Jeroboam’s Paradigm Shift and Its Consequences (12:25–14:20)

Jeroboam fortified Shechem … and built up Peniel (12:25). Traces of Jeroboam’s building activities at Shechem have been unearthed, though they are unimpressive when compared to the massive walls, gates, and public buildings of the second millennium Middle Bronze Age city. Pharaoh Shishak was likely responsible for the destruction of Jeroboam’s city in 927 B.C. (Stratum X), but a larger building phase began shortly thereafter (Stratum IX).

Mound of Peniel with Jabbok River in foreground

Todd Bolen/www.BiblePlaces.com

Jeroboam’s royal initiatives at other strategic centers are attested in a beautiful seal that bears his name. Found at Megiddo in the Jezreel Valley, it bears the name of “Shema, servant of Jeroboam.” Recent analysis of the seal’s original context in the gate of Megiddo indicates that it may well have belonged to this tenth-century king.237 Peniel, identified with Tell edh-Dhahab, lay near the the mouth of the Jabbok canyon in Transjordan, not far from the broad Jordan Valley. Its selection as an alternate capital city most likely reflects Jeroboam’s need for a place of retreat should his fledgling kingdom suffer invasion. His attention to the site may also be explained by his desire to forge close ties with the Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben in the mountains of Gilead. It was in any case a sufficiently important city to be included in the list of towns destroyed by Pharaoh Shishak shortly after Solomon’s death.238

Seal of “Shema servant of Jeroboam”

Z. Radovan/www.BibleLandPictures.com

Golden calves (12:28). Ancient Near Eastern religious tradition reinforced the power and virility of key deities through association with the bull and calf. In the Canaanite tradition, for example, both the patron god El and the warrior god of fertility, Baal, were often referred to as “bull” or “calf.” The image is used repeatedly in the Ugaritic myths as well.239 It is important to note that these creatures did not represent the gods themselves but only their attributes. Whether they were cast in metal or incorporated into architecture or incense stands, the bovines were the pedestal or footstool on which the deity stood.

Gold-covered bull figurine from Byblos

Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, courtesy of the Louvre

This iconography and the principles that underlie it are closely related to the ornate thrones of earthly kings.240 In seeking to replace traditional worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem (as exhibited, e.g., in the Psalms of Ascent), Jeroboam initiated a syncretistic pattern that culminated in national Baal worship under the reign of Ahab and Jezebel. Bronze or composite bull or calf figurines have been found in several archaeological excavations (e.g., Mount Gilboa, Hazor, and Ashkelon; also a ceramic one at Shiloh), but these are only three to seven inches long.

Storm god Hadad mounted on a bull

Rama/Wikimedia Commons, courtesy of the Louvre

Bethel … Dan (12:29). Jeroboam chose these locations based on preexisting traditions and geopolitical considerations. Both places were seen to have experienced a theophany. Bethel was the site of Jacob’s dream and a link to Israel’s pre-Davidic religious traditions. It was also located at a defensible position on the northern edge of Benjamin’s territory. From this location Jeroboam could regulate the flow of traffic into Judah, and the proximity to Jerusalem made it a viable northern alternative Solomon’s temple.

Division of the Kingdom

Jeroboam built shrines on high places and appointed priests (12:31). The Israelite shrine atop Mount Ebal is a good example of a high place even though it is considerably earlier than the shrines of Jeroboam.241 Such complexes included an elevated place of sacrifice and an open space for the gathering of people and animals.242 The appointment of priests and the multiplication of high places were in keeping with the religious climate of the Canaanite and Israelite practices in the days of the judges. Akhenaten’s el-Amarna revolution is a prominent Near Eastern example of a change in priesthood and ritual center.243 Jeroboam’s religious reform was less radical and reflected a syncretistic adaptation, not a new religion.

So he instituted the festival for the Israelites (12:33). It is unclear whether Jeroboam’s new festival coincided with the Feast of Tabernacles or the New Year Festival practiced in Jerusalem. A pilgrimage feast such as the New Year Festival would be a logical choice as it would approximate and displace the Jerusalem experience. Such festivals are well documented elsewhere in the Semitic world at places such as the rich Syrian city of Emar. The Emar texts describe a procession and reinstallation of the deity in the temple.244

Human bones will be burned on you (13:2). Although there is debate as to whether the Israelites ever practiced human sacrifice, it did occur in the Canaanite and Phoenician cultures. The so-called “Tophet” at Carthage is a prime example.245 An Egyptian relief of an assault on a Canaanite town may include a depiction of human sacrifice. The defenders hold incense stands, raise their hands, and cast individuals out of a fortified tower.246

Come home with me and have something to eat, and I will give you a gift (13:7). Middle Eastern hospitality was as central in biblical times as it is today. The sharing of a meal signified a bond of friendship that was not easily broken.247 The host typically shared his finest produce, as can be seen in Mesopotamian banquet scenes from Ur and Assyria.248 Gifts were often exchanged at such gatherings. Given this cultural setting, the prophet’s rejection of hospitality is jarring and signifies overt hostility (cf. 2:7).

Saddle the donkey for me (13:13). Donkeys were the most common pack animal in antiquity. Horses were reserved for military use and for pulling large carts or chariots.249

Oak tree (13:14). The terebinth (pistacia atlantica) is the oak tree of the Old Testament text. Often noted for providing excellent shade, it could grow to a height of thirty feet.250 Many temples had in their courtyards sacred groves with oak trees. Archaeologists have discovered buried acorns and tree residue in pits at a number of temple courtyards, including Tell ed-Dabaʾ in the Nile Delta and Hazor in northern Israel.251

Given him over to the lion (13:26). In the many treaties from the ancient Near East, one of the curses found is, “May Bethel and Anath-Bethel deliver you to a man-eating lion.”252 This was a punishment for breaking an oath. So in this passage, the prophet’s encounter with a lion is interpreted as God’s punishment for oath breaking.

Ivory carving of lion attacking Nubian

Michael Greenhalgh/ArtServe, courtesy of the British Museum

Then he laid the body in his own tomb (13:30). This act of respect ensured the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife (see 11:5; 16:4; 21:13).