” GDC-66-042. San Diego, May 1966.
Gibson, Cecil R.; Townsend, Neil A.; and Wood, James A. “History of the Apollo Service Propulsion System.” MSC, Houston, January 1970.
Gilbert, David W. “A Historical Description of the Apollo Guidance and Navigation System Development.” SG-100-153. MSC, Houston, 31 Dec. 1963.
Gillen, Richard J.; Brady, James C.; and Collier, Frank. “Lunar Module Environmental Control Subsystem.” AER TN S-296. Review copy. MSC, Houston, September 1971.
Hammock, William R., Jr.; Currie, Eldon C.; and Fisher, Arlie E. “Descent Propulsion System.” AER TN S-349. Review copy. MSC, Houston, October 1972.
Hix, Marion W. “Crew Station Integration,,” vol. 4, “Stowage and the Support Team Concept.” AER TN S-364. Review copy. MSC, Houston, July 1973.
Humphries, Clarence E., and Taylor, Reuben E. “Ascent Propulsion System.” AER TN S-341. Review copy. MSC, Houston, May 1972.
Langley, Robert D. “The Docking System.” AER TN S-325. Review copy. MSC, Houston, March 1972.
Leger, L. J., and Bricker, R. W. “Window Contamination,.” AER TN S-284. Review copy. MSC, Houston, September 1971.
Mueller, George E. Memoranda to NASA Administrator and Deputy Administrator. “Manned Space Flight Report.” NASA, Washington, 1967—1969.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office off Manned Space Flight. “Apollo Flight Readiness Reviews,” Part I. Program Directive No. 8, M-D MA 2210.008. Washington, November 1965.
——————, Apollo Program Control. “Apollo Program Weekly Status Report.” 1968-1969.
——————, Office of Programs. “Program Review, Apollo, October 20, 1962.” 1962.
NASA, Johnson Space Center. “Apollo Program Summary Report.” JSC-09423. Houston, 1975.
NASA, Mannerl Spacecraft Center. “Board Report for NASA Inspection and Review of Block I Mock-Up Command and Service Modules, April 23-30, 1964.” 1964.
——————. “Board Report for NASA Inspection and Review of Block II Mock-Up, Command and Service Modules, September 29-October 1, 1964.” 1964.
——————. “Board Report for NASA Inspection and Review of M-5 Mockup, Lunar Excursion Module, October 5-8, 1964.” 1964.
—————. “Board Report for NASA Inspection and Review of TM-1 Mock-Up, Lunar Excursion Module, March 19-26, 1964.” 1964.
——————. “Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas: Interim Facilities.” 1 Aug. 1962.
——————. “Presentation Made at Apollo Program Planning Seminar, San Augustine, Texas, October 14, 15, 16 and 17, 1966.” 1966.
——————, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) . “Apollo 7 Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription.” 1968.
——————. “Apollo 8 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription (GOSS Net 1).” December 1968.
——————. “Apollo 9 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription (GOSS Net 1).” March 1969.
——————. “Apollo 10 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription (GOSS Net 1).” May 1969.
——————. “Apollo 11 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription (GOSS Net 1).” July 1969.
——————. “Apollo 4 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-68-1. January 1968.
. “Apollo 5 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-68-7. 27 March 1968.
——————. “Apollo 6 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-68-9. June 1968.
——————. “Apollo 7 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-68-15. December 1968.
——————. “Apollo 9 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-69-1. May 1969.
—————. “Postlaunch Memorandum Report for Apollo Pad Abort I.” 13 Nov. 1963.
——————. “Postlaunch Memorandum Report for Apollo Mission PA-2 (BP-23A).” MSC-A-R-65-3. 29 July 1965.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-001 (BP-12).” MSC-R-A-64-1. 28 May 1964.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-002 (BP-23).” MSC-R-A-65-1. 22 Jan. 1965.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-003 (BP-22).” MSC-A-R-65-2. 28 June 1965.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-101 (BP-13).” MSC-R-A-64-2. 18 June 1964.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-102 (BP-15).” MSC-R-A-64-3. 10 Oct. 1964.
——————. Quarterly Status Reports, Nos. 1 through 25. Period ending 30 Sept. 1962 through 30 Sept. 1968.
——————. Weekly, biweekly, and monthly activity reports. 1962 through 1966.
——————, Flight Crew Support Div. “Apollo VII Technical Debriefing.” 27 Oct. 1968.
