Unless otherwise indicated, all interviews are with the author.
The Patriotic Betrayal (PB) Web site can be found at patrioticbetrayal.com.
I consulted these archives over a period of several years, and some have since
been reorganized. I note this in the list below. In my notes, I have given as full
information as possible to enable researchers to locate the documents.
CFR |
Council on Foreign Relations Records, 1918–2011, Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, Princeton, N.J. |
Elliott |
William Y. Elliott papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif. |
FDR |
Franklin Delano Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y. |
Flynn |
Father Vincent J. Flynn Presidential Records, 1923–56, Series 2: Organizations and Associations, University of St. Thomas Archives and Manuscript Collections, St. Paul, Minn. |
FRUS |
Foreign Relations of the United States. Official documents of major foreign policy decisions, declassified and edited by the U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office). Volumes are also available at http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments. |
Fulbright |
Executive Session of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, hearings, vols. 1 and 2, March 6 and 16, 1967, chaired by J. William Fulbright. Declassified February 11, 1998, after a request from former NSA president William Welsh, who supplied the record to the author. For further information, contact the Office of the Historian. U.S. Senate. |
H/NSA |
United States National Students Association International Commission Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, Palo Alto, Calif. |
IISH ISC |
International Student Conference Archives, Institute of International Social History, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. |
JFK |
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, Mass. |
Kotschnig |
Walter Maria Kotschnig Papers, Special Collections, State University of New York, Albany. These papers have been reorganized since I consulted them. |
LBJ |
Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, Austin, Tex. |
Blumenau |
Ralph Blumenau unpublished diary |
FOIA (CIA) |
Freedom of Information Act Files, Central Intelligence Agency |
FOIA (FBI) |
Freedom of Information Act Files, Federal Bureau of Investigation |
FOIA (State) |
Freedom of Information Act Files, U.S. Department of State |
Murray letters |
Letters of the Rev. John Courtney Murray, S.J, courtesy of Murray’s biographer Joseph Komonchak |
Ansara Files |
Michael Ansara files on Ramparts investigation |
Paget Files |
NSA pamphlets, newspapers, and reports sent to me by former NSA officials |
Welsh Files |
NSA material from William Welsh |
1. Joseph Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend’s Memoir (New York: Doubleday, 1964).
2. Information on the history of the American Student Union can be found at “Student Activism in the 1930s,” http://newdeal.feri.org/students/index.htm. See especially “The Student Movement of the 1930s: Joseph P. Lash Interview,” at http://newdeal.feri.org/students/lash.htm#26.
3. “At FDR’s Summer Home Students Prepare to be Young Leaders,” PM’s Weekly, July 27, 1941. This article contains six pages of photos from the Campobello session by Mary Morris, of the PM staff.
4. “By 1949, she would (never again) compromise [with communists] (even on words),” Joseph Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone (New York: Norton, 1972), 106.
5. Nelson Lichtenstein, Walter Reuther: The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 155.
6. Staff member Trude Pratt, who served on the ISS board and was close to Eleanor Roosevelt, referred to them this way. See FDR (Lash), Box 10, January 12, 1943, Lash letter to Lou Harris, for Pratt’s views on the U.S. Committee.
7. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 221.
8. Ibid., 232.
9. State Department officials tended to identify Lash and Yard as communists because of their prominence in the American Student Union. This confusion lasted into the postwar period, when the noncommunist United States Students Assembly was misidentified in a State Department memo as the American Student Assembly led by Molly Yard, and “almost certainly a CP front” (NARA RG 59, 250, June 18, 1946, “Miss Alice Horton and the coming International Students Conference in Prague,” Memo from Harry Pierson, Act. Asst. Cf., Division of International Exchange of Persons, to Oliver J. Caldwell in his division).
10. “Education: To Act with Restraint,” Time, September 23, 1940.
11. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 221.
12. See FDR, Lash Papers, Box 26, ISS pamphlet.
13. See Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 17), September 4, 1941, Lash report on Student Leadership Institute.
14. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 244.
15. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” July 10, 1941.
16. See Louis Fischer essay in The God That Failed, ed. Richard Crossman (New York: Harper, 1949), 196–228.
17. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 226.
18. Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), Camp-ISS-Bello Newsletter, July–August, 1941.
19. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 245–46.
20. Ibid., 246.
21. Ibid., 245.
22. Ibid., 246.
23. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1949). See Peter Beinart, “An Argument for a New Liberalism,” New Republic, December 2, 2004. Beinart revived the phrase “fighting faith” and argued for the parallels between liberal anticommunism and attitudes toward Islam after September 11, 2001.
24. “Education: Camp-ISS-Bello Vistas,” Time, August 18, 1941. PM’s Weekly also featured the concept of fighting faith; see “At FDR’s Summer Home Students Prepare to be Young Leaders.”
25. The Commission to Study the Organization of Peace (CSOP) led the planning for the United Nations. ISS members of CSOP included Clyde Eagleton, Frank Graham, William Allan Nielson, James T. Shotwell (Chair), George Shuster, Payson Wild, and Arnold Wolfers. For a complete list of ISS U.S. Committee members, see the PB Web site.
26. Kotschnig, Box 4, has extensive documentation detailing wartime relations with the Division of Cultural Relations, U.S. Department of State.
27. Kotschnig, Box 2, August 7, 1942, Kotschnig to Hans Kohn.
28. Delegate information on Luzzatto is from Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), International Assembly Report on Delegates and Observers; Information on Bruno Luzzatto also supplied by the Luzzatto family. Lash’s views are expressed in Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), International Student Service, Minutes of the Executive Committee Meeting, September 23, 1942, p. 4. Photographs of conference members can be found at International Student Assembly, September 1942, Office of War information photos, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., available at www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004667424.
29. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” September 2, 1942.
30. “President Franklin D. Roosevelt Broadcast to International Student Assembly,” September 3, 1942, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16300. On FDR’s intentions, see Lash, Eleanor: The Years Alone, 34.
31. H/NSA, Box 280, Description of Louis Harris and the International Student Assembly, September 2–5, 1942. See in the same box the “Declaration of the International Student Assembly,” 1942.
32. Delegates pictured conducting short-wave broadcasts can be accessed at www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004667433/. See also pictures taken during the International Student Assembly at www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004667424. Information on Louise Morley in Kotschnig, Box 7 (Folder ISS): ISS bulletin, n.d., reported Morley departed for London in November 14, 1942.
33. William Allan Neilson, ed., Proceedings of the International Student Assembly, Held at the American University, Washington, D.C., 2–5 September 1942 (London: Oxford University Press, 1944). See also Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), September 20, 1942, John Coleman to ISS General Secretary Andre de Blonay (Geneva), objecting to not locating the international assembly in Geneva.
34. Neilson, Proceedings.
35. Kotschnig, Boxes 2 and 4, contain extensive detail on the conflict within the U.S. ISS Committee. See, for example, Box 4 (Folder 17), several letters in draft by Clyde Eagleton and Walter Kotschnig explaining to ISS Geneva headquarters what had happened over the previous two years within the U.S. Committee. In Box 2 (Folder 25), Kotschnig describes cutting loose from soapbox orators. For a different view on the International Student Assembly, and its aftermath, see Margie Campbell, National Student Director, Young Communist League, “Two Obituaries and a Sermon,” in the YCL magazine Weekly Review, March 16, 1943.
36. Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), n.d., Eagleton statement.
37. FDR: Joseph Lash Papers, Box 7 (Louis Harris); see especially November 15, 1942, Harris to Lash re the conflict, and February 11, 1943, Harris to Lash re developments after the split.
38. See Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), December 7, 1942, exchange between ISS committee members Alfred E. Cohn, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, and William Neilson, Smith College president.
39. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, 221. For further information on donors, see Kotschnig, Box 4, and the PB Web site.
40. Mary Lou Rogers Munts, “Origins of the United States Student Assembly (1943–1947),” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 34–39. This edited volume was produced by the USNSA Anthology Project Committee, consisting of former NSA officers and staff.
41. See Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 15), September 10, 1943, SSA incorporation papers.
42. Ibid. On February 27, 1943, Kotschnig wrote to the World Student Service Fund proclaiming the Student Service of America a legal continuation of the ISS in the United States.
43. See Kotschnig, Box 8 (Folder 4), February 25–26, 1944, for example, Minutes of the Meeting of the Committee on International Education and Cultural Relations, U.S. Department of State. These minutes contain discussions on postwar student exchange programs. Several formal and ad-hoc committees at the State Department were similarly engaged in discussion of postwar programs.
44. See the extensive materials on postwar student exchange programs in Kotschnig, Box 2, General Advisory Committee of the Cultural Relations Division, U.S. Department of State.
45. Kotschnig, Box 7 (SSA), April 23, 1943, SSA minutes.
46. NARA, RG 800.4089/7-1945, July 7, 1945, Cable to Sec/State from U.S. Ambassador Winant/London.
47. Material about the Conference of Southern Students and copy of March 16, 1980, interviews with Douglass Hunt and Jimmy Wallace, courtesy of Richard Cummings, author of The Pied Piper: Allard Lowenstein and the Liberal Dream (Boston: Grove, 1985).
48. Interview with Mollie Lieber West, Los Angeles, February 23, 2001. Lieber West spent several hours with me poring over photo albums of the WFDY founding. See also Joël Kotek, Students and the Cold War, trans. Ralph Blumenau (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996), esp. chap. 5, “The Creation of the World Federation of Democratic Youth,” 62–86.
1. See Quanta Cura (1864) and Divini Redemptoris (1937) at Papal Encyclicals Online, www.papalencyclicals.net.
2. John Courtney Murray, “Operation University,” America, April 13, 1946, 28–29.
3. Martin Marty in Donald Pelotte, John Courtney Murray: Theologian in Conflict (New York: Paulist Press, 1976), ix–x.
4. Murray, “Operation University.”
5. See NCWC, 91/6 (Social Action: Youth), May 14, 1947, Father Bermingham letter to Howard Carroll, NCWC General Secretary, re Cushing contribution in the summer of 1946.
6. See FOIA (FBI), 3/33, July 7, 1947, Jacobson’s views on including communist groups.
7. Interview with Mollie Lieber West, Los Angeles, February 23, 2001.
8. H/NSA, Box 36, Draft NSA history, January 25, 1946, American Preparatory Committee meeting, YWCA; telephone interview with Alice Horton Tibbetts, Madison, Wisc., December 11, 2000.
9. A list of the Prague Delegation can be found in Eugene G. Schwartz, ed., American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 103. On Proctor’s role in the Conference of Southern Students, see Charles Proctor, “A Great Vision of the Future,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 969.
10. NICC, Box 198 (Administrative), June 4, 1946, Jacobson to Wilmena (Billie) Rowland.
11. Ibid., March 22, 1946, Minutes.
12. NCWC, 77/10 (Orgs: Pax), August 1, 1947, Edward Kirchner memo on Pax Romana history.
13. Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 9), September 29, 1942, European Student Relief meeting in New York.
14. Ibid. (Folder 14), June 17, 1943, Robert C. Mackie (ISS) letter describing Kirchner’s role in raising relief funds.
15. Telephone interview with Alice Horton. Delegate selection ranged from campus-wide elections to self-identification. See Schwartz, American Students Organize, for memoirs of Prague 25 participants and others involved during this period.
16. Father John Courtney Murray, letter to his superior, Francis A. McQuade, S.J., May 8, 1946; Murray’s biographer Joseph A. Komonchak supplied me with a typed copy of Murray’s letter on April 10, 1999.
17. Briefing for Catholic educators on postwar plans, Fordham University, October 26, 1945, reported in “Catholic Intellectual Solidarity,” America, November 10, 1945, 143.
18. Detail on Catholic students is in Martin M. McLaughlin, “On a Threshold,” America, June 29, 1946, 263. See also H/NSA, Box 318 (JCSA), Operation University reports.
19. Pictures of both Eislers before HUAC on February 6, 1947, in Life, February 17, 1947, 99–100, available at http://oldlifemagazines.com/february-17-1947-life-magazine.html.
20. H/NSA, Box 318 (JSCA), Operation University reports.
21. Murray, “Operation University,” 34–35.
22. Quoted in Edward J. Kirchner, “Preparing the Catholic Delegation,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 77. An early version included the sentiment about fighting evil.
23. Murray letter to McQuade, May 8, 1946.
24. Obituary of Martin M. McLaughlin, Washington Post, November 29, 2007. McLaughlin’s obituary does not specifically cite his membership in the CIA but dates his U.S. government service from 1951 to 1973. My interviews with former NSA witting staff confirm his status, however. McLaughlin occasionally administered the security oath to NSA officers.
25. H/NSA, Box 36, n.d. [ca. 1955], Bill Ellis notes for NSA history.
26. The curriculum vitae in Henry W. Briefs’s thesis, #1221 (1954), in the Georgetown University Library indicates a three-year gap between 1943 and 1946. A Washington Post obituary dated April 27, 1999, identified the period as time spent serving in army intelligence.
27. Richard Cummings, interview with Jimmy Wallace, undated transcript courtesy of Richard Cummings.
28. Interview with Miriam Haskell Berlin, Cambridge, Mass., October 14, 1997.
29. McLaughlin had been a member of a Catholic Action cell at Notre Dame under the guidance of Father Louis Putz, who accompanied the Catholics to Europe in the summer of 1946. An obituary, “Rest in Peace: Martin McLaughlin (1918–2007),” describes McLaughlin as a member of one of the first Catholic Action groups as a graduate student of Father Putz. It is available at www.catholiclabor.org/NCL%20Inititiative/Feb%2008.pdf.
30. See Thomas Hughson, S.J., The Believer as Citizen: John Courtney Murray in a New Context (Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist, 1993).
31. “Prague Delegates Reach Decision on Much-Discussed Policy Reports,” Harvard Crimson, July 23, 1946.
32. See, e.g., James Loeb, “Progressive and Communists,” New Republic, May 13, 1946; see also articles in the May 20, May 27, and June 17, 1946 issues.
33. H/NSA, Box 318 (JCSA), January 31, 1947, Martin McLaughlin and Henry Briefs, eds., “Operation University,” 5; two delegates were identified as communist (9).
34. H/NSA, Box 127 (Int’l Team), December 1947, Martin McLaughlin application letter.
35. LBJ, E-transcript, David G. McComb, Interview with S. Douglass Cater, no. 1, April 29, 1969, 4–5.
36. “Cater Selected as Harvard Delegate to Prague Parley,” Harvard Crimson, May 25, 1946.
37. I was aware of the speculation in 1967. As I was conducting the research for this book, nonwitting sources continued to speculate about the origins of USNSA.
38. “Seven Prague Delegates Sail Early; Other Members to Follow in Week,” Harvard Crimson, July 19, 1946.
39. Interview with Miriam Haskell Berlin.
40. Douglass Cater made the same point in “New York Session of Delegation to Prague Created Orderly Program,” Harvard Crimson, October 7, 1946.
41. Martin McLaughlin, “Student Congress in Prague,” America, December 14, 1946, 291–93.
42. NICC, Box 198 (Admin), Minutes of May 3, 1946, discussion on Negro representation; for comments on Catholics, see also Minutes of November 8, 1946, and n.d., Bill Ellis and Joyce Roberts, “Report on the Prague Conference.”
43. Ibid., November 8, 1946, “Report on the Prague Conference.”
44. William Yandell Elliott Papers, Box 3, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University; Godfrey Briefs’s January 3, 1947, letter to Elliott refers to supplying him previously with information on the IUS to use as ammunition against Cater; Briefs, Henry’s brother, disparaged Cater as a “subaltern.”
45. Henry Briefs spoke for the American Catholics, as quoted in “New Student Body Declared Leftist,” New York Times, August 29, 1946.
46. Interview with Ralph Blumenau, London, July 2, 2003. Blumenau was a British delegate to the IUS.
47. NICC, Box 30, September 1946, Ellis to Mother and Dad.
48. NICC, Box 198 (Admin), November 8, 1946, Minutes.
49. Interview with Thomas Madden, Skokie, Ill., June 29–30, 2004.
50. Richard Helms, A Look over My Shoulder (New York: Random House, 2003), 348.
51. NARA, RG 59 250 (542), September 16, 1946, Steinhardt report to the secretary of state.
52. Interview with Bernard Lown, Newton, Mass., January 23, 2008. Douglass Cater also decried the “war is here” attitude; see “Cater Hits European ‘War Is Here’ Attitude, Calls for Student Exchange to Keep Peace,” Harvard Crimson, October 25, 1946.
53. McLaughlin received his Ph.D. in 1948 for his dissertation on the formation of U.S. National Student Association: “Political Processes in American National Student Organization,” University of Notre Dame, 1948.
54. NCWC, Box 84 (Organizations: Student), October 13, 1946, Minutes. See also H/NSA, Box 283 (JCSA), pamphlet “JCSA … What Is It?”
55. “JCSA … What Is It?” For information on Catholic cells, see Steven M. Avella, This Confident Church, 1940–1961 (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).
56. NCWC, 9/16 (Social Action: Youth), November 18, 1946, Bermingham to Stritch.
57. Ibid. Bermingham frequently invoked wartime intelligence experience to reassure wary priests; see Flynn, Box 13, August 7, 1946, Bermingham letter to Daniel A. Lord, S.J., St. Louis, editor, The Queen’s Work magazine.
58. “JCSA … What Is It?”
59. McLaughlin, “Student Congress in Prague,” 293.
60. William V. D’Antonio, American Catholics: Gender, Generation, and Commitment (Lanham, Md.: Alta Mira, 2001), 6.
61. See Patrick J. Hayes, A Catholic Brain Trust: The History of the Catholic Commission on Intellectual and Cultural Affairs: 1945–1965 (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2011).
62. See Philip Gleason, Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 240–44.
63. Norman Weyand, S.J., “Report on Operation University,” Jesuit Educational Journal (January 1948): 139.
64. Ruby Cooper, “Students Lay Plans for National Organization,” Daily Worker, January 1, 1947. Lee Marsh singled out the Young Peoples Socialist League, arch-enemies of American Youth for Democracy.
65. H/NSA, Box 318 (JCSA), January 31, 1947, McLaughlin and Briefs, eds., “Operation University.”
66. NICC, Box 198 (Admin), n.d., Ellis and Roberts, “Report on the Prague Conference.”
67. Cater outlined his views in a series of five articles in the Harvard Crimson, October 7, 9, 11, 17, and 21, 1946; quotation on majority backing is from the October 21 article; the need for international cooperation is from “December 28 Chicago Parley Will Plan Students Organization,” November 18, 1946.
68. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), December 2, 1946, Wilmer Kitchen, letter to Jonathan Silverstone at HIACOM re funding for Ellis travel. For information on New England regional organization, see “Twenty Colleges Invited Here for Meeting Monday,” Harvard Crimson, December 13, 1946.
69. “Board Will Take Applications for Chicago Meeting,” Harvard Crimson, December 6, 1946.
70. “PBH Convention Draws Delegates of Seven Schools,” Harvard Crimson, December 3, 1946, report on first, failed December 2 meeting. Report on second, successful meeting is “25 Delegates Make Plans in Meeting Here,” Harvard Crimson, December 21, 1946.
71. “Communism Is Charged, Flays Liberals’ Naivete,” Harvard Crimson, December 19, 1946.
72. Elliott Papers, Box 3, Godfrey Briefs, letter of January 3, 1947, to Elliott.
73. “Elliott’s Charges Scorned by Conference Delegate,” Harvard Crimson, December 20, 1946. Cater blamed Henry Briefs by name for giving Elliott biased information.
74. NCWC, Box 84 (Organizations: Students), September 9, 1947, Bermingham to Monsignor Carroll.
75. Martin M. McLaughlin, “Conference in Chicago,” America, March 29, 1947, 711–14. See also the essays in section 3: “The 1946 Chicago Student Conference,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 109–26.
76. FOIA (FBI), 8/33, September 30, 1947, Milwaukee, Wisc., August 30–September 7, 1947, Report on NSA congress, author’s name redacted.
77. Elliott Papers, Box 3, Godfrey Briefs, letter of January 3, 1947, to Elliot.
78. Samuel Cardinal Stritch Personal Papers, Box 2980, AAC “S,” 6–7, January 6, 1947, Charles J. Marhoefer, “Report on the Activities of JCSA,” Archdiocese of Chicago Archives and Records, Chicago, Ill.
79. Ibid.
80. Selig S. Harrison, “Parley Delegations Reconcile Differences,” Harvard Crimson, January 7, 1947.
81. Ruby Cooper, “Students Lay Plans for National Organization,” Daily Worker, January 1, 1947.
1. Material on these attitudes can be found in documents available at the Avalon Project of the Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/.
2. FOIA (FBI), 1/33. Chicago was designated the lead office; declassified documents contain hundreds of heavily redacted papers.
3. Ibid., January 22, 1947, FBI interview with William Y. Elliott.
4. Ibid., July 7, 1947, interviews with YMCA Student Division and YWCA Student Division officials, Student Federalists members, and numerous others.
5. Ibid. See, for example, the September 20, 1946, report from Legal Attaché from the American Embassy, London to Hoover.
6. NARA, RG 800.4089/11-1445, information on the World Youth Conference in London (November 1945), distributed to Navy Department, Washington, D.C.; Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, War Department; Reading Panel, Military Intelligence Service; and Frederick B. Lyon, Chief, Division of Foreign Correlation, Department of State, whose job included coordination of intelligence reports.
7. Louis Nemzer, State Department Biographic Register, 1946: 344. See also H/NSA, Box 283 (JCSA), November 28–30, 1947, meeting; Nemzer warned Catholics “not to underestimate the effect of WFDY, IUS, on world politics.”
8. George Kenneth Holland, State Department Biographic Register, 1946: 270.
9. For information on the student ships, see Department of State Bulletin 16, no. 2 (January 5–June 29, 1947): 392–417. Holland is quoted in Harry Hascall Moore, Survival or Suicide: A Summons to Old and Young to Build a United Peaceful World (New York: Harper, 1948), 100.
10. See Selig S. Harrison, “Parley Delegations Reconcile Differences,” Harvard Crimson, January 7, 1947, on Cater’s not running for president of the interim committee.
11. “Committee on International Affairs Participates in U.S. Student Union,” Harvard Crimson, November 7, 1946.
12. “Council Body Will Circulate Global Paper,” Harvard Crimson, February 6, 1947.
13. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48).
14. Kotschnig, Box 4 (Folder 15), October 22, 1945, Gideonse to Kotschnig.
15. Kotschnig, Box 4, Minutes of SSA meetings, October 29, 1945, and November 20, 1945. OSS members included Malcolm Davis, a Harvard educator and top executive of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Paris office), and Walter C. Langsam, historian and president of Staten Island College.
16. Ibid., March 19, 1946, SSA Minutes.
17. Ibid.
18. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), April 11, 1947, WSSF memo on board expansion.
19. “University to Run Salzburg Class,” Harvard Crimson, February 21, 1947.
20. Ibid.
21. Wilmer J. Kitchen had been the secretary of the Student Christian Movement in New England. Information on this movement and Kitchen’s role can be found at Manuscripts and Archives, Divinity School Library, Yale University, Record Group 57.
22. For details on the Salzburg Seminar, and other projects, see the PB Web site.
23. A list of board members is at the PB Web site.
24. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), December 2, 1946, Wilmer Kitchen, letter to Jonathan Silverstone at HIACOM.
25. NARA, RG 59 800. 4089/6-647, June 6, 1947. Assistant Secretary William Benton disclosed that the request for the screenings came directly from the White House; see also 800.4089.6-2047, June 20, 1947, Secretary Marshall instruction to consular officials to deny return passage to those who reached Prague by other means.
26. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), May 21, 1947, Harvard’s William J. Richard, Jr., to Wilmer Kitchen, thanking him for the donation to support the information bulletin.
27. NARA, RG 59 800.4089/8-1447, August 14, 1947, Lovett to American Ambassador, Prague.
28. FOIA (FBI), 5/33, n.d., William S. Ellis, “Progress Report on the International Union of Students.”
29. Philip Gleason, Contending with Modernity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 391. McLaughlin described the briefing in a letter to Gleason dated September 3, 1990.
30. NCWC, 84 (Organizations: Students), July 17, 1947, Apostolic Delegate A. G. Cicognani to Monsignor Howard J. Carroll.
31. Ibid., September 7, 1947, Father Bermingham memo summarizing strategy for the NSA constitutional convention to Monsignor Carroll.
32. Interview with Sally Cassidy, Newton, Mass., January 22, 1999.
33. Ibid. See also NCWC, Box 91/6 (Social Action: Youth), June 18, 1947, Father Bermingham re contact with Sally Cassidy; the declassified State Department Office of Intelligence Research report no. 5256, “World Assembly of Youth,” cites material from Cassidy.
34. Interview with Cassidy. The Vatican’s Montini worked with the OSS during the war and apparently later received direct subsidies from the CIA; see Kevin A. O’Brien, “Interfering with Civil Society: CIA and KGB Covert Political Action During the Cold War,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence 8, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 431–56.
35. NCWC, 84 (Organizations: Students), September 7, 1947, Bermingham memo to Carroll summarizing strategy.
36. Samuel Cardinal Stritch Personal Papers, “S” Box 2980, AAC, October 21, 1947, Philip DesMarais, “Confidential Summary Report on the Constitutional Convention,” Archdiocese of Chicago Archives and Records, Chicago, Ill.
37. Interview with Lee Marsh, Berkeley, Calif., April 13, 2001. In July 1946, Marsh had not yet renewed his Communist Party membership. Marsh quotation from FOIA (FBI), 5/33 coverage of the NSA Constitutional Convention.
38. H/NSA, Box 66 (International Reports), n.d., “International Affairs of USNSA”: Robert Smith gives this figure for the vote. See also Cardinal Stritch Personal Papers, October 21, 1947, DesMarais, “Confidential Summary Report,” in which he credits Catholics with these and other victories.
39. Welsh Files, The NSA News, September 3, 1947.
40. NCWC, 84 (Organizations: Students), January 9, 1948, Apostolic Delegate A. G. Cicognani to Rt. Rev. Msgr. Howard J. Carroll with attached memo from Vatican Cardinal Secretary of State, Domenico Tardini, re submissions to Pope Pius XII.
41. Ibid., January 19, 1948, nine-page copy of a draft memorandum from Paul Tanner, Assistant General Secretary, to His Holiness and the Secretariat of State re the affiliation of NSA to the IUS. See also January 23, 1948, Archbishop Cushing to Tanner approving the draft memorandum, and February 20, 1948, Howard Carroll, General Secretary, to Your Excellency, formally responding to the Vatican.
42. Welsh Files, The NSA News.
43. Interview with William Welsh, New Brunswick, Maine, October 22, 1991; Welsh and I also had numerous telephone conversations and e-mail exchanges between 1997 and 2007.
44. Ruby Cooper, “Student Parley Debates World Affiliation,” Daily Worker, September 7, 1947, reported the vote and the Catholic support for Welsh’s opponent William Birenbaum.
45. The first NSA officers are pictured in The NSA News, October 1947, copy courtesy of former NSA president William Welsh.
46. National Self-Government Committee, Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library, Box 55, September 26, 1947, Smith to Sophia Pollack, Secretary, National Self-Government Committee.
47. H/NSA, Box 280 (ISS), October 1, 1947, Smith to Jack Peter, ISS Geneva.
48. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), notes made by Smith for WSSF speech on November 4, 1947.
49. NARA, RG 800.4089/5-647, May 6, 1947, confidential cable from Ambassador Steinhardt, Prague, to Sec. State; May 6, 1947, secret telegram response from Central European division (CE) to Sec. State.
50. NARA, RG 800.4089/7-2947, July 29, 1947, Ambassador Steinhardt, Prague, report on the American delegation.
51. NARA, RG 800.4089/7-1847, July 19, 1947, Sec State cable to OMGUS, Youth Activities Branch, Berlin (Raymond Murphy, EUR/X); RG 800.4089/4-1847, April 18, 1947, from Ambassador Steinhardt, Prague.
52. Interview with Spurgeon Keeny, Jr., Washington, D.C., December 11, 1998.
53. H/NSA, Box 294 (U.S. Government), November 24, 1947, Robert Smith to Paul Lewand, U.S. Embassy, Prague.
54. NCWC, 84 (Organizations: Students), September 7, 1947, Father Bermingham to Monsignor Carroll.
55. Interview with Cassidy.
56. H/NSA, Box 280 (ISS), October 1, 1947, Smith to Peter.
57. Ibid.
58. Robert Solwin Smith, “Establishing the NSA International Affairs Office,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association after World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 505.
59. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), October 1947, Nancy Morehouse (ISS) to Bob Smith. State Department Biographic Registers for 1947 and 1948 list Doerr as assistant attaché, American Embassy in Berlin, a position often used as cover for intelligence work.
60. Interview with Welsh.
61. H/NSA, Box 299 (WSSF 47–48), n.d. [ca. November 1947], Treasurer’s report, Appendix B. Resolution EC 47-42 authorizes a salary for Robert Smith.
62. H/NSA, Box 297 (UNESCO), April 13, 1949, WSSF Personnel Committee noted request from Bob Smith to terminate his official service after a month’s notice and vacation. Smith left office at the end of August 1948.
63. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), September 19, 1947, Smith to NSA Madison staff.
64. Ibid., October 2, 15–16, November 10, 1947, Smith letters to Madison staff.
65. Ibid., November 17, 1947, Smith to Welsh regarding external funds.
66. Ibid., November 12, 1947, Welsh to Smith.
67. FOIA (FBI), 6/33, October 1, 1947, Allen B. Crow, “Challenging Questions Which Have Been Thrust upon Our Colleges and Universities by the Organizing Convention of the United States National Student Association.”
68. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), September 16, 1947. Welsh reported Crow’s phone calls to Smith.
69. Ibid.
70. Interview with Welsh.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid.
73. H/NSA, Box 295 (UNESCO 1947–1951), October 14, 1947, Welsh telegram to Smith re UNESCO appointment.
74. Interview with Welsh.
75. H/NSA, Box 293 (UNESCO Nat’l Commission), n.d., Harry D. Gideonse, “Report of the Committee on Youth Organizations,” describing the decision to appoint representatives of three youth organizations at the March 26–27, 1947, meeting of the U.S. National Commission for UNESCO. Gideonse had identified the future NSA as one of three student organizations.
76. Ibid., April 30, 1947; Charles Thomson, UNESCO secretariat, U.S. Department of State informed Jim Smith, president of the National Continuations Committee, that the appointment must be deferred until organization existed.
77. NARA, RG 59 800.4089-12-1047, December 12, 1947, Secretary of State responded to a December 10, 1947 request from Coulter D. Huyler, Jr., in the American Embassy in The Hague for information on the new USNSA. If the NSA was judged leftist, Huyler feared its influence on the Dutch student union. Huyler had served with OSS during World War II, then with the CIA.
78. FOIA (FBI), 7/33, April 23, 1948, Attorney General Tom Clark to FBI Director Hoover.
79. See the 1948 campaign documents in the Henry A. Wallace Collection, available at wallace.lib.uiowa.edu.
80. Alice Cox, “The Rainey Affair” (Ph.D. diss., University of Denver, 1970).
81. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), December 13, 1947, Bob Smith to Madison staff with excerpts from Jim Smith letter.
82. Ibid.
83. Interview with Welsh; see also Stanley R. Greenfield, “Publicizing the New Organization,” in Schwartz, American Student Organize, 157.
84. Welsh Files, NSA Executive Committee Minutes, December 27–29, 1947.
85. NCWC, 84 (Organizations: Students), Philip DesMarais, “Report on the Meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Student Association,” December 27–30, 1947.
86. Interview with Welsh.
87. NICC, Box 30 (Bill Ellis Fund), December 9, 1947, Ellis letter urging the NICC to keep the IUS appointment in its hands and force NSA to cooperate. See also H/NSA Box 286 (NICC 47–48, 50), February 19, 1948, Muriel Jacobson letter to Robert Smith, stating that the NICC would be unable to officially appoint Jim Smith in place of Ellis.
88. H/NSA Box 29 (Corres.), January 13, 1948; Bob Smith informed the Madison staff that he was sending Spurgeon Keeny to Prague to observe the IUS Council meeting as an NSA observer. Whether the Madison staff understood that Keeny was to report on Jim Smith is unclear.
89. Interview with Keeny. Keeny supplied me with a copy of the original report; an abbreviated version is available at H/NSA, Box 29.
90. Interview with Keeny.
91. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), July 12, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff (ellipsis substituted for misplaced comma).
92. Letter from Jim Smith to Aunt Alta, dated February 10, 1948, courtesy of Smith’s sons Philip and Michael; see also H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), January 13, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff re Jim Smith’s intent to resign.
1. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), n.d., Mimeograph, Jim Smith’s eyewitness account of events in Prague.
2. Karel Kaplan, The Short March: The Communist Takeover in Czechoslovakia, 1945–58 (London: Hurst, 1987); see also Bradley Abrams, The Struggle for the Soul of the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005).
3. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), n.d., Smith’s eyewitness account.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Despite numerous claims and investigations, the suicide or murder verdict remains unsettled. Masaryk’s private secretary, Antonín Sum, maintains that Masaryk jumped to his death, despondent after the communist takeover. See interview with Sum, October 11, 1998, National Security Archive, available at http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/. For more recent information on the dispute, see David Blair, “Mystery of Jan Masaryk’s Cold War ‘Suicide’ Deepens,” The Telegraph, January 7, 2004, which reports a Czech official’s claim that it was murder.
8. Interview with William Welsh, New Brunswick, Maine, October 22, 1991; see also Ellis’s five-page letter, listing his substantive disagreements with IUS actions, H/NSA, Box 26, March 1, 1948. See also the report of resignations in “Americans Quit Student Union in Prague; Red-Dominated Group Silent on Beatings,” New York Times, March 4, 1948.
9. “Americans Quit Student Union in Prague.”
10. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 6, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff.
11. Ibid., March 2, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff.
12. Ibid., February 20, 1948, Bob Smith memo, “NSA-IUS Negotiating Delegates, Communication No. 2.”
13. Ibid., February 2, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff. Information on Nemzer’s attendance is in H/NSA, Box 283 (JCSA), February 6, 1948, Philip DesMarais memo about the evening to Father Flynn.
14. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 2, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. FRUS, Retrospective Volume: Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, 1945–50, Document 241, Memorandum from the General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency (Houston) to Director of Central Intelligence Hillen-koetter, re the absence of authority for covert action, September 25, 1947.
18. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 282. For more on Wisner and the evolution of covert action see also Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared; the Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), and John Ranelagh, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
19. “Note on U.S. Covert Action Programs,” Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–68, vol. 12, Western Europe (April 16, 2001): xxxi–xxxv, available at www.fas.org/sgp/advisory/state/covert.html.
20. FRUS, Retrospective Volume: The Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, 1945–50, Psychological and Political Warfare, Document 298, Memorandum of Conversation and Understanding, Implementation of 10/2, August 6, 1948.
21. Anthony Carew, “The American Labor Movement in Fizzland: The Free Trade Union Committee and the CIA,” Labor History (February 1998): 25–42. Carew also documents tension between labor officials and the Ivy Leaguers in the CIA.
22. Ibid.
23. NARA, State Department Secret OIR Report No. 4507.1, “The WFDY: The Central Organization, Opposing Groups and Affiliates,” April 1, 1948. Declassified under the twenty-five-year rule, reclassified in 2001, and declassified in June 2012 by author’s request submitted in 2003.
24. Joël Kotek, Students and the Cold War (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996), 73–74. This history is also covered in NARA, State Department Secret OIR Report No. 5256, “The World Assembly of Youth: International Organization of Non-Communist Youth,” August 10, 1950. Declassified under the twenty-five-year rule; reclassified in 2001; and declassified in June 2012 by author’s request submitted in 2003.
25. Box 47 (YAC 48–49). Undated history is contained in a twenty-two-page report on Young Adult Council, previously called Association of Youth Serving Organizations, United States Youth Council Papers, National Social Welfare Assembly, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. See also NICC, Box 198 (Admin), December 14, 1945, Minutes.
26. NICC, Box 198 (Admin), November 8, 1946, Minutes.
27. NARA, RG 800.4089/3-248, American Embassy, Moscow to Secretary of State.
28. NARA, RG 800.4089/10-2047, October 20, 1947. Attached to these records is a November 25, 1947, memo from Raymond Murphy, EUR/X, to Howard Trivers, C[entral] E[urope], on the need for the IUS study.
29. Interview with Paul Bouchet and Pierre Rostini, Paris, October 18, 2004; Rostini made similar comments. Rostini and Bouchet were founding IUS members.
30. W. Bonney Rust, “Students in Czechoslovak Crisis,” Focus, Summer 1948. Focus was a magazine put out by the British National Union of Students.
31. W/NSA, Box 103 (Brussels Conference). Roy Voegeli and Norman Holmes, observers at the August 1948 International Youth Conference in London on behalf of the NSA, also attended a September 3 meeting in Brussels of dissident national unions of students who wished to discuss the IUS issues before going to Paris to observe the September 8 IUS Council meeting. Voegeli’s undated notes about the hostility directed toward the NSA were made after the IUS Council meeting and in discussions with Bob Smith, who was also in Paris.
32. NARA, RG 800.4089/1-1948, March 22, 1948, Secretary of State to London Embassy in response to a series of January cables.
33. NARA, RG 800. 4089/7-948, July 9, 1948, Secretary of State to American Embassies (Athens, Brussels, Copenhagen, London, Oslo, Paris, Praha [Prague], Stockholm, the Hague, Warsaw, Rome), predicting more bilateral cooperation.
34. Flynn, Box 13 (NFCCS), April 21, 1948, Martin Haley to Flynn, re NSA executive committee; see also May 13, 1948, confidential note from Haley to Flynn re John Simons’s plan for an alternative union.
35. H/NSA, Box 66 (Internat’l Reports), n.d., Mimeo, “Report of the Year (1947–48) International Activities of the NSA.”
36. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 2, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff.
37. William M. Birenbaum, “From the University of Chicago to Prague’s Polytech,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association after World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 581–89. Additional insight on the views of Lawrence Jaffa and William Birenbaum may be found in Box 127 (International Team, Applications 1947).
38. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 2, 1948, Bob Smith to Madison staff.
39. Peter Jones, as abridged by Pat Wohlgemuth Blair, “NSA’s Relations with the International Union of Students,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 539.
40. Flynn, Box 16 (NSA), March 8, 1949, Joseph Scheider (Youth Department) to Flynn.
41. Ibid., March 12, 1949, Michael J. Rubino (Catholic University) to Secretary of State Dean Acheson.
42. In a story by Stuart Loory, “Student to Agent: Mystery Death Hides CIA Ties,” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 1967, West was described by an NSA colleague as very upset over the Ramparts disclosures.
43. See H/NSA, Box 33 (Corres.), January 15, 1949, Harris letter to West, and January 28, 1949, West response to Harris, for evidence of the tension between the two officers.
44. H/NSA, Box 101 (German Project), Farmer’s résumé (January 1949); interview with Thomas Farmer, Washington, D.C., April 16, 1999.
45. H/NSA, Box 33 (Corres.), April 14, 1949, Rob West to Madison staff.
46. Interview with Farmer.
47. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), May 28, 1949, West report to Harris on U.S. Army grant. See also Boxes 101, 125, and 126 for more on the German project.
48. Interview with Farmer.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.; Wisner description came up in my interview with Franklin Lindsay, Cambridge, Mass., January 26, 1999.
51. H/NSA, Box 11 (Int’l Student Seminar). The name change occurred in 1952.
52. H/NSA, Box 101 (German Project), August 18, 1949, Farmer to West.
53. H/NSA, Box 33 (Corres.), October 13, 1949, Erskine Childers to National Staff.
54. Ibid.
55. For information on Voegeli’s CIA service, see biographical material on Royal J. Voegeli in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 153.
56. Conversation with Norman Holmes, Washington, D.C., April 7, 1997. See also information about Colgate’s approach in Norman L. Holmes, “Innocence Abroad,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 554.
57. FOIA (FBI), 12/33. Includes a fifty-five-page report on 1949 NSA Congress, mostly redacted.
58. H/NSA, Box 33 (Corres.), October 13, 1949, Childers to National Staff.
59. Eugene G. Schwartz, “From Urbana to Ann Arbor,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 237.
60. Flynn, Box 16 (NSA), March 8, 1949, Flynn to Scheider, Youth Department re Robert Kelly pledge to reverse his vote.
61. H/NSA, Box 33 (Corres.), October 17, 1949, Childers to Kelly.
62. H/NSA, Box 304 (WSSF), February 19, 1950, Brock to Childers.
63. Flynn, Box 13 (NFCCS), May 15, 1950, DesMarais to Flynn.
64. Material courtesy of Craig Wilson, April 20, 1998. In May 1997, Wilson wrote a draft article based on his experiences with Houghteling, “My Brush with History,” and shared it with me.
65. Roy Reed, “Ex-Student Describes Intrigue in Getting C.I.A. Loan in ’50,” New York Times, February 17, 1967.
66. Wilson, “My Brush with History.”
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. H/NSA, Box 127 (Internat’l Team), summer 1950, Financial Statement; the scratched out names are Laird Bell, Chicago, and Thomas E. Brittingham, Jr., Delaware. Bell served on the National Committee for Free Europe, Allen Dulles, Chair. See his entry in Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laird_Bell. The philanthropist Thomas Brittingham, Jr., also donated funds to bring Scandinavian students to the University of Wisconsin.
71. Wilson, “My Brush with History.”
72. Houghteling told his story to Roy Reed; see Reed, “Ex-Student Describes Intrigue in Getting C.I.A. Loan.”
73. Interview with Lindsay.
74. Interview with James D. Garst, New York, May 31, 2004. See also H/NSA, Box 255 (Sweden), Garst report on Scandinavia. See PB Web site.
75. H/NSA, Box 66 (SEAsia ’50), copy of William Polk résumé.
76. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), n.d. Fisher served the last six months of his service in Hawaii, at the Armed Forces Institute, Central Pacific Branch.
77. H/NSA, Box 28 (Corres.), copy of James P. Grant résumé in January 10, 1951, letter sent to NSA staff member Jim Zucker.
78. Ibid.
79. Paget Files: James P. Grant Biographical History (1922–1995), attached to Ihsan Dogramaci, “A Tribute,” International Pediatric Association Journal 6, no. 3.
80. H/NSA, Box 127 (Internat’l Team), August 4, 1950, Kelly letter to Childers.
81. Ibid., August 1950, Rob West Prague diary. Palme’s biographer Kjell Osterberg told the author that Palme submitted a report about the IUS Congress that implied a longer stay but later observed that Palme’s report was virtually identical to West’s diary account.
82. H/NSA, Box 52 (British IUS Relations), November 13, 1950, Curtis Farrar to Herbert Eisenberg after conversations with Palme.
83. H/NSA, Box 127 (Internat’l Team), August 1950, Robert L. West, “Report to American Students on IUS World Student Congress.”
1. Hendrik Hertzberg, “The Second Assassination of Al Lowenstein,” New York Review of Books, October 10, 1985. Hertzberg addressed the CIA allegations made by Richard Cummings in a review of The Pied Piper: Allard K. Lowenstein and the Liberal Dream (New York: Grove, 1985).
2. H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), April 13, 1951, Jim Grant to Herb Eisenberg re Lowenstein’s oratorical skills.
3. Dennis Trueblood and Gordon Klopf, “A Report on the 1950 National Student Association Congress,” School and Society, November 25, 1950, 340–41. Copy courtesy of Eugene G. Schwartz.
4. For background on Eisenberg, see Herbert W. Eisenberg, “NSA’s 1950–1951 International Program,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]:American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 520–24.
5. Ibid., 525. See also Kenneth R. Kurtz, “Candid Reflections of a Candidate,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 307.
6. Eisenberg, “NSA’s 1950–1951 International Program,” 522.
7. H/NSA, Box 28 (Corres. ’50–’56), November 3, 1950, Harris to Lowenstein.
8. Ibid.
9. H/NSA, Box 1 (ISC), October 12, 1950, Palme to West.
10. Ibid.
11. H/NSA, Box 52 (Farrar), October 31, 1950, Eisenberg to Curtis Farrar, Prague 25 member, requesting attendance at BNUS Council meeting. See ibid. (BNUS) for the Farrar report in a November 13, 1950, letter to Eisenberg.
12. H/NSA, Box 34 (IUS Corres. 1949–50), copy of undated hand-delivered letter from IUS officials. See also Box 1 (ISC), December 12, 1950, letter from National Union of Czechoslovak Students.
13. H/NSA, Box 2 (ISC), December 17–27, 1950, Transcript of the Stockholm proceedings.
14. H/NSA, Box 252 (Sweden), November 20, 1950, Palme letter to Eisenberg after BNUS meeting.
15. NARA, RG 59 800.4614/11-2750, December 12, 1950, Confidential telegram Sec State Acheson to Am Emb Stockholm, attached to copy of November 27, 1950, correspondence.
16. H/NSA, Box 1 (ISC), November 28, 1950, Eisenberg draft of Stockholm meeting objectives.
17. Ibid., December 18, 1950, Copy of Lowenstein’s speech, “This Conference Must Make a Contribution to Peace in the World.” The speech is also reprinted in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 562–64.
18. Conversation with Eisenberg, Madison, Wisconsin, July 25, 1997, at an NSA alumni reunion.
19. After Eisenberg read my “From Stockholm to Leiden” in Intelligence and National Security 18, no. 2 (June 2003): 134–67, which discussed the Stockholm events, he speculated in a letter to Eugene Schwartz (who sent me a copy) that one of Palme’s colleagues had blocked his attendance at strategy meetings.
20. Conversation with Eisenberg (on vote); telephone interview with Joan Long Lynch, August 13, 1998 (on Lowenstein’s claims). Lynch made the same point in her “From Ann Arbor to Minneapolis,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 273.
21. Conversation with Eisenberg. See also H/NSA, Box 1 (ISC), December 24, 1950, Eisenberg memo to the NSA executive committee, written while in Sweden, describing SMAP objectives and noting that after Lowenstein’s speech, “we almost didn’t put it across.”
22. NARA RG 800.4614/1-2251, January 22, 1951, Robert Donhauser, American Embassy, Stockholm, to Secretary of State, citing confidential comments by Olof Palme and an unidentified former NSA officer, most likely Robert Smith.
23. Ibid.
24. H/NSA Box 2 (ISC), December 17–27, 1950, Transcript of Stockholm proceedings.
25. H/NSA, Box 1 (ISC), December 24, 1950, Eisenberg memo to the NSA Executive Committee.
26. Flynn, Box 13, April 17, 1951, Philip DesMarais report; see also Paget Files: The NSA News, August 19, 1951.
27. H/NSA, Box 255 (Sweden), February 9, 1951, Eisenberg to Palme.
28. William Chafe, Never Stop Running: Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), 107–8.
29. NARA, RG 800.4614/1-2251, Donhauser to Secretary of State. Palme also supplied a written report on the Stockholm meeting to the American Embassy.
30. Ibid. American officials gave firsthand assessments of both Lowenstein and Eisenberg, after talking with them during a lunch at the Embassy.
31. A memorandum of Elliott and Dulles’s conversation was sent to Lewis S. Thompson, chief, Special Projects division, of OPC: see Milton W. Buffing-ton to CSP [Lewis S. Thompson], “United States National Student Association, February 17, 1951,” in Michael Warner, ed., CIA Cold War Records: The CIA Under Harry Truman, prepared by the History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C., 1994. Available at NARA and online at https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/the-cia-under-harry-truman/index.html; reprinted in “Attachment 1: The CIA Considers NSA in 1951,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 569.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), January 16, 1951, Frank D. Fisher to Allard Lowenstein.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. H/NSA, Box 294 (U.S. Government), November 1950, Eisenberg memo on State Department call.
38. NARA, RG 800.4614/1-2551, January 25, 1951, Flanders to George McGhee, Assistant Secretary of State, re meeting with Lowenstein.
39. CFR Study Group 5152, “The Role of Leadership in the Defence [sic] of the Free World,” November 15, 1950, minutes. For a list of study group attendees, see PB Web site.
40. Ibid. See also Edmond Taylor, Awakening from History (Boston: Gambit, 1969), 414.
41. CFR Study Group 5152, “Role of Leadership” minutes.
42. Ibid. See also the April 18, 1951, minutes, which report a second year of Carnegie Corporation funding for the study group.
43. Sallie Pisani, The CIA and the Marshall Plan (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991), 41.
44. CFR Study Group 5152, November 15, 1950, minutes; Donald Shank from IIE also joined the study group.
45. Taylor, Awakening from History, 393–95.
46. Ibid., 414.
47. CFR Study Group 5152, March 13, 1951, Minutes.
48. H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), February 10, 1951, Frank Fisher, Memorandum on Foreign Seminar Proposals; Box 102 also contains biographical information on Melvin Conant.
49. Conant eventually became an oil expert with Exxon Corporation in East Africa, the Far East, and Australia from 1961 to 1973. There is a ten-year gap in his résumé between 1951 and 1961, a frequent indicator of intelligence work. He later taught at the U.S. War College. See Melvin A. Conant, Jr., résumé, Box 21 (Folder 18), White House Special Files Collection, Richard Nixon Presidential Library. Available online at http://www.nixonlibrary.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/whsfreturned/WHSF_Box_21/WHSF21-18.pdf.
50. Ibid.
51. See, e.g., H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), January 16, 1951, Francis D. Fisher to Allard Lowenstein; March 7, 1951, Jim Grant to Lowenstein; March 11, 1951, Frank Fisher to Lowenstein; July 14, 1951, Carl Sapers to Shirley Neizer, Madison.
52. Ibid., March 7, 1951, Grant to Lowenstein.
53. Ibid., March 11, 1951 Fisher to Eisenberg and Neizer.
54. CFR Study Group 5152, April 18, 1951, minutes.
55. Ibid.
56. Pisani, CIA and the Marshall Plan, 48.
57. H/NSA, Box 66 (IC Reports), unsigned letter re Rockefeller Foundation funds for German Seminar, the second phase of the German project conceived by Tom Farmer in 1949. See also Box 283 (Orgs), May 18, 1950, Erskine Childers’s memo on Rockefeller grant.
58. H/NSA, Box 66 (IC Reports), James P. Grant, “Southeast Asia Report 1950,” 1–125.
59. H/NSA, Box 126 (German Seminar), April 16, 1951, Eisenberg to British NUS.
60. Eisenberg, “NSA’s 1950–1951 International Program,” 524. Eisenberg blamed Lowenstein for the lack of communication.
61. H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), July 26, 1951, Shirley Neizer to William Ayers.
62. Ibid. n.d., Sapers’s mimeographed report prepared for the 1951 NSA Congress.
63. Ibid. Sapers’s report cited the figure of $5,000.
64. H/NSA, Box 255 (Sweden), February 13, 1951, Eisenberg to Palme.
65. Ibid., July 31, 1951, Palme to Eisenberg.
66. Ibid.
67. William T. Dentzer, “From Minneapolis to Bloomington,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 542. Dentzer discussed the 1951 Congress and his and Lowenstein’s views on the ISC.
68. Ibid.
69. Barry Keating, mimeo, “A History of the Student Government Movement in America” (New York: Students for Democratic Action, 1953), 35.
70. Chafe, Never Stop Running, 119.
71. Telephone interview with Galen Martin, Louisville, Ky., October 7, 1997.
72. Barry Farber, “Travels to Zagreb, 1951,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 592.
73. Keating, “History of the Student Government Movement,” 35.
74. Eisenberg, “NSA’s 1950–1951 International Program,” 525.
75. H/NSA Box, 16 (COSEC), Ingram résumé.
76. Farber, “Travels to Zagreb, 1951,” 592.
77. Keating, “History of the Student Government Movement,” 35.
78. David Victor Harris, Dreams Die Hard: Three Men’s Journeys Through the ’60s (New York: St. Martin’s, 1982), 169.
79. Ibid.
80. H/NSA, Box 126 (German Seminar), February 8, 1951, Eisenberg to German Seminar co-director, Robert Fischelis, re Ingram’s participation in an upcoming meeting.
81. William Chafe, correspondence with me, January 7, 1998.
82. FOIA (FBI), 18/33. An August 21, 1952, confidential FBI report cites the date that Hoover ended his investigation as November 19, 1951. Also in this volume of documents is information that the FBI withheld a 270-page report on the NSA dated October 1952 at the request of an unspecified government agency. FBI declassified documents Series 19 to 33 indicate that Hoover continued his coverage of NSA Congresses but relied mainly on printed material rather than reports from special agents.
1. Interview with David Baad, Saddlebrooke, Az., January 13, 2009.
2. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba), Eisenberg report on Brazil conference, July 28–August 5, 1951. See also Box 171 (Brazil 47–52), for further detail on the Brazil conference.
3. For a view of the early IUS, see Joël Kotek, Students and the Cold War, trans. Ralph Blumenau (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996), esp. chap. 6, “The Creation of the International Union of Students,” 86–106.
4. CFR Study Group 5152, April 18, 1951, minutes.
5. H/NSA, Box 67 (Staff Reports), September 20, 1951, Ingram to Dentzer.
6. H/NSA, Box 74 (NAC ’47–56), October 20, 1952, Ingram to Harold Taylor, president of Sarah Lawrence College.
7. H/NSA, Box 104 (INC), November 20, 1951, Ingram to Lewis Levenson of Georgia Tech.
8. Ibid., November 6, 1951, Jim Grant (not to be confused with James P. Grant of Harvard, the Southeast Asia specialist) to Ingram.
9. H/NSA, Box 171 (Brazil 47–52), July 15, 1951, Rogers to Eisenberg.
10. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), February 17, 1952, Dentzer to Ingram; see also Box 102 (Indonesia), February 27, 1952, Dentzer to Ingram.
11. Dentzer has insisted that he was not made witting by the CIA until September 1952, after his presidency. He repeated this in an article co-written with Norman Holmes, Richard J. Medalie, Richard G. Heggie, and William Welsh, “Covert U.S. Government Funding of NSA International Programs,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II, ed, Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 567. In the same article, he asserted that he later found out that the funding began in November 1951.
12. Psychological Strategy Board Files, declassified documents: October 13, 1951, Ingram to Gordon Gray; October 19, 1951, John Sherman memo to CIA [name withheld]; November 10, 1951, Dentzer-Ingram proposal to Sherman; December 7, 1951, Sherman letter to Dentzer and Ingram assigning new liaison, William A. Korns; December 12, 1951, Sherman letter to CIA. All in Harry S. Truman Papers, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, Independence, Mo. See also H/NSA, Box 104 (INC), December 19, 1951, Ingram report on December meeting with Korns in a letter to Bill Dentzer.
13. Ingram referenced Gray’s invitation to submit a proposal in his October 13, 1951, letter to Gray, Psychological Strategy Board Files.
14. Interview with Thomas Farmer, Washington, D.C., April 16, 1999.
15. Janet Welsh, “Student Rights, Academic Freedom, and NSA,” in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 386; interview with Janet Welsh Brown, Washington, D.C., October 26, 1998.
16. Interview with Farmer.
17. H/NSA, Box 67, July 29, 1951, Confidential Conant Report to HIACOM.
18. Ibid.
19. H/NSA, Box 102 (HIACOM), February 12, 1951, Grant, letter to Lowenstein, with suggested revisions to his statements on NSA, which Grant found too explicitly anticommunist.
20. H/NSA, Box 67, July 29, 1951, Confidential Conant Report to HIACOM.
21. H/NSA, Box 140 (SEAsia), June 18, 1951, Conant to Grant and Fisher.
22. H/NSA, Box 102 (Indonesia), December 20, 1951, Ingram to Soedarpo Sastrosatomo via the U.S. State Department.
23. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), August 13, 1951, confidential letter from Rogers to Herbert Eisenberg.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), November 8, 1951, Dentzer to Ingram.
27. Ibid., December 19, 1951, Ingram letter to Dentzer.
28. H/NSA, Box 104 (ISIS), January 13, 1952, Ingram memo written in Paris to Carl Sapers, Harvard, after the January 3–8 Edinburgh ISC.
29. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 2 (ISC), for detail on the Edinburgh conference.
30. IISH ISC, Box 740, January 1952, Supervision Commission report; see also H/NSA, Box 104 (ISIS), January 13, 1952, Ingram to Sapers.
31. IISH ISC, Box 740, January 1952, Supervision Commission report.
32. Interview with Franklin Lindsay, Cambridge, Mass., January 26, 1999. See also H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres. 55–56), which contains an example of material from a 1955 summer meeting in Paris by an unidentified author, “Confidential Memorandum on Personnel, Not to Be Shown to Any Unauthorized Persons,” followed by the admonition “Please do not leave this lying around where it is generally available.” Page 2 is headed, “Strictly Confidential Top Secret in Fact.” Copies went to Harry Lunn, Leonard Bebchick, and Helen Jean Rogers. Despite these admonitions, the document was left in the archival files.
33. H/NSA, Box 104 (ISIS), January 13, 1952, Ingram report on Edinburgh to Sapers identifying Indonesian students; January 14, 1952, Ingram to Fisher.
34. Ibid., January 13, 1952, letter from Ingram to Sapers.
35. H/NSA, Box 37 (IUS Corres.), January 22, 1952, Fisher memo on Simons conversation.
36. H/NSA, Box 104 (ISIS), January 13, 1952, Ingram to Sapers.
37. Ibid., January 14, 1952, Ingram to Fisher.
38. H/NSA, Box 52 (British IUS Relations), March 20, 1952, Fred Jarvis (BNUS) to Dentzer.
39. Ibid., March 25, 1952, Dentzer to Jarvis.
40. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), June 30, 1952, Dentzer to Rogers with explanation of strategy.
41. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), May 26, 1952, Dentzer to Ingram.
42. Ibid.
43. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), June 1, 1952, Dentzer to Rogers.
44. IISH ISC, Box 1223 (Sup Com Meetings), draft minutes from June 9–10, 1952, later edited to exclude this remark. See the PB Web site.
45. H/NSA, Box 52 (British-IUS Relations), July 15, 1952, Thompson to Dentzer.
46. Ibid., July 21, 1952, Ingram to Thompson.
47. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC), July 31, 1952, Dentzer to Thompson and Jarvis.
48. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), Spring 1952. Rogers, then enrolled at Catholic University in Washington, D.C., oversaw the Latin America program throughout the spring of 1952. See March 13, 1952, Top Secret draft, Helen Jean Rogers’s proposed Latin American program, with a price tag of $37,500. On April 23, 1952, Rogers conveyed her optimism to Ingram in a letter citing prospective funding from “my family’s friend.”
49. H/NSA, Box 16 (COSEC), July 16, 1952; members of the ISC who also belonged to the WUS included Jean Sarvonat (France), John Thompson (Great Britain), and Karl Tranaeus (Sweden).
50. Ibid. (SupCom ’52–’53), July 29, 1952, confidential Rogers memo re personnel of the Leiden Secretariat.
51. NARA, RG 800.4614/4-2952, April 29, 1952, Acheson cable to American Embassy, Stockholm.
52. Ibid.
53. NARA, RG 800.4614/5-752 May 5, 1952, American Embassy Stockholm to Sec State re Swedish Foreign Office cooperation; 800.4614/5-1652, American Embassy Stockholm to Sec State re Palme refusal.
54. NARA, RG 59, 800. 4616/5-1652, May 15, 1962, Acting Sec State Bruce to American Embassy Stockholm.
55. NARA, 800.4614/5-1652, May 16, 1952, Sec State to American Embassy Stockholm.
56. NARA, 800.4614/5-2953, May 29, 1952, American Embassy Stockholm to Sec State.
57. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), June 23, 1952, Rogers to Dentzer.
58. NARA RG 800.4614/1-2251, January 22, 1951, Robert Donhauser, American Embassy, Stockholm, to Secretary of State. Donhauser stated that Olof Palme, Bertil Ostergren, Jarl Tranaeus “have been known personally to officers of the embassy for some time and have cooperated in every way possible.”
59. H/NSA, Box 16 (Sup Com ’52–’53), July 29, 1952, Confidential memo from Rogers to Ingram and Dentzer.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid., January 18–19, 1953, Minutes. Multiple sources have confirmed the involvement of British intelligence in the ISC and COSEC, including Gwyn Morgan, former British COSEC secretary general: interview with Gwyn Morgan, London, October 11, 2006. According to former International Affairs vice president Clive Gray, during this period COSEC American and British staff sometimes met together with their respective case officers. Interview with Clive Gray, Greensboro Vt., September 1 and 2, 2005.
62. NARA, RG 800.4614/4-451, D. M. Davis to Jessie MacKnight, Assistant Secretary of State, discussing the fact that his affiliation is hidden from other State Department contacts. Davis organized a meeting of the new World Assembly of Youth at Cornell during the summer of 1952.
63. Kotek, Students and the Cold War, 206. Kotek interviewed Thomas Braden, director of the International Division, who told him, “We used many foundations!” Additional conduits will be covered in later chapters.
64. In 1960, Amory “Amo” Houghton, Jr. (Harvard ’50), CEO of Corning Glass, joined the FYSA board; Houghton had worked with Frederick Houghteling on HIACOM during the 1948–50 period. He later became a U.S. congressman.
65. Ted Morgan, A Covert Life: Communist, Anti-Communist, and Spymaster (New York: Random House, 1999), 287. Ross ran the CIO International Committee and later became international affairs director of the AFL-CIO.
66. A. M. Sperber, Murrow: His Life and Times (New York: Fordham University Press, 1999), 305. Murrow was a member of the IIE executive committee and backed Duggan’s decision.
67. CFR Study Group 5152, October 24, 1951, Minutes.
68. Robin Winks, Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939–1961 (New York: William Morrow, 1987), 275–76.
69. For an overview, see Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009).
70. Thomas Braden, “I’m Glad the CIA is ‘Immoral,’” Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967, 10–14.
71. Interview with Thomas Farmer, Washington, D.C., April 16, 1999.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. Cord Meyer, Jr., Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 51–55.
75. Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared; The Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 138.
76. Meyer, Box 5, Diary. See, for example, the entry of March 21, 1963, re drinking, “unused talents,” and “wasted opportunities.”
77. Ibid., entry of November 6, 1954, re CIA promotion.
78. Interview with Jarmila Maršálková, Velka Bukova, Czech Republic, September 8, 2008.
79. Ibid.
80. Blumenau, chap. 16, p. 172.
81. For an overview see George Herman Hodos, Purge Trials: Stalinist Purges in Eastern Europe, 1948–1954 (New York: Praeger, 1987).
82. For postwar Germany, see Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).
83. Hodos, Purge Trials. For a personal view, see Heda Margolius-Kovály, Under a Cruel Star: A Life in Prague, 1941–1968 (London: Holmes and Meier, 1997). Her husband, Rudolf Margolius, was executed with Slánský and others.
84. Interviews with Thomas Madden, Skokie, Ill., June 29–30, 2004, and with Maršálková.
85. Interview with Maršálková.
86. Karel Kaplan, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary (London: Tauris, 1990), 53–55.
87. Interview with Madden.
88. Blumenau, chap. 14, p. 130.
89. Interview with Maršálková.
90. Interview with Madden.
91. Bernard Bereanu later published “Self-Activation of the World’s Nuclear Weapons System,” Journal of Peace Research 20, no. 1 (1983), demonstrating the statistical inevitability of nuclear destruction.
1. Thomas Braden, “I’m Glad the CIA is ‘Immoral,’” Saturday Evening Post, May 20, 1967, 13.
2. H/NSA Box 37 (IUS Corres.), January 22, 1952, Frank Fisher memo on telephone conversation with Simons.
3. H/NSA, Box 28 (Harris), June 24, 1952, Dentzer cable to Ingram in Paris confirming Ted Harris’s work for the Simons Fund.
4. H/NSA, Box 230 (Lebanon), July 31, 1952, Harris letter to Ingram.
5. H/NSA, Box 233 (Middle East), January 1951, William Polk report to HIACOM on his summer 1950 findings.
6. H/NSA, Box 104 (ISIS), January 13, 1952, Ingram to Sapers.
7. H/NSA, Box 140 (Fisher: SEAsia Trip), n.d. [ca. September–October 1952], Confidential Report Copy No. 1 Frank Fisher, Southeast Asia trip report.
8. H/NSA, Box 102 (Indonesia), January 25, 1952, Fisher to Ingram; February 27, 1952, Fisher prospectus to George Franklin, Jr. (CFR). See also Box 29 (Corres.), March 6, 1952, HIACOM letter informing Dentzer’s office of CFR check for Fisher.
9. H/NSA, Box 102 (Indonesia), February 27, 1952, Fisher memo to Ingram, “Discretion in Handling Information Within NSA.”
10. Interview with Frank Fisher, Austin, Tex., May 14, 2009.
11. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), Handwritten notation on résumé.
12. H/NSA, Box 67 (IC Reports), n.d. [ca. September–October 1952], Fisher report, “NSA Policy in Indonesia.”
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 140 (Fisher: SEAsia Trip), n.d., Confidential Report Copy No. 1.
15. H/NSA, Box 140 (SEAsia 51–52), Misfiled, Rogers, Report of the First Inter-American Student Congress in Rio, January 25–February 5, 1952.
16. H/NSA, Box 32 (Rogers), April 23, 1952, Rogers confidential letter to Ingram.
17. H/NSA, Box 227 (Latin America), contains extensive reports on Rogers’s activities in Latin America. Harvard originally refused her admission, then reversed its decision; see Box 32 (Rogers), June 23, 1952, Rogers to Dentzer.
18. H/NSA, Box 140 (SEAsia 51–52), misfiled Rogers report.
19. H/NSA, Box 217 (India), December 2, 1952, Rogers, letter to Frank Fisher on her correspondence for the NSA: “as usual, I am forging Avrea’s signature.”
20. FOIA, Naval Institute, August 1952, NSA Student Congress, Ingram working papers. Why the Naval Institute had an interest in NSA is not clear, although Ingram was a Navy veteran. The Freedom of Information request was government-wide and resulted in material from the Naval Institute.
21. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 27, 1952, Dentzer to Ingram.
22. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba), July 9, 1952, Dentzer, letter to Señor Alvaro Barba Machado, FEU.
23. Ibid., August 1952, copy of Fernández speech at the NSA Congress. For details on Fernández, see Mario Llerena, The Unsuspected Revolution: The Birth and Rise of Castroism (New York: Ardent Media, 1978), 23.
24. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba), August 1952, Fernández speech.
25. Ibid., August 1952, copy of NSA Congress Cuba resolution.
26. Ibid.
27. H/NSA, Box 233 (Middle East), January 1951, Polk report, which had recommended working with Middle Eastern students studying in the United States. For information on the relationship between the CIA and the American Friends of the Middle East, see Hugh Wilford, America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East (New York: Basic, 2013).
28. H/NSA, Box 277 (IIE), July 31, 1952, Ingram to Holland; Holland letter attached; August 6, 1952, Holland to Ingram.
29. H/NSA, Box 265 (Afghanistan), n.d. [ca. July 1954], Harry Lunn report on his role in the Afghanistan meeting of June 24–26, 1954, and attendance at the Pakistan Student Association in mid-June 1954. See also Box 268 (AFME), Iranian Student Convention, Denver, Colorado, September 1952. Box 268 also contains a report from AFME on these meetings.
30. FRUS, vol. 10: National Security Policy, Document 132, “Memorandum from the Central Intelligence Agency to the 303 Committee,” re the Asia Foundation and Proposed Improvements in Funding Procedures, June 22, 1966. This memo refers to the 1954 funding; however the Asia Foundation grew out of the earlier Committee for a Free Asia, established in California on March, 12, 1951. See also Richard H. Cummings, Radio Free Europe’s “Crusade for Freedom”: Rallying Americans Behind Cold War Broadcasting, 1950–1960 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2010), 48. H/NSA, Box 165 (NUS: Asia), contains an example of The Asian Student, January 1953, published by the Asia Foundation.
31. H/NSA, Box 88 (African Scholarships), Ingram correspondence re the formation of the Association of African Students in America, June 11–13, 1953. The CIA’s role in Latin American student associations has not been documented.
32. The ASA budget was confirmed in an interview with Mohammed Ghausi, Bolinas, Calif., October 7, 2005.
33. H/NSA, Box 220 (Iran), Ingram and Pirnazar correspondence.
34. The Organization of Tehran Students held a seat on the IUS Council. See Afshin Matin-Asgari, Iranian Student Opposition to the Shah (Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda, 2002), 175. See also Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 332–33.
35. Stephen Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2003). See also declassified documents in Electronic Briefing Book No. 28, The Secret CIA History of the Iran Coup, 1953, published November 29, 2000, at the National Security Archive of George Washington University, gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/.
36. H/NSA, Box 3 (ISC), January 8–16, List of ISC participants, which identifies OAS representatives Bahgat el Tawil (no address) and Kamal Shair (Yale).
37. H/NSA, Box 197 (Egypt), July 1947, IUS circular, Information on League of Egyptian Students. See also the League’s letters to NSA, October 11 and 20, 1947, requesting assistance for food and textbooks.
38. H/NSA, Box 295 (Orgs: UNESCO), December 1952, Fisher cables to Singapore and New Delhi.
39. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/2 (628), January 6, 1953, Davis (FYSA) to Thompson (COSEC) re meeting after the ISC.
40. H/NSA, Box 2 (ISC), January 4–8, 1952, Copenhagen reports.
41. FOIA (CIA), Vaughan Index, a computer printout of withheld CIA documents numbering in the thousands. See PB Web site for further details.
42. H/NSA, Box 28 (Ingram), January, 1953, Ingram’s confidential notes on Copenhagen ISC.
43. Ibid., December 1952–February 1953, Progress report by Ingram.
44. Ibid.
45. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), February 26, 1953, Ingram to Fisher.
46. NARA, 800.4614/-CO/1-1453, Confidential Security Information from Sec/State, tracing history of conference. Sent to Bangkok, Colombo, Djakarta [Jakarta], Karachi, Manila, New Delhi Missions, and Bombay, Calcutta, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore Consulates.
47. Ibid., reactions attached.
48. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC Corres.), “Glass Hats, US State Department, and the Leiden Secretariat (Or How They Came to Copenhagen),” in Around the World, IUS News, February 1953.
49. H/NSA, Box 305 (Corres.), June 11, 1953, Ingram to Paul Denise (WSSF).
50. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/1, Copy of Busono Wiwoho, “Travel Notes of an Indonesian Observer,” IUS News, February 1953.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid.
53. On Subroto’s relations with the NSA, see the PB Web site.
54. H/NSA, Box 41 (NFCUS), Charles Taylor (Canada) report on the IUS meeting in Bucharest, September 1–3, 1952.
55. H/NSA, Box 28 (Ingram), January 1953, Ingram handwritten notes re Copenhagen ISC.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 2 (ISC), Confidential reports; handwritten notes identify FYSA grants to Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, and Nicaragua (Central America), and to Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay (South America), a substantial increase in attendance from the year before at the ISC Edinburgh when only Brazil attended.
58. President Truman announced the Point Four program in 1949, but like many programs, its roots can be found earlier. See Truman Library, Oral history online interview with the administrator, Stanley Andrews (1952-30). www.tru manlibrary.org/oralhist/andrewss.htm.
59. H/NSA, Box 140 (SEAsia), May 1952, “Report to Advisory Committee Southeast Asia,” states that Grant was with the State Department. See also ibid. (SEAsia: Ellis), July 1952, Report of Bill Ellis meetings in Washington, D.C., with TCA officials, including Jim Grant, who was also associated with the law firm of Covington and Burling.
60. Ibid. (SEAsia: Ellis), July 10, 1953, Simons notification to Ingram of $3,000 grant for Ellis’s Southeast Asian trip.
61. Ibid., Ellis funding proposal.
62. Ibid., Mid-July 1953, Copy of TCA memo to South and Southeast Asia Missions re Ellis trip.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid., n.d., Ellis report on Burma.
65. Ibid.
66. H/NSA, Box 139 (SEAsia: Ellis ’52–’53), September 6, 1953. Ellis to Ingram.
67. H/NSA, Box 217 (India). See, for example, November 24, 1952, Ruth Wright, American Embassy Education Officer in New Delhi, “personal restricted” letter to Frank Fisher re a pro-communist student leader; and June 4, 1954, Frank Parker, foreign aid adviser to the American Ambassador, to Paul Sigmund re names of Indian student leaders.
68. Ibid., October 1952, Shelat to Ingram.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid., October 21, 1953, Ellis to Shelat.
72. Ibid.
73. The date of the FYSA grant is circa spring 1954; it later became a bone of contention between the FYSA, the NSA, and Shelat: see H/NSA Box 28 (Gray), September 1, 1957, Clive Gray to Indian student leader C. B. Tripathi. Box 3 (ISC), List of participants to the ISC Istanbul, January 8–16, 1954, confirms Shelat’s attendance.
74. H/NSA, Box 33 (Thomas), April 7, 1953, Thomas to Ingram re confusion over reporting requirements; see also Box 27 (Fisher), May 21, 1953, Fisher response to Ingram re Thomas.
75. H/NSA, Box 197 (Egypt), September 9, 1953, Edwards and Bebchick letter of thanks to Major General Muhammad Naguib.
76. See, for example, IISH ISC (FYSA), 180, December 23, 1953, Simons to COSEC (Thompson) re Egyptian grant approval.
77. Williams, a Yale graduate with experience in the Middle East, helped establish the Association of African Students in the United States and Canada at Howard University on June 11–13, 1953, co-sponsored by the NSA and the Institute on African-American Relations. See the PB Web site.
78. W/NSA, Box 103 (FYSA), October 19, 1953, Williams is listed as a HIACOM area specialist and desk chief, although he was enrolled at Boston University.
79. H/NSA, Box 197 (Egypt), October 21, 1953, Williams to Shaaban.
80. American staff in Geneva WUS/ISS before 1953 included John Simons (1948–49), Ted Harris (1950–51), and Bob Smith (1950).
81. H/NSA, Box 197 (Egypt), October 21, 1953, Williams to Shaaban.
82. Ibid., November 20, 1953, Shaaban to Williams on a Pan-Arab conference and Ted Harris’s frequent visits.
83. IISH ISC, Box 1235 (Sup Com: 1952–61), May 19, 1955, Dentzer letter to the Supervision Commission reporting a C. V. Whitney $4,500 grant for the South African investigation.
84. Ibid.
85. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), n.d. [after the January 5–12, 1954, Istanbul ISC], Confidential memo from Len Bebchick to NSA advisory boards, pledging full report by March.
1. W/NSA, Box 103 (FYSA), January 5, 1954, Simons to Bebchick re quarterly funds. See also October 19, 1953, IC administrative budget, $30,640, September 1, 1953–September 1, 1954.
2. W/NSA, Box 2, July 26, 1953, Richard J. Murphy letter informing Gordon Klopf (NSA adviser) of the special sessions, citing a new FYSA grant for that purpose.
3. W/NSA, Box 103 (FYSA), June 7, 1954, Funding request.
4. Ibid., May 5, 1954, John J. Simons letter to Leonard Bebchick, with attached budget, showing that $3,000 was allocated to NSA headquarters, a practice that increased the national office’s dependency on CIA funds.
5. Ibid., May 26, 1954, Bebchick letter to Simons confirming Istanbul ISC delegation expenses as $3,919.79; May 20, 1954, Prospectus to FYSA for WAY delegation to Singapore, $5,600; May 21, 1954, Prospectus to FYSA for WUS delegation to Oxford, England, $1,000; May 21, 1954, Japanese International Student Conference delegation, $3,800.
6. Ibid., April 30, 1954, Prospectus to FYSA for COSEC dues, $5,263.15 ($45,000 in today’s dollars).
7. W/NSA, Box 103 (FYSA), contains copies of proposals listed above, as well as others.
8. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180. The archive has preserved the voluminous correspondence between COSEC and FYSA arranged chronologically. In one case, when Thompson was slow to request funds, Simons initiated the discussion: 180/2, January 13, 1953, Simons letter to Dentzer (COSEC), asking if he was wondering about the coming year, “and nothing in the COSEC jeans.”
9. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/1 (628), August 12, 1953, David Davis, FYSA, letter to Thompson, COSEC, about proposed meeting with Ingram in either Munich or Zurich. See also August 18, 1953, Thompson letter to Davis confirming September 25–26 meeting in Zurich. On September 4, 1953, Thompson changed the meeting location to Munich.
10. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC), August 11, 1953, Enrique Ibarra funding proposal; see also IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/2 (629), August 11, 1953, re Ibarra travel award and itinerary.
11. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC), October 23, 1953, original proposal for Istanbul ISC.
12. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/1 (628), December 12, 1952. Simons’s letter to Thompson re contact with Pan Am.
13. Ibid., 180/2 (629), December 3, 1953, Simons letter to Thompson re his categories for travel grants, which include 1) previous attendance, desire to cooperate; 2) previous observer; 3) European unions; December 4, 1953, Thompson and Ingram to Simons, listing possible attendees in the last two categories: 4) never attended; 5) has no recognized NUS [national union of students].
14. H/NSA, Box 26 (Duberman), June 8, 1954, Duberman recommended a tour for French leader Jacques Balland; Box 12 (COSEC) has a copy of Balland’s six-page memo, a critique of the ISC.
15. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC), October 26, 1953, Len Bebchick to Chuck Seashore, University of Colorado student body president.
16. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), May 11, 1953, Ingram to Frank Fisher conveying FYSA approval for the summer International Student Relations Seminar.
17. Interview with Paul Sigmund, Princeton, N.J., October 31, 2005.
18. Ibid. See also Henry J. Kellermann, Cultural Relations as an Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy: The Educational Exchange Program Between the United States and Germany, 1945–1954 (Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1974).
19. H/NSA, Box 105, October 10, 1955, Bebchick to Simons.
20. Ibid.
21. H/NSA, Box 103 (IC Project), copy of 1954 program and speakers.
22. Ibid. In 1954, Helen Jean Rogers alone covered COSEC, ISC, the Research and Investigation Commission, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia, South America, Spain, and Yugoslavia.
23. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 230; interview with Thomas Farmer, Washington, D.C., April 16, 1999.
24. H/NSA, Box 101 (I.C. Project: Fulbright Scholars Recommended), March 25, 1958, Bruce Larkin memo to NSA President Stan Glass and Ralph Della Cava on secrecy of Fulbright applications loaned to NSA. Some Fulbright applications remain in the NSA archives.
25. Interview with Leonard Bebchick, Washington, D.C., April 27, 2000.
26. Ibid.
27. Interview with Sigmund.
28. Interview with Bebchick.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Cord Meyer, Jr., Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 79.
34. Fulton Lewis, Jr., was a nightly radio broadcaster on the Mutual Broadcast Network; for content of his broadcasts see Fulton Lewis Jr., Papers at Syracuse University, http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/l/lewis_f_jr.htm.
35. Frederick Houghteling, quoted in “Charges of Reds in NSA Are False,” Harvard Crimson, June 5, 1951.
36. See, for example, August 23, 1950, “A Message from President Truman,” to the NSA Congress, reprinted in Eugene G. Schwartz, ed., American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 258.
37. Interview with Bebchick.
38. The June 30, 1953, TOP SECRET Report to the President’s Committee on International Information Activities, heavily redacted, is available at www.foia.cia.gov. See also NARA, RG 59 PPS 1953, Box 72, re financing by the CIA.
39. H/NSA, Box 26 (Ellis), October 22, 1953, Minutes, list of desk officers.
40. Interview with Bebchick.
41. H/NSA, Box 14 (COSEC), September 14, 1953, Bebchick was advised in a letter from Avrea Ingram at COSEC that funding was probable, and that Beb-chick should contact as an intermediary in Texas one Herman Neusch, a World War II navy veteran who was active in Catholic youth circles and a delegate to the International Youth Conference (the forerunner of the CIA-financed World Assembly of Youth) in 1948 and the National Newman Club Federation international vice president in 1950. See also Box 32 (Helen Jean Rogers), August 13, 1951, Rogers letter to Eisenberg re Herman Neusch of Texas as a broker for securing Latin American program funds; Box 104 (International News Center). Neusch’s position in 1953 is unknown.
42. Telephone conversation with Edward Gable, Pebble Beach, Calif., October 18, 1998; interview with Catherine Fischer McLean, Berkeley, California, March 17, 1999.
43. H/NSA, Box 36 (IUS), March 20, 1953, misfiled memo from Gable to Ingram.
44. Interview with Bebchick.
45. H/NSA, Box 36, October 27, 1953, Bebchick to Dentzer re ISC delegation.
46. H/NSA, Box 26 (Ellis), n.d. [ca. November 1953], Bebchick to Ellis.
47. Interview with Bebchick.
48. Ibid.
49. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 2, 1954, Bebchick to James Edwards.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. W/NSA, Box 103, n.d., Dennis Trueblood, “Observations of the 1952 Congress.”
53. Ibid.
54. H/NSA, Box 74, August 8, 1955, Sylvia Bacon IAB report.
55. H/NSA, Box 90 (Campus Int’l Admin), March 20, 1954, Lunn to Bebchick re overseas post; April 5, 1954, Lunn to Bebchick re overseas post; undated response from Bebchick to Lunn, after receiving Lunn’s May 6, 1954, telegram, rejecting the NSA offer.
56. Ibid., May 23, 1954, Lunn to Bebchick, rejecting ISRS offer.
57. Margarett Loke, “Harry Lunn, Jr., 65, Art Dealer Who Championed Photography,” obituary, August 24, 1998, New York Times; telephone interview with Margarett Loke, November 1, 1999, to confirm information in obituary. Loke, a Times staff arts writer, interviewed Lunn before his death. He discussed the timing of his recruitment. See also H/NSA, Box 90 (Campus Int’l Administrator), May 30, 1954, Lunn telegram to Bebchick to accept position of Campus International Administrator.
58. H/NSA, Box 90 (Campus International Awareness), May 24, 1954, Bebchick handwritten note on Lunn salary of $3,500.
59. Interview with Bebchick.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Mark Haworth-Booth, “Obituary: Harry Lunn, The Independent, September 8, 1998, available at http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-harry-lunn-1196714.html.
63. H/NSA, Box 74 (IAB), November 1, 1959, International Activities Board Minutes, in which Sigmund’s salary was reported retrospectively as having been granted by the Cummins Catherwood Foundation of Philadelphia.
64. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), 1955–56, contains extensive correspondence on the origin and funding of the Foreign Student Leadership Project. See, for example, March 2, 1955, Paul Sigmund, summary of his meeting with Mel Fox at the Ford Foundation; April 12, 1955, Lunn letter to Sigmund, which includes the FLSP prospectus and issues of accountability.
65. H/NSA, Box 30 (Corres.), n.d. FSLP Board members included John J. Simons (FYSA), James T. Harris, Jr. (FLSP), and Donald J. Shank, Institute of International Education. See the PB Web site for complete list.
66. Interview with Robert Kiley, Cambridge, Mass., January 22, 2008. Kiley confirmed that the CIA had to go to the White House to get the executive order.
67. Ibid.; interview with Tony Smith, New York, N.Y., November 7 and 9, 2007; telephone conversation with Gable, who described recruitment as “the point” of the FLSP program.
68. H/NSA, Box 26 (Sigmund), June 3, 1955, Sigmund description of Paris party to student Janet Cooper.
1. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
2. The Christian Science Monitor editor Joseph Harrison later acknowledged the CIA relationship. See Stuart H. Loory, “The CIA’s Use of the Press: A Mighty Wurlitzer,” Columbia Journalism Review (September–October 1974): 9–18.
3. George McTurnan Kahin, The Asian-African Conference: Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1955). For an African American perspective, see Richard Wright, The Color Curtain (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1995). Wright’s book on his attendance at the Bandung conference, originally published in 1956 by World Publishing, has been reissued.
4. Nehru’s speech can be found at the Modern History Source Book site of Fordham University, at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1955nehru-bandung2.html.
5. For a Chinese perspective, see Kuo Kang Shao, Zhou Enlai and the Foundations of Chinese Foreign Policy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996).
6. See, for example, Jason C. Parker, “Small Victory, Missed Chance: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the Turning of the Cold War,” in The Eisenhower Administration, the Third World, and the Globalization of the Cold War, ed. Kathryn C. Statler and Andrew L. Jones (Lanham, Md.: Rowan and Littlefield, 2006), 153–74; David Kimche, The Afro-Asian Movement: Ideology and Foreign Policy of the Third World (Jerusalem: Israel Universities Press, 1973). Additional sources can be found at the PB Web site.
7. Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared; the Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 157.
8. Paul F. Gardner, Shared Hopes, Separate Fears: Fifty Years of U.S.-Indonesia Relations (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997), 128.
9. John Foster Dulles, Iowa State College speech, June 9, 1955, cited on the Arlington National Cemetery Web site, www.Arlingtoncemetery.net/jfdulles.html.
10. Cary Fraser, “Race and Realpolitik in the American Response to the Bandung Conference 1955,” in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
11. Newsweek, January 1, 1955, quoted in Wright, Color Curtain, 190.
12. Matthew Jones, “Segregated Asia? Race, the Bandung Conference, and Pan-Asianist Fears in American Thought and Policy, 1954–55,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 5 (2005): 841–68.
13. Ibid.
14. Steve Tsang, “Target Zhou Enlai: The ‘Kashmir Princess’ Incident of 1955,” China Quarterly 139 (September 1994): 766–82.
15. William Corson, Armies of Ignorance: The Rise of the American Intelligence Empire (New York: Dial, 1977), 366.
16. Quoted in H. W. Brands, The Specter of Neutralism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 115; see also Department of State, Intelligence Reports, “Results of the Bandung Conference: A Preliminary Analysis,” April 27, 1955, NARA, R & A Reports, IR, No. 6903.
17. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. H/NSA, Box 218 (India), n.d. [ca. 1958], Clive Gray report, “Recent Developments in the Indian Student Movements,” 13.
21. Willard A. Hanna, “The Little Bandung Conference,” July 5, 1956, available at the Institute of Current World Affairs Web site, http://www.icwa.org/FormerArticles.asp?vIni=WAH&vName=Willard%20A.%20Hanna. Hanna worked for the U.S. Information Agency in Jakarta.
22. W/NSA, Box 103 (Indonesian Student Hospitality Nov. ’54–Feb. ’55). The prospectus from the NSA to FYSA is undated but circa November 1954, and includes itinerary and budget. See also H/NSA, Box 102 (Indonesian Student Tour 54–55), for extensive detail on the tour.
23. H/NSA Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
24. IISH ISC, Box 1235 (1955), Ref. 406/1, Appointments of de Graft Johnson (Ghana) and John Didcott (South Africa); IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/27 (628), 1955–56 Asian Delegation Prospectus; see also H/NSA, Box 16 (COSEC), for additional information on Asian tour.
25. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/27 (628), 1955–56 Asian Delegation prospectus.
26. The U.S. government began using the phrase “Soviet imperialism” in the early 1950s, especially in guidance to Radio Free Europe. See Lazlo Borhi, “Containment: Rollback, Liberation or Inaction? The United States and Hungary in the 1950s,” Journal of Cold War Studies 1, no. 3 (1999): 67–108.
27. H/NSA, Box 165 (Asia), October 19, 1955, press release.
28. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/43 (630), May 22, 1956, International Student Delegation to Asia 1955–56, Report to John Simons.
29. H/NSA, Box 165 (Asia), COSEC report prepared prior to the Bandung conference, “Independence and the Student” (1956), 1–80.
30. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/42 (630), May 14, 1956, FYSA grant to COSEC to cover Ismail’s expenses. See ibid., August 29, 1956, letter from Thompson to Simons elaborating on Ismail’s role at the conference.
31. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
32. Ibid.
33. Greg MacGregor, “Filipinos leave Bandung Session,” New York Times, June 5, 1956; see also New York Times, June 4, 1956, on charges of collusion with U.S. intelligence.
34. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180/42 (630), May 14, 1956, grant authorized up to sixteen thousand dollars. See also ibid., John Simons, May 7, 1956, cable to John Thompson on willingness to make emergency grants.
35. Ibid., May 14, 1956, grant.
36. H/NSA, Box 314 (Asian-African Students Conference), May 15, 1956, Gray to Ghausi.
37. Ibid.
38. Interview with Mohammed Ghausi, Bolinas, Calif., October 7, 2005.
39. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), July 17, 1956, Gray to Sigmund.
40. H/NSA, Box 314 (Asian-African Students Conference), Bandung Spirit.
41. “Blow for Bandung Reds, Neutralism Triumphs” in the Singapore Free Press, May 30, 1956, typified Asian anticommunist press headlines in support of perceived pro-West victories, especially the failure to establish an IUS-affiliated regional organization.
42. Greg MacGregor, “Indonesia Wary of Youth Parley,” New York Times, June 4, 1956, re the Indonesia government’s decision to withhold funds.
43. Lunn’s estimate is in H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference. See also Hanna, “Little Bandung Conference.”
44. Sukarno unilaterally declared independence on August 17, 1945. Negotiations with the Dutch, assisted by the United States, lasted three years, and stalled over issues of territory and commerce. See the PB Web site.
45. “U.S. and Sukarno Benefit by Visit,” New York Times, June 5, 1956, was representative of the positive press.
46. Denis Lacorne and Tony Judt, With Us or Against Us: Studies in Global Anti-Americanism (New York: Macmillan, 2005), 215.
47. Quoted in, “Asia-Africa Session On: Students Convene in Bandung—Hear Colonialism Scorned,” New York Times, May 31, 1956.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Hanna, “Little Bandung Conference.”
51. Quoted in Greg MacGregor, “Indonesia Wary of Youth Parley,” New York Times, June 6, 1956. Lunn’s view can be found in H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
52. Interview with Ghausi.
53. H/NSA, Box 314 (Bandung), quoted in the Conference newspaper, Bandung Spirit.
54. Greg MacGregor, “Walkout Filipino Explains Stand,” New York Times, June 7, 1956.
55. Ibid.
56. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
57. Ibid.
58. H/NSA, Box 165 (Asian-African Conference), Pran Sabharwal, “Little Bandung: A Report on Asian African Students Conference (May–June 1956)” (New Delhi: University Press, 1956). IISH ISC (FYSA), 180 (630), May 7, 1956, Thompson (COSEC) prospectus to Simons (FYSA) contains a history of events that led to the Asian-African Students Conference.
59. Greg MacGregor, “Youth Unit Urged for Asia, Africa; Egyptians at Bandung Seek Federation with Purpose of Ending Colonialism,” New York Times, June 5, 1956.
60. H/NSA, Box 314 (Asian-African Students Conference), COSEC-collected material passed on to the NSA.
61. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
62. Manoj Das (India) later described these conversations in “Forging an Asian Identity,” The Hindu, January 7, 2001, available at www.hindu.com/2001/01/07/stories/1307017j.htm.
63. H/NSA, Box 314 (Bandung), clipping, “Student Parley Becomes Donnybrook,” New York Herald Tribune, June 12, 1956.
64. “Student Conference,” New York Times editorial, June 8, 1956.
65. Ibid.
66. Harry H. Lunn, Jr., “Red Control Fails at Youth Parley,” Christian Science Monitor, June 27, 1956.
67. H/NSA, Box 165 (Asian-African Conference), Sabharwal, “Little Bandung.”
68. Ibid.
69. H/NSA, Box 31 (Lunn), n.d., Confidential Report on the Asian-African Students Conference.
1. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), January 6, 1956, Sigmund, letter to Clive Gray, conveying information from Ingram about the Swiss.
2. On support for Eisenhower, see Barry Keating, “How Its Own Cold War Influenced Liberal Student Activism,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association After World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 812.
3. The NSA executive committee frequently considered and voted upon resolutions not taken up in plenary sessions.
4. Portions of the resolution on segregation are reprinted in Schwartz, American Students Organize, 451.
5. H/NSA, Box 67 (Staff Reports), August 1952, Frank Fisher, SEA report.
6. Richard Glen Lentz and Karla K. Gower, The Opinions of Mankind: Racial Issues, Press, and Propaganda in the Cold War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2010). The impact of Bandung is described in Hazel Rowley, Richard Wright: The Life and Times (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 471.
7. A picture of University of Alabama students burning desegregation signs can be viewed at the America’s Story Web site of the Library of Congress, http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/marshallthrgd/aa_marshallthrgd_lucy_2_e.html.
8. Tillman Durdin, “Miss Lucy Flies Here for a Rest,” New York Times, March 2, 1956.
9. NARA, RG 306, Box 4, July 24, 1956, “Opinion About U.S. Treatment of Negroes,” USIA Public Opinion Barometer Reports.
10. H/NSA, Box 88 (Alabama Case), February 17, 1956, Young to Gray; see also Box 29 (Corres.), for Young’s résumé.
11. H/NSA, Box 88 (Alabama Case), February 17, 1956, Young to Gray.
12. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), February 28, 1956, Gray to Young.
13. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), March 6, 1956, Gray to Lucy, c/o NAACP.
14. H/NSA, Box 88 (Alabama), July 23, 1956, copy of campus letter.
15. H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), July 1956, “A Letter About Racial Discrimination in the United States and Efforts for Its Elimination.”
16. H/NSA, Box 14 (COSEC), July 10, 1956, Gray to Ingram.
17. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972), 90.
18. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), June 19, 1956, Sigmund memo from Paris to Gray, reporting on conversations pertaining to the upcoming ISC.
19. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), March 11, 1956, Young, letter to Gray.
20. Ibid.
21. Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 91.
22. W/NSA, Box 103, July 15, 1955, partial transcript of the ISC Birmingham in “The Political Versus Practical Controversy at the International Student Conference,” a confidential working paper prepared for ISRS participants.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid. COSEC documents put the number in attendance at fifty countries but not all had voting privileges.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Clement Moore Henry argues that UGEMA retained its autonomy and did not take direction from the FLN. See his Combat et Solidarité: Témoignages de L’UGEMA, 1955–62 (Algiers: Editions Casbah, 2010) (published under the name Clement Henri Moore). I also spoke with Henry on the issue. At the time, NSA had little doubt that UGEMA was the student wing of the FLN.
28. The UGEMA history (U.G.E.M.A.: The Students of Algeria Are Fighting, published by the “Press and Information Department of the International Union of Students”) can be found in an eighty-two-page booklet available at http://bu.univ-alger.dz/UGEMA/Theses%20et%20Articles/UGEMA.The%20students%20of%20Algeria%20are%20fighting.pdf. See also, Yahia Zoubir, “US and Soviet Policy Toward France’s Struggle with Anticolonial Nationalism in North Africa,” Canadian Journal of History 30, no. 3 (December 1995): 58–84.
29. More information on UGEMA leader Zeddour Belkacem can be found at zeddour.commandant-moussa.com.
30. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), January 29, 1956, Sigmund to Gray. Zeddour’s body was found on November 30, 1954.
31. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (New York: Macmillan, 1977), covers both the Bandung students conference and repeated United Nations resolutions.
32. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), January 6, 1956, Sigmund to Gray.
33. Ibid., June 19, 1956, Sigmund memo on Carvalho conversation.
34. Ibid.
35. H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria ’56–’57), August 21, 1956, Sigmund cable to Gray.
36. Ibid., August 28, 1956, Gray to Clifford Gurney, AFME.
37. Ibid., n.d., Sigmund report on UNEF and Algeria.
38. Ibid., August 28, 1956, Gray to Clifford Gurney, AFME.
39. Ibid., August 11, 1956, Gray cable to UGEMA offering financial assistance for one representative to Ceylon, and additional funds if UGEMA accepted the invitation to the NSA Congress.
40. Recognition of the Algerian cause was adopted by the CIA-funded International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (July) and the World Assembly of Youth (August).
41. Einaudi’s biography is available at the Organization of American States Web site, www.oas.org/documents/eng/biography_sga.asp.
42. Mario Einaudi was an émigré scholar supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. He subsequently founded the Center for International Studies at Cornell University.
43. Interview with Luigi Einaudi, Washington, D.C., December 7, 2007.
44. Ibid. Einaudi remembers the Chileans paying for his trip, but at the time, he reported that the funding came through the Congress for Industrial Organization in Washington; see H/NSA, Box 29 (Corres.), Summary of Oral Report, Latin American Trip, October 9–21, 1955.
45. H/NSA, Box 183 (Chile), October 15, 1955, Einaudi to Sigmund and Gray.
46. Ibid.
47. H/NSA, Box 29 (’55–’57), October 9–21, 1955, Summary of Oral Report by Luigi Einaudi.
48. Ibid.
49. H/NSA, Box 28 (Harris), n.d., Einaudi to Harris, “Some FSLP Possibilities in Latin America.”
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. H/NSA, Box 14 (Ingram), June 23, 1956, Einaudi to Avrea Ingram at COSEC.
53. Interview with Richard Heggie, Orinda, Calif., November 9, 2005. Heggie, a former NSA national officer (1948–49), went to work for the Asian Foundation (initially the Committee for a Free Asia), which funded the alternative to Zengakuren. He was assigned to Japan until 1956. See also H/NSA, Box 224 (Japan), for further information on the American effort, including an undated report from the International Seminar, held August 8–13, 1952, at Kobe College; and Box 32 (Sigmund), January 6, 1956, letter to Clive Gray, reporting that Heggie recommended giving up working at the national level in Japan and concentrating on individual student governments.
54. H/NSA, Box 89 (Asian Team ’55–’56), July 19, 1956, Helen Jean Rogers to Clive Gray and others.
55. Ibid. See also Box 217 (India), Reports from Frank Fisher (1952), Bill Ellis (1953), Fulbright scholar Merrill Freed (1955).
56. H/NSA, Box 89 (Asian Team ’55–’56), July 19, 1956, Rogers to Gray and others. The NSA also had important information from a young Indian leader, Hiralal Bose, who was close to Nehru. Bose attended Henry Kissinger’s seminar for young foreign leaders at Harvard, and conveyed to Clive Gray that Nehru was disgusted with Shelat’s inaction. See also July 31, 1956, Gray letter to Rogers.
57. Ibid., July 19, 1956, Rogers to Gray.
58. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), July 16, 1956, Fisher to Gray re Lunn’s instructions.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid., August 3, 1956, Fisher to Gray.
61. H/NSA, Box 218 (India), n.d., Clive Gray, “Recent Developments in the Indian Student Movements,” 13–15.
62. Ibid.
63. Interview with Clive Gray, Greensboro, Vt., September 1 and 2, 2005.
64. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), September 1, 1957, Gray to Indian leader C. B. Tripathi.
65. Ibid., March 2, 1957, Gray to Ted Harris.
66. Ibid., March 28, 1957, Gray to Bruce Larkin.
67. Interview with Gray.
68. Ibid.
69. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180 (630), August 10, 1956, grant submission.
70. H/NSA, Box 18 (Finances), December 8, 1958, Asian Seminar funding.
71. IISH ISC (FYSA), 180 (634), May 5, 1967, COSEC to FYSA re 1966–67 funding for the Asian Press Bureau. In 1967, Chandra Mohan Gulhati, director of the Asian Press Bureau, vigorously denied that the ISC had anything to do with the Cold War, asserting that charges of CIA funding sources were baseless; see “Asian Press Director Disturbed by Article,” Salient: Victory University Students’ Paper 30, no. 5 (1967): 11, available at http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Salient30051967-t1-body-d41.html.
72. Interview with Gray.
73. Interview with Sigmund.
74. Interview with Gray.
75. IISH ISC, Box 1089 (Algeria 1956–59), Crawford Young speech to UGEMA, December 1957.
76. H/NSA, Box 5 (COSEC: VI ISC Ceylon), undated typewritten copy of a Sunday Times of London correspondent’s depiction of NSA behavior at Ceylon as “opportunist mano[e]uvr[ing]” and “clumsy.” See also Box 166 (Asian-African Student Conference), Harold Sims’s undated report after the Ceylon ISC, which describes the NSA as caught between two fires, the West accusing NSA of “expeditious folly, hoary imperialism and shifting imperialism and shifting alliances,” and the East accusing it of “European favoritism, unlived principles, partisanship, political control and expeditious diplomacy.”
77. H/NSA, Box 5 (COSEC: VI ISC Ceylon), Working Papers of the Sixth International Student Conference, held in Ceylon, September 11–21, 1956; Box 16 (COSEC), April 9, 1957, press release on Cuban resolution passed at sixth ISC.
78. H/NSA, Box 17 (COSEC Financial), June 8, 1956, Thompson letter to FYSA, with initial budget figure for ISC Ceylon, $121,815.80.
79. H/NSA, Box 12 (COSEC), October 5, 1956, Press release on sixth ISC.
80. IISH ISC (RIC), 1169, November 5, 1956, John Thompson letter to Swedish student leader informing him of Ingram’s departure in October and making a joke about his dog, Paco.
81. H/NSA, Box 26 (Gray), June 6, 1956, Gray letter to Barry Farber re secret funding for Farber’s trip to Soviet Union.
82. See Warren Lerner, “The Historical Origins of the Soviet Doctrine of Peaceful Coexistence,” http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3028&context=lcp The full text of the 20th Party Congress secret speech is in “Khrushchev on Stalin,” New York Times, June 5, 1956.
1. The American Hungarian Federation Web site is an excellent source for photos. See http://www.americanhungarianfederation.org/1956/photos.htm.
2. Media coverage included wire services, network television, and numerous articles in the New York Times. See also the Radio Free Europe digital index on world press coverage at www.osaarchivum.org/digitalarchive/rferl_mc/index.html.
3. I originally found Béla Lipták’s account, “Testament of Revolution,” online at www.mefesz.hu, but it seems to have been removed. The account is also available in paperback of the same name published by Texas A & M University Press in 2007.
4. Victor Sebestyen, Twelve Days: The Story of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising (New York: Pantheon, 2006); see the PB Web site for more sources.
5. Minutes of 290th National Security Council meeting, July 12, 1956, available at www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc2.pdf.
6. According to correspondence of Clive Gray between November 1956 and January 1957, those present in Vienna included Frank Ferrari, WAY; Eugene Metz, Free Europe Committee; Mike Iovenko, WUS; Shepard Stone, International Association for Cultural Freedom; Crawford Young, COSEC; and Clive Gray, NSA. See H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), December 9, 1956, twenty-three page report to Larkin for information on WAY, RFE, WUS, and COSEC. See also, January 23, 1957, Gray’s ten-page report to Larkin asking for information on Stone.
7. H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), December 23, 1956, Larkin to Gray.
8. The NSA was a co-sponsor of this event, along with the International Rescue Committee. See Box 211 (Hungary), November 9, 1956, confidential memo from Harold Bakken to Bruce Larkin re meeting with Bujdosó afterward. Clive Gray and John Simons from FYSA were also in attendance.
9. See “Laszlo Calls upon Public Opinion to Save Hungary,” Harvard Crimson, November 16, 1956. An AP photo of “Laszlo” giving testimony is in the plates section of this volume.
10. See H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), November 27, 1956, a scathing letter from Marian Lowe to NSA officers in Cambridge, accusing them of treating Laszlo (Bujdosó) like a circus animal.
11. Quoted in “Hungarian Says Leaders Need Help,” Greensboro Daily News, November 29, 1956.
12. Ibid. See the PB Web site for Radio Free Europe funding sources.
13. American campuses held spontaneously rallies in support of the Hungarian uprising. The NSA requested that funds go to the New York office of the World University Service (formerly the World Student Service Fund). See, for example, “Students Rush Aid to Hungary,” Clarion, November 30, 1956, the newspaper of Brevard Methodist College, which reported that Yale, Hunter, Stanford, and the California Institute of Technology had raised over ten thousand dollars. Some checks came directly to the NSA: see H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), March 10, 1957, Allan Janger, NSA publications staff letter, to Ralph Della Cava re composition of support.
14. H/NSA, Box 37 (IUS Corres.), November 21, 1956, cable to IUS Prague.
15. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), contains Gray’s voluminous letters and reports.
16. Interview with Clive Gray, Greensboro, Vt., September 1 and 2, 2005.
17. IISH ISC, Box 483, Hostel photo.
18. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), November 17, 1956, Gray, report on Vienna activities.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., November 19, 1956, Gray, Report on Vienna activities.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., December 9, 1956, Gray to Larkin.
23. H/NSA, Box 26 (Edwards), Edwards’s résumé; information on COSEC release, Box 211 (Hungary), December 20, 1956, Larkin reporting Gray’s assurance to National Executive Committee representative Jim Greene (Minnesota-Dakotas region).
24. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), December 20, 1956, Larkin to Greene.
25. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), November 19, 1956, Gray to Larkin.
26. Ibid., December 9, 1956, Gray, twenty-three-page report to Larkin on events in Vienna.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), December 10, 1956, Gray to Niels Thygesen, Danish student leader.
35. Ibid., January 23, 1957, Gray to Larkin. Gray returned to Vienna after the Polish trip and remained until January 16, 1957.
36. H/NSA, Box 25 (Della Cava), December 22, 1956, Vienna report.
37. IISH ISC, Box 441 (Hungary), January 24, 1957, Edwards memo re conversation with Ferenc Molnar.
38. H/NSA, Box 212 (UFHS), March 15, 1957, Della Cava to Clive Gray and Robert Fisher (NSA Japan).
39. H/NSA, Box 213, February 3, 1957, Della Cava report.
40. Interview with Ralph Della Cava, New York, November 1, 2005.
41. See H/NSA, Boxes 211–15, for hundreds of reports and letters detailing the infighting and difficulties that the NSA faced in Vienna and New York when trying to put together a federation and select Hungarian student leaders for tours. For an example of Janko’s decisions, see Box 211, March 6, 1957, NSA cable reporting that Janko had accused a potential nominee for the Asian trip of immorality and warning of dire consequences if the NSA didn’t stop interfering in the selection process. See Box 212, March 15, 1957, Della Cava letter to Clive Gray and Robert Fisher (Japan) on these issues.
42. H/NSA, Box 212 (Hungary), March 15, 1957, Della Cava to Gray and Fisher.
43. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), n.d. [ca. January 1957], Notice of Catherwood Foundation grant by Helen C. Whittemore, Secretary.
44. Ibid., February 8, 1957, notification of grant award from William A. Smith, San Jacinto Fund.
45. W/NSA, Box 103 (FYSA); see also H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), n.d., Memo to University Travel for round-trip transportation to Chicago for sixty-eight Hungarian students to form an American federation of Hungarian Students in June 1957, later called the American-Hungarian Students Association. See also H/NSA, Box 215 (Hungary), undated memo (no author), following the Asian tour, recommending that a UFHS delegation attend a scheduled meeting of the Latin American Student Congress rather than conduct a separate tour.
46. H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), n.d. Gray cable to Della Cava.
47. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), July 26, 1957, cable to NSA Headquarters. The ellipsis replaces a comma.
48. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), May 23, 1957, Gray to Larkin.
49. H/NSA, Box 212 (UFHS), March 15, 1957, Della Cava to Fisher and Gray.
50. Interview with Gray.
51. H/NSA, Box 214 (UFHS), December 18, 1957, UFHS team transcript.
52. Ibid.
53. H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), February 2, 1957, Fisher to Ralph Della Cava.
54. Ibid.
55. Gyula Várallyay, Tanulmány-Úton: Az Emigráns Magyar Diákmozgalom 1956 után (Budapest: Századvég Kiadó, 1992), 173. I am grateful to Clive Gray for loaning me a copy of the volume and to Julia Kocz for translating it.
56. Ibid. 172.
57. Ibid.
58. H/NSA, Box 217 (Hungary), September 16, 1957, “Discussions with Charles Derecskey at Ibadan.”
59. Ibid.
60. Várallyay, Tanulmány-Úton, 180–81.
61. H/NSA, Box 217, February 7, 1958, John Simons to UFHS President Aladár Meréyni.
62. H/NSA, Box 211 (Hungary), November 17, 1957, Ralph Della Cava to Derecskey re rejection of grant request.
63. Ibid. Della Cava conveyed Simon’s complaint about the lack of reports and suggested a strategy for gaining FYSA’s approval for additional funds. In this instance, Della Cava is fully in favor of the Hungarian students’ agenda.
64. H/NSA, Box 217 (Hungary), February 7, 1958, Simons to Meréyni re three separate grant requests.
65. H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), April 10, 1962, UFHS president George Hursan to Donald Emmerson, NSA international vice president, expressing upset over grant denial.
66. Ibid., December 7–8, 1962, Unidentified author, most likely Donald Emmerson, Report on two-day UFHS Congress in Leysin, Switzerland, noting his response to UFHS officers’ anger over FYSA actions.
67. The Hungarians continued to receive some funding from Eugene Metz of the Free Europe Committee. See Várallyay, Tanulmány-Úton, 252.
1. NARA, RG 800.4089/8-1849; RG 800.4089/8-2449; RG 59 800.4614/8-1751; 800.4614/10-1751. More detail on U.S. government actions re the 1949 and 1951 World Youth Festivals may be found at the PB Web site.
2. Gerome Goodman, “I Crashed Stalin’s Party,” Collier’s Weekly, November 10, 1951, 26–27. Although at the time Goodman denied taking down individual names, he turned a list over to American authorities in Berlin: see NARA, RG 800.4614/8-1751, August 1951, from Bryant Buckingham, American Consul, Berlin to Sec/State. Buckingham reported that Goodman sorted the names into wolves (“real communists”) and sheep (“festival is for peace”). He also supplied photographs.
3. H/NSA, Box 25 (Della Cava), June 30, 1957, Della Cava report to unknown recipients.
4. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), April 30, 1957, Gray to Larkin.
5. Ibid.
6. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), March 14, 1957, Young to Larkin.
7. Interview with Richard Medalie, Washington, D.C., June 10, 2005.
8. Ibid.
9. H/NSA, Box 127 (International Team Corres.), July 1, 1950, Medalie memo to NSA president Robert Kelly confirming that the donation from Brittingham (identifying him by name) had arrived.
10. Interview with Medalie.
11. Ibid.
12. H/NSA, Box 32 (Sigmund), July 17, 1956, Gray to Sigmund.
13. Sydney Ladensohn Stern, taped interview with George Abrams, courtesy of Stern. Stern interviewed Abrams for her biography Gloria Steinem: Her Passions, Politics, and Mystique (Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press, 1997).
14. Interview with Medalie.
15. George Abrams, “Talking with Russians,” New Republic, October 14, 1957, 13–16.
16. Interview with Medalie.
17. Ibid.
18. Stern interview with Abrams.
19. The report, “United Nations Report on the Hungarian Uprising, 1956,” can be accessed at libcom.org, http://libcom.org/history/united-nations-report-hungarian-uprising-1956.
20. Interview with Medalie.
21. Abrams, “Talking with Russians,” 13.
22. Robert Carl Cohen, “Forbidden Journey, Part 1: America–Moscow, 1957,” 2009, Radical Films, http://radfilms.com/America_Moscow.html; the quotation is the caption to the still “Moscow, Lenin Stadium—July 1957” at http://radfilms.com/1957_forbidden_journey_moscow_stadium.htm.
23. H/NSA, Box 107 (ISRS), August 14, 1957, Medalie Confidential Report.
24. Pia Koivunen, “The 1957 Moscow Youth Festival,” in Soviet State and Society Under Nikita Khrushchev, ed. Melanic Ilic (London: Routledge, 2009), 54.
25. The UPI report put the figure at a hundred instead of a thousand.
26. H/NSA, Box 107 (ISRS), August 14, 1957, Medalie Confidential Report.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Max Frankel, “Polyglot Youth in Moscow Debate,” New York Times, August 2, 1957.
32. “Soviet Chides U.S. Youth,” New York Times, August 9, 1957.
33. H/NSA, Box 298 (WFDY), press clippings.
34. Interview with Medalie.
35. H/NSA, Box 155 (World Youth Festival), press clippings.
36. Interview with Medalie.
37. Ibid.
38. “Americans Abroad: The Mis-Guided Tour,” Time, August 26, 1957, 9.
39. Max Frankel, “41 Defy Warning, Set off for China,” New York Times, August 14, 1957.
40. Robert Carl Cohen, “Inside Red China,” 1957, Radical Films, Radfilms.com/china.html.
41. Interview with Clive Gray, Greensboro, Vt., September 1 and 2, 2005. For information on Joanne Grant, see her obituary in the New York Times, January 15, 2005.
42. H/NSA, 106 (5th ISRS), summer 1958. Medalie excerpted some of his report on the festival in a mimeographed handout when he briefed ISRS delegates on NSA festival policy issues.
43. Abrams, “Talking with Russians,” 14.
44. Ibid.
45. Raymond Garthoff, A Journey Through the Cold War (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2001), 36.
46. For information on David and Alexander Dallin, see “Alexander Dallin Dies: Precise Historian of Russia,” New York Times, July 27, 2000.
47. Harry Rositzke, The CIA’s Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1988), 163.
48. Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society Since 1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 132. Stites describes the Moscow festival as constituting a “great cultural turning point.” See also Yale Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain (University Park, Md.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003).
49. Interview with Yevgeni Yevtushenko, Red Spring, episode 14, at http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-14/yevtushenko1.html.
50. Richmond, Cultural Exchange and the Cold War, 12.
51. Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War from Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 175.
52. Ibid.
53. Koivunen, “The 1957 Moscow Youth Festival,” 60.
1. H/NSA, Box 197 (Egypt), January 29–February 2, 1957, Clive Gray report, “Egyptian Student Movement,” 36.
2. Ibid. 37.
3. H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria ’56–’57), n.d., Paul Sigmund, “Report on UNEF and Algeria.”
4. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), January 1957, Crawford Young report, “The Student Movement in Europe,” 1.
5. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), April 17–18, 1958, Moore, “Algerian conference in England.”
6. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), November 7, 1956, Young to Larkin.
7. Ibid.
8. H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria ’56–’57), November 6, 1956, Bakken to UGEMA leaders.
9. H/NSA, Box 213 (Hungary), December 23, 1956, Larkin to Gray re remaining silent on the Suez crisis.
10. H/NSA, Box 27 (Fisher), November 26, 1956, Robert C. Fisher, first report to Larkin as an NSA representative in Japan.
11. Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962 (New York: Macmillan, 1977), 247; see also Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 130.
12. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), March 1, 1957, Young to Larkin.
13. Ibid.
14. Horne, “The Battle of Algiers, January–March 1957,” in A Savage War of Peace, 183–207. The film Battle for Algiers, a fictionalized depiction of the siege, remains a classic in urban guerrilla warfare.
15. Paul Aussaresses, Special Services, Algeria, 1955–1957 (Paris: Parrin: 2001).
16. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), March 1, 1957, Young to Larkin.
17. On UGEMA arrests and the need for scholarships, see, for example, ibid., January 25, 1957, Young to Larkin; March 14, 1957, Young to Larkin; November 10, 1957, Young to Richard Beck.
18. Ibid., March 3, 1957, Young to Harris.
19. H/NSA, Box 157 (Algeria 1957–58), March 26, 1957, Harris cable to Young.
20. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), July 22, 1957, Young to Larkin.
21. H/NSA, Box 26 (Duberman), June 8, 1954, Duberman letter to Bebchick re the need for funds to bring French critics of ISC to the United States.
22. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), June 1, 1957, Crawford Young to Bruce Larkin.
23. John F. Kennedy, “Imperialism—Enemy of Freedom,” Congressional Record CIII, Part 8, July 2, 1957, 10783–84, available at http://www.jfklink.com/speeches/jfk/congress/jfk020757_imperialism.html.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Jim DiEugenio, “Dodd and Dulles vs. Kennedy in Africa,” Probe 6, no. 2 (January–February 1999), quoting Los Angeles Herald Express of July 5, 1957, available at http://www.ctka.net/pr199-africa.html.
27. Dulles quoted in Connelly, Diplomatic Revolution, 145. Kennedy’s speech was characterized in “Foreign Relations: Burned Hands Across the Sea,” Time, July 15, 1957.
28. Connelly, Diplomatic Revolution, 145.
29. John F. Kennedy in Congressional Record CIII, