1 Kings

by John Monson

Arad Temple from the monarchy period

Kim Walton

Introduction

Geographical Setting

Throughout the course of ancient Near Eastern history the land of the Bible served as a bridge between Mesopotamia in the north and Egypt in the south. This book documents the first time that a local kingdom was able to exert its power beyond the traditional confines of the land up to the borders of Egypt and Mesopotamia. David and Solomon created a political hegemony that included the entire Levant (Phoenicia, Aram, Israel, Philistia, Ammon, Moab, Edom), and perhaps even Egypt.1 The height of Israel’s fortune, therefore, represents an anomaly in the history of the ancient Near East. When considered in broad geographical and historical perspective, the Israelite kingdoms are not to be compared to the “might that was Assyria” or the “greatness that was Babylon.”2 The frequent regional conflicts and military campaigns described in 1 Kings are the result of ascendant nationalism—in contrast to the imperial priorities of distant empires—together with local competition for trade and resources.

Israel Under David and Solomon

The geographical diversity of the land of the Bible is also important for understanding the events recorded in 1 Kings. Differences between “northerners” and “southerners” were every bit as noticeable in ancient Israel as they are in the United States today. The southern tribe of Judah was largely confined to the central hill country and was bordered by desert regions to the south and the east. The northern tribes were spread across diverse fertile regions such as Galilee and Samaria that were open to foreign invasion and cultural influence.

Given the geographical settings of the northern and southern tribes, it is not at all surprising that Israel split into northern and southern kingdoms soon after Solomon’s death. It was a return to the natural state of affairs. Judah maintained the stable, more insular Davidic dynasty whereas Israel, her more prosperous neighbor to the north, suffered dynastic intrigue, pagan religion, and premature exile. Understood in geographical context, the historical record of 1 Kings is a logical series of geopolitical developments through which the author illustrates the covenant faith of Israel or the lack thereof.

An appreciation for allusions to biblical geography and surrounding regions in the book of 1 Kings can also help to enliven and clarify the text and its message. Solomon entertains the Queen of Sheba (10:1–13). Hiram of Phoenicia supplies artisans and raw materials for Solomon’s building projects (5:13–18), and the Aramean kings wage war on the strategic border zones of the Transjordanian heights (chs. 20; 22). Diverse geographical settings, like the sets in a drama, are also noted in the text. At the beginning of his reign Solomon ascends to a “high place” (3:4) from which he can see the entire region (probably Nebi Samwil of today). The entire populace of Jerusalem hears the trumpets of Adonijah resonating through the city (1:41). Elijah entreats Yahweh to rout Baal at a location from which storm clouds typically came into view (ch. 18). These and numerous other stories in 1 Kings come to life through the colorful geographical settings in which they take place.3

View of the territory of Benjamin to the west from Nebi Samwil

David Bivin/www.LifeintheHolyLand.com

Historical Setting

The historical setting of 1 Kings can be understood either as the time of the book’s composition or as the same era as the final events described in the book. Its composition, along with 2 Kings, is likely late in the Judean monarchy (the late 600s B.C.), when the northern kingdom had gone into exile and a similar devastation of the Davidic dynasty seemed unavoidable. The author traces the monarchy’s history through a combination of original accounts and his own moral lessons. However, the actual events recounted in 1 Kings are known to have transpired between 1000 and 850 B.C. This can be known from the good number of extrabiblical texts and archaeological finds that corroborate the biblical record.4 This is the most appropriate timeframe for understanding the history recorded in 1 Kings.

The book is set in an age of nationalism that began when the Egyptian empire lost control of the Levant in approximately 1200 B.C. Israel was one of many emerging nations that were growing into full-blown kingdoms at this time. Foremost among Israel’s challengers at this time were the Philistine immigrants from the Aegean, who, like every people in the region, were vying for control of trade routes, natural resources, and places to expand their regions of settlement. David accomplished in Israel what the earlier confederation of tribes and the leadership of Saul could not. By 1000 B.C. he subdued the Philistines and expanded the Israelite monarchy well beyond the highlands that had demarcated its territory for several centuries.

The following two centuries can be subdivided into three broad historical periods, each with its own subdivisions. The era of David and Solomon is commonly known as the “united monarchy.” This period, which lasted from 1000 to 931 B.C., was a time in which Israel became the dominant nation in the ancient Near East (1 Kings 1–11). David’s successful military campaigns extended his control over neighboring and distant lands while Solomon’s administration capitalized on Israel’s strength to bring vast wealth and cultural resources into the kingdom. Israel became a mini-empire that conformed to the conventional Near Eastern model, complete with alliances, cosmopolitan influences, and fortified administrative centers with palaces and military garrisons. With its success, Israel also faced the temptation to abandon its traditional institutions, particularly after the schism between the northern and southern tribes.

The second era recorded in 1 Kings lasted from approximately 931 B.C. until 880 B.C. (1 Kings 12–16). This first part of the period known as the “divided kingdom” began when the northern Israelites failed to ratify an extension of Judahite leadership over the tribes of Israel after the death of Solomon. As a result, two less powerful Israelite kingdoms fought each other and their neighbors for supremacy in the region. Both suffered crushing defeats when Pharaoh Shishak of Egypt made a lightning raid through the region. Judah (the southern Israelite kingdom) remained weak while Israel (the northern Israelite kingdom) witnessed dynastic rivalries and accompanying changes in administration and capital cities.

Both Israel and Judah tried to outmaneuver each other by forging temporary alliances with neighboring kingdoms, most notably Aram. Wary of losing influence to Judah and its Jerusalem temple, Jeroboam established new religious shrines at Dan and Bethel, a clear violation of the biblical covenant (12:26–33). This strategy only served to deepen the distrust between the two kingdoms and weaken them in advance of Pharaoh Shishak’s invasion of 927 B.C. The tension escalated into a fifty-year war for control of Bethel and the strategic region of Benjamin that lay sandwiched between the two rivals.

Sargon II

Kim Walton, courtesy of the Oriental Institute Museum

The third period represented in 1 Kings encompassed the years 880 to 841 B.C. (1 Kings 17–22). Israel and Judah stopped fighting and instead forged an alliance that enabled each to regain its elevated status among the kingdoms of the region. In Judah Jehoshaphat clung to the Davidic ideal of kingship while extending his borders into Philistia to the west and the Negev and Edom to the south. In Israel Ahab married Jezebel of Phoenicia, thereby gaining the upper hand over his archrival Aram, against whom he campaigned tirelessly (1 Kings 15–16; 22). Hence Ahab is identified as the most powerful member of a united coalition that fought Assyria in 853 B.C.

The annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III record that Ahab contributed 2,000 chariots and 10,000 foot soldiers, far more than any other king in the coalition.5 This text demonstrates the success of Ahab’s military and diplomatic strategy and its accompanying temptations. Ahab’s marriage and his embrace of Canaanite/Phoenician culture and religion brought him wealth and power, but they also set him on a collision course with Yahweh and his prophet Elijah.

The importance of this historical information for the study of 1 Kings is that it affords an appreciation for the serious challenges and temptations that each monarch faced, depending on the balance of power in the region. This information also provides insight into the prophetic responses to each king and the biblical author’s admonition to avoid the nation’s past mistakes. In many respects 1 Kings is an extended object lesson that showcases the often wayward hearts of the leaders and population of the Israelite monarchies as they sought to succeed in the world without sacrificing their core identity.

The ebb and flow of Israel’s and Judah’s fortunes continues into 2 Kings, which spans the period from 850 B.C. to 586 B.C.6 Following Ahab’s reign and the annihilation of his dynasty, Israel once again descended into chaos. A devastating attack by Shalmaneser III of Assyria brought the kingdom to its knees. Aram recovered more quickly and was able to dominate the region until 806 B.C., at which time yet another Assyrian invasion destroyed Aram/Damascus but spared Israel. These events ushered in a golden era for Israel and Judah during which Jeroboam II of Israel and Uzziah of Judah surpassed the achievements of Ahab and Jehoshaphat.

The heyday ended in 732 B.C. when the age of nationalism came to a tumultuous end and imperial powers returned, this time in the form of a new and powerful Assyrian military invasion. A series of attacks beginning with Tiglath-pileser III and ending with Sargon II led to the annihilation of the capital city Samaria and the captivity of Israel in 722 B.C. (2 Kings 15–17). Judah and its capital Jerusalem survived for another century, only to meet the same fate at the hands of the Babylonians in 586 B.C. It is from the vantage point of these latter events that the author of 1 and 2 Kings assembled a selection of written sources to document the rise and fall of the Israelite monarchies. This helps to explain the urgent nature of his homilies and his carefully crafted account of what happens when human aspirations run contrary to God’s will.

Cultural and Religious Setting

Since its earliest days as a nation, Israel maintained a paradoxical link to its ancient Near Eastern environment. In language and culture it was in many ways virtually indistinguishable from surrounding nations. But it was also in some respects innovative and distinct, especially in its worldview and religious practices.8 This tension is noted throughout the Bible and is also expressed in the archaeological record.

The Canaanite high god, El

Kim Walton, courtesy of the Oriental Institue Museum

Daily life in the ancient Near East and biblical Israel is better understood and more easily accessible today than at any other time since the biblical period itself, thanks to widespread excavation and scientific advances. As noted above, the events of 1 Kings transpired between 1000 and 841 B.C. Archaeologists call the culture of this period “Iron Age II.” As in the centuries prior to 1000 B.C., the majority of people dwelt in small stone houses within villages, living off the land and tending to their fields and livestock.9

With the era of David and Solomon came several changes. The needs of the state began to encroach upon the concerns of the tribe.10 This is reflected in the increased size and number of cities as well as in a new level of interaction with surrounding cultures. Distinctive architectural forms such as palaces, fortified cities with distinctive gateways, and ornate masonry found their way from Phoenicia to the largest cities in Judah and Israel. Administrative and military activity increased significantly as did the level of prosperity.11

Today, after 150 years of archaeological inquiry, it is possible to speak with some confidence about the nature of housing, agriculture, medicine, burial, administration, writing, travel, war, and art in ancient Israel.12 Such material provides a perspective on ancient Israel that is outside of the biblical text, but in many ways it sheds light on the intent of the biblical authors. So much material is known today that one could write an entire archaeological commentary on this period alone.13

The religious life of Israel during the monarchy is described in 1 Kings both in negative and positive terms. The author issues formulaic descriptions of those who do “what is right in the eyes [of the LORD]” (e.g., 11:38) as opposed to individuals who do “evil in the eyes of the LORD” (e.g., 16:30). Such phrases are associated in the text with specific cultural and religious deeds. The purpose of these expressions and the interpretation of their consequences are clarified when they are set against the backdrop of the ancient Near East as seen through excavated artifacts and through ancient texts.14

From the moment of their arrival in Canaan, the Israelite tribes faced the temptation of accommodation to local culture and religious practices.15 Unlike their Israelite neighbors, the local Canaanites worshiped multiple gods that reflected humanity and its vices. Exposure to local religious practices was almost unavoidable. These included, among others, cultic prostitution, child sacrifice, and high places dedicated to the patriarchal deity El and Asherah, his consort.16 Mutual cultural influence was stronger after David incorporated adjacent kingdoms and populations into Israel’s empire. One of the central themes of 1 Kings is the response of Israel’s people and its leaders to these temptations.

The construction of Solomon’s temple provided a distinct place of worship and a strengthening of religious institutions that helped to set the Israelites apart from the pagan religions of the day. Its planning and construction occupy four chapters of 1 Kings. Yet the entire religious complex in Jerusalem was inspired by pagan architecture and iconography. The inseparable triad of Yahweh, king, and Zion was rooted in the ideology of local culture in which there existed a symbiotic relationship between patron deity and king as exemplified in the adjacent palace and temple structures.17 Selective borrowing was acceptable, but kings such as Jeroboam I and Ahab carried the model too far by embracing not only architecture and art but also foreign deities and their prophets, not to mention the lowest of unethical practices in society and the court.

Such contextual information helps the reader to appreciate and relate to the religious and domestic life of the kings and community described 1 Kings. It also helps to visualize the royal and religious activities in Jerusalem and Samaria. Through such information the reader is better equipped to identify the ways in which Israel did or did not live up to its calling to be God’s people in the land of promise. It becomes clear that the slide toward apostasy loomed ever present on the horizon, and even the noblest kings of Israel and Judah were unable to steer their kingdoms clear of judgment and exile.

Literary Setting

The book of 1 Kings is but one portion of a much larger work that encompasses the history of Israel from the entrance into the land (Josh. 1) through the Babylonian exile (2 Kings 25).18 This large body of literature is commonly known as the “Deuteronomistic History” because it evaluates the nation of Israel and its kings by the religious and ethical standards laid out in the book of Deuteronomy. The author of this work, like the scribes of most ancient Near Eastern kingdoms, has available to him the copious records of key events in the life of the court and the history of the state. He refers to a wide range of sources that can be grouped into three main categories: annals and chronicles, court histories, and prophetic stories.

Royal inscription of Sargon II’s dedication of Dur-Sharrukin

Kim Walton, courtesy of the Oriental Institute Museum

Annals and chronicles. Royal archives from Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Mari, Emar, and other kingdoms contained annals of military events, king lists and chronicles, as well as a variety of royal inscriptions.19 The Babylonian Chronicle and the Assyrian Eponym List are good examples of the detailed records kept in state archives in the second and first millennia B.C.20 Frequent allusions to such documents are found in 1 Kings, so there can be no doubt that the court in Jerusalem contained an archive similar to those of surrounding nations. The text refers to sources such as “the book of the annals of the kings of Israel” (1 Kings 14:19) and “the book of the annals of the kings of Judah” (14:29). Although the original documents are no longer extant, the broad narrative units of 1 Kings have been derived from such court records.

Royal inscription describing repairs on the temple of the moon god Sin at Ur by Nabonidus. Includes a prayer for his son, Belshazzar.

Marie-Lan Nguyen/Wikimedia Commons, courtesy of the British Museum

First Kings quotes these primary sources selectively within a carefully crafted frame. Each king is introduced with basic information such as name, relative date, mother’s name, and place of residence before receiving a positive or negative evaluation. This is followed by a brief history of events and a concluding reference to source material, successor, and notable accomplishments.21 The annals would seem to have much in common with those of other ancient kingdoms, but the great historical work into which they are crafted has few, if any, parallels in the ancient Near East.

Court histories and other literary works. Several larger works are also included in 1 Kings. Chapters 2–11 describe Solomon’s reign, concluding with a reference to “the book of the acts of Solomon” (11:41). This composition appears to have been an account of Solomon’s wisdom in addition to various administrative achievements, records of revenue, and a list of court officials. This document may also have included a report on the construction and dedication Solomon’s temple (5:15–9:25). The biblical “building account” itself bears many similarities to the record of building construction in ancient Mesopotamia and may belong to a literary form that spans the entire ancient Near East.22

A second court history in 1 Kings is the so-called “Succession Narrative.” First Kings 1–2 contain the conclusion of David’s reign and the installation of Solomon. The content and literary patterns of these episodes seem to resonate with 2 Samuel 9–20.23 In addition to these known sources, there may be parts of other unnamed literary works represented in the book of 1 Kings, such as the rejection of Rehoboam (12:1–24) and the reign of Jeroboam 1 (12:25–14:20).

Prophetic stories. Separate accounts of named and unnamed prophets are a third category of literature used in 1 Kings.24 Although they range in style and genre, these stories contain clear historical detail and are woven into the book’s historical narrative in such a manner that they cannot be discounted as legends or myths. These biographical prophetic narratives do not compare with the accounts of ancient Near Eastern prophets that are restricted to texts in which omens and dreams are interpreted for advising the king on wars and matters of state.