——————. “Apollo 8 Technical Debriefing.” 2 Jan. 1969.
——————. “Apollo 9 Crew Technical Debriefing.” 20 March 1969.
——————. “Apollo 10 Technical Crew Debriefing.” 2 June 1969.
——————. “Apollo 11 Technical Crew Debriefing.” 31 July 1969.
——————, Mission Evaluation Team. “Apollo 8 Mission Report.” MSC-PA-R-69-1. February 1969.
——————. “Apollo 10 Mission Report.” MSC-00126. August 1969.
——————. “Apollo 11 Mission Report.” MSC-00171. November 1969.
——————, Mission Operations Div. “Postlaunch Report for Apollo Mission A-004 (Spacecraft 002).” MSC-A-R-66-3. 15 April 1966.
——————. “Postlaunch Report for Mission AS-201 (Apollo Spacecraft 009) .” MSC-A-R-66-4. 6 May 1966.
——————, Mission Support Div. “Postlaunch Report for AS-202 (Apollo Spacecraft 011).” MSC-A-R-66-5. 12 Oct. 1966.
North American Aviation, Inc. “CSM Cost/Schedule/Technical Characteristics Study: Final Report.” SID7135. Downey, Calif., 30 April 1971.
Phillips, Maj. Gen. S. C.; Shea, J. F.; Rees, E. F. M.; O’Connor, Brig. Gen. E. F.; and Keeling, Maj. Gen. G. F. “NASA Review Team Report.” NASA, Washington, ca. December 1965.
Pigg, Orvis E., and Weiss, Stanley P. “Spacecraft Structural Windows.” AER TN S-377. Review copy. MSC, Houston, July 1973.
Rogers, William F. “Lunar Module Landing Gear Subsystem.” AER TN S-316. Review copy. MSC, Houston, January 1972.
Rozas, Patrick, and Cunningham, Allen R. “Lunar Module Landing Radar and Rendezvous Radar.” AER TN S-311. Review copy. MSC, Houston, November 1971.
Rutkowski, Michael. “Structural Loads Due to Maneuvers of the Command and Service Module/Lunar Module.” AER TN S-280. Review copy. MSC, Houston, May 1971.
Ryker, N. J. “Technical Status of the Apollo Command and Service Modules.” SID 64-698. North American Aviation, Downey, Calif., 3 April 1964.
Samonski, Frank H., and Tucker, Elton M. “Command and Service Module Environmental Control System.” AER TN S-279. Review copy. MSC, Houston, May 1971.
Sauer, Richard L., and Calley, David J. “Potable Water System.” AER TN S-363. Review copy. MSC, Houston, January 1973.
Taeuber, Ralph J., and Weary, Dwayne E. “Command and Service Module Reaction Control Systems.” AER TN S-336. Review copy. MSC, Houston, November 1972.
Congress, House, Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee. Independent Offices Appropriations for 1963: Hearings. 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962.
——————, Committee on Science and Astronautics. 1962 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 6874. 87th Cong., 1st sess., 1961.
——————. 1965 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 9641 (Superseded by H.R. 10456). 88th Cong., 2d sess., 1964.
——————. 1968 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 4450, H.R. 6470 (Superseded by H.R. 10340). 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967.
——————. Discussion of Soviet Man-in-Space Shot: Hearing. 87th Cong., 1st sess., 13 April 1961.
——————. NASA Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Decision: Hearing. 87th Cong., 2d sess., 12 July 1962.
——————.. Orbital Rendezvous in Space: Hearing. 87th Cong., 1st sess., 23 May 1961.
——————. Transfer of the Development Operations Division of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Hearing on H.J.Res. 567. 86th Cong., 2d sess., 3 Feb. 1960.
——————. and subcommittees 1, 3, and 4. 1962 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 3238 and 6029 (Superseded by H.R. 6874). 87th Cong., 1st sess., 1961.
——————. Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight. 1963 Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 10100 (Superseded by H.R. 11737). 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962.
——————. 1964 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 5466 (Superseded by H.R. 7500). 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.
——————. 1967 NASA Authorization: Hearings on H.R. 12718 (Superseded by H.R. 14324). 89th Cong., 2d sess., 1966.
——————. Subcommittee on NASA Oversight. Apollo Program Pace and Progress: Stuff Study. 90th Cong., 1st sess., 1967.
——————. Investigation into Apollo 204 Accident: Hearings. 3 vols. 90th Cong., 1st sess., 10 April to 10 May 1967.
Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. Apollo Accident: Hearing on A Review of Background Information and Systems Decisions preceding the Apollo Accident of January 27, 1967. 8 parts. 90th Cong., 1st sess., 7 Feb. 1967 to January 1968.
——————. NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1962: Hearings on H.R. 6874. 87th Cong., 1st sess., 1961.
——————. NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1967: Hearings on H.R. 11737. 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962.
——————. NASA Aavthorizntion for Fiscal Year 1961: Hearings on S. 1245. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.
——————. NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1965: Hearings on S. 2446. 88th. Cong., 2d sess., 1964.
——————NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1966: Hearings on S. 927. 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1965.
——————NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1969: Report on H.R. 15856. 90th Cong., 2d sess., 20 May 1968.
——————Subcommittee on Governmental Activities. Investigation of Governmental Organization for Space Activities: Hearings. 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959.
——————Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee. Independent Offices Appropriations, 1963: Hearings on H.R. 12711. 87th Cong., 2d sess., 1962.
——————Independent Offices Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1967: Hearings on H.R. 14921. 89th Cong., 2d sess., 1966.
Cord, John M., and Seale, Leonard M. “The One-Way Manned Space Mission.” Aerospace Engineering 21 (December 1962) : 60.
[Ertel, Ivan D.] Gemini VIII: Rendezvous and Docking Mission. MSC Fact Sheet 291-E. Houston: Manned Spacecraft Center, April 1966.
——————Gemini IX-A: Rendezvous Mission. MSC Fact Sheet 291-F. August 1966.
——————Gemini X: Multiple Rendezvous, EVA Mission. MSC Fact Sheet 291-G. September 1966.
——————Gemini XI Mission: High Altitude, Tethered Flight. MSC Fact Sheet 291-H. October 1966.
——————Gemini XII Flight and Gemini Program Summary. MSC Fact Sheet 291-I. December 1966.
National Academy of Sciences. A Review of Space Research. Summer study at the State University of Iowa, 17 June—10 August 1962. NAS Publication 1079, 1962.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: News Conference on Apollo Plans at NASA Headquarters on July 11, 1962. Washington, 1962.
——————NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, July 28—29, 1960. 1960.
——————Proceedings of the Second NASA-Industry Program Plans Conference, Washington, D.C., February 11—12, 1963. SP-29. 1963.
——————Report of Apollo 204 Review Board to Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1967.
Rectz, Arthur, and O’Brien, Keran, eds. Protection against Spate Radiation: The Proceedings of the Special Session on Protection against Spare Radiation, presented at the 13th Annual Meeting of the American Nuclear Society, San Diego, California, June 11—16, 1967. NASA SP-169 (ANS-SD-5) . Washington, 1968.
Renzetti, N. A., ed. A History of the Deep Space Network, vol. 1, From Inception to January 1, 1969. JPL technical report 32-1533. Pasadena, Calif.: Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1 Sept. 1971.
Beltz, John; Bilstein, Roger; and Sharpe, Mitchell. “The Saturn Project: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles.” Comment ed. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., 2 Jan. 1973.
Jarrett, Francis E., Jr., and Lindemann, Robert A. “Historical Origins of the Launch Operations Center to July 1, 1962.” KSC Historical Monograph No. 1. Comment ed. Kennedy Space Center, Fla., December 1964.
Jones, Leo L. “A Brief History of Mississippi Test Facility.” Comment ed. MTF, La., March 1967.
——————and Jarrell, A. Ruth. “History of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, from January 1 through December 31, 1963.” Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., April 1968.
Lindeman, Richard Earl, “Configuration Management on Large-Scale Engineering Programs.” M. Sc. thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1970.
Logsdon, John M. “NASA’s Implementation of the Lunar Landing Decision.” NASA HHN-81. Washington, August 1969.
McClane, James C., Jr.; King, Elbert A., Jr.; Flory, Donald A.; Richardson, Keith A.; Dawson, James P.; Kemmerer, Walter W.; and Wooley, Bennie C. “The Lunar Receiving Laboratory.” Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 25 Oct. 1966.
Oakley, Ralph B. “Historical Summary: S & ID Apollo Program.” North American Aviation, Inc., Space & Information Systems Div., Downey, Calif., 20 Jan. 1966.
Saegesser, Lee D. “Cartoons on Space: 1963—1968.” NASA Historical Div., Washington, October 1968.
Zigler, William. “History of NASA MTF and Michoud: The Fertile Southern Crescent, Bayou Country and the American Race Into Space.” NAS HHN-127. Washington, September 1972.
Akens, David S. Saturn Illustrated Chronology: Saturn’s First Eleven Years, April 1957 through April 1968. 5th ed., MHR-5. Huntsville, Ala.: Marshall Space Flight Center, 20 Jan. 1971.
Aldrin, Col. Edwin E. “Buzz,” with Warga, Wayne. Return to Earth. New York: Random House, 1973.
Anderson, Frank W., Jr. Orders of Magnitude: A History of NACA and NASA, 1915—1976. NASA SP-4403. Washington, 1976.
Battin, Richard H. Astronautical Guidance. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Benson, Charles D., and Faherty, William Barnaby. Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA SP-4204. Washington, 1978.
Bergaust, Eric. Murder on Pad 34. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1968.
Brooks, Courtney G., and Ertel, Ivan D. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, vol. 3, October 1, 1964—January 20, 1966. NASA SP-4009. Washington, 1976.
Bush, Vannevar. Pieces of the Action. New York: William Morrow, 1970.
Byers, Bruce K. Destination Moon: A History of the Lunar Orbiter Pmgram. NASA TM X-3487. Washington, April 1977.
Chapman, Dean R. An Analysis of the Corridor and Guidance Requirements for Supercircular Entry into Planetary Atmospheres. NASA Technical Report R-55. Washington, 1960.
Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut’s Journeys. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974.
Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics. Aeronautical and Astronautical Events of 1961: Report. Committee Print, 87th Cong., 2d sess., 7 June 1962.
——————Astronautical and Aeronautical Events of 1962: Report. Committee Print, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 12 June 1963.
——————Subcommittee on NASA Oversight. Pacing Systems of the Apollo Program: Staff Study. 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1965.
——————Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration. Space Handbook: Astronautics and Its Applications: Staff Report. 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959.
——————The Next Ten Years in Space, 1959—1969: Staff Report. 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959.
Congress, Senate, Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. NASA Scientific and Technical Programs: Hearings. 87th Cong., 1st sess., 1961.
——————“Address by President Kennedy at Rice University, September 12, 1962,” as cited in Documents on International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1954— 1962: Staff Report. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.
Corliss, William R. Histories of the Space Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN), the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN), and the NASA Communications Network (NASCOM). NASA CR-140390. Washington, June 1974.
Diamond, Edwin. The Rise and Fall of the Space Age. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964.
Draper, C. Stark; Wrigley, Walter; and Havorka, John. Inertial Guidance. New York: Pergamon Press, 1960.
Emme, Eugene M. Aeronautics and Astronautics: An American Chronology of Science and Technology in the Exploration of Space, 1915—1960. Washington: NASA, 1961.
Ertel, Ivan D., and Morse, Mary Louise. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, vol. 1, Through November 7, 1962. NASA SP-4009. Washington, 1969. [See also Morse, Mary Louise, and Bays, Jean Kernahan, vol. 2; Brooks, Courtney G., and Ertel, vol. 3.]
——————and Newkirk, Roland W., with Brooks, Courtney G. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, vol. 4, January 21, 1966-Jmly 13, 1974. NASA SP-4009. Washington, 1978.
Etzioni, Amitai. The Moon-Doggle: Domestic and International Implications of the Space Race. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964.
Ezell, Edward Clinton and Linda Neuman. The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. NASA SP-4209. Washington, 1978.
Faget, Maxime A., and Mathews, Charles W. “Manned Lunar Landing.” Aerospace Engineering 21 (January 1962) : 50.
Goddard, Esther C., and Pendray, G. Edward, eds. The Papers of Robert H. Goddard. 3 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
Grimwood, James M. Project Mercury: A Chronology. NASA SP-4001. Washington, 1963.
——————and Hacker, Barton C., with Vorzimmer, Peter J. Project Gemini Technology and Operations: A Chronology. NASA SP-4002. Washington, 1969.
Grissom, Virgil “Gus.” Gemini: A Personal Account of Man’s Venture into Space. Edited by Jacob Hay. New York: Macmillan, 1968.
Guirand, Felix, ed. New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology. Translated by Richard Aldington and Delano Ames. New York: Hamlyn Publishing Group, 1968.
Hacker, Barton C., and Grimwood, James M. On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA SP-4203. Washington, 1977.
Hall, R. Cargill. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. NASA SP-4210. Washington, 1977.
———. Project Ranger: A Chronology. JPL/HR-2. Washington: NASA, 1971.
[Harris, Gordon L.] The Kennedy Space Center Story. Kennedy Space Center, Fla., January 1969.
Hartman, Edwin P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940—1965. NASA SP-4302. Washington, 1970.
Holley, I. B., Jr. “The Evolution of Operations Research and Its Impact on the Military Establishment; the Air Force Experience.” In Monte D. Wright and Lawrence J. Paszek, eds., Science, Technology, and Warfare. Proceedings of Third Military History Symposium, U.S. Air Force Academy, 8—9 May 1969. Washington [1971].
Holmes, Jay. America on the Moon: The Enterprise of the Sixties. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1962.
Hornby, Harold. “Return Launch and Reentry Vehicle.” In C. T. Leondes and R. W. Vance, eds., Lunar Mission and Exploration, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1964.
Laufer, Berthold. The Prehistory of Aviation. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1928.
Lay, Beirne, Jr. Earth-Bound Astronauts: The Builders of Apollo-Saturn. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971.
Lebedev, L.; Lyk’yanov, B.; and Romanov, A. Sons of the Blue Planet. Dr. K. S. Kothekar, ed.; translated by Mrs. Frema Pande. NASA TT F-728. Moscow, 1971. New Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co., 1973.
Lehner, Ernst and Johanna. Lore and Lure of Outer Space. New York: Tudor, 1964.
Logsdon, John M. The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970.
Lovell, Bernard. The Story of Jodrell Bank. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.
Low, George M. “The Spaceships.” In Edgar M. Cortright, ed., Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. NASA SP-350. Washington., 1975.
Medaris, John B. Countdown for Decision. New York: Putnam, 1960.
Morse, Mary Louise, and Bays, Jean Kernahan. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, vol. 2, November 8, 1962—September 30, 1964. NASA SP-4009. Washington, 1973.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Analysis of Apollo 8 Photography and Visual Observations. NASA SP-201. Washington, 1969.
———. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1963: Chronology on Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4004. Washington, 1964. Also volumes for 1964 through 1969 and for 1972. NASA SP-4006 through 4008, 4010, 4014, and 4017. Washington, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970. and 1974.
———. Gemini Summary Conference. NASA SP-138. Washington, 1967.
———. Mercury Project Summary, Including Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital Flight, May 15 and 16, 1963. SP-45. October 1963.
———. Mission Report: Apollo 9. NASA Fact Sheet MR-3. 1969.
———. NASA Astronauts. NASA EP-34. October 1967.
———. Proceedings of a Conference on Results of the First U.S. Manned Suborbital Space Flight, June 6, 1961. 1961.
———. Proceedings of the Apollo Unified S-Band Technical Conference, Held at Goddard Space Flight Center, July 14—15, 1965. NASA SP-87. 1965.
———. Proceedings of the NASA-University Conference on the Science and Technology of Space Exploration. Held in Chicago, 13 Nov. 1962. 2 vols. NASA SP-11. 1962.
———. Results of the First United States Manned Orbital Space Flight, February 20, 1962. 1962.
———. Results of the Second United States Manned Orbital Space Flight, May 24, 1962. NASA SP-6. 1962.
———. Results of the Second U.S. Manned Suborbital Space Flight, July 21, 1961. 1961.
———. Results of the Third United States Manned Orbital Space Flight, October 3, 1962. NASA SP-12. 1962.
———. Surveyor: Program Results. NASA SP-184. 1969.
North American Rockwell Corp. A First Look. Los Angeles, September 1967.
President’s Science Advisory Committee. The Space Program in the Post-Apollo Period: A Report of the President’s Science Advisory Committee. Washington: The White House, February 1967.
Rosenthal, Alfred. Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA SP-4301. Washington, 1968.
Rosholt, Robert L. An Administrative History of NASA, 1958—1963. NASA SP-4101. Washington, 1966.
Rynin, Nikolai A. Interplanetary Flight and Communications. 3 vols., 9 nos. Translation of Mezhplanetye soobscheniya, Leningrad, 1928—1932. NASA TT F-640 through TT F-648. Washington, 1970—1971.
Sherrod, Robert. “Men for the Moon.” In Edgar M. Cortright, ed., Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. NASA SP-350. Washington, 1975.
Swenson, Loyd S., Jr.; Grimwood, James M.; and Alexander, Charles C. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury. NASA SP-4201. Washington, 1966.
Wiener, Norbert. Cybernetics. New York: John Wiley, 1948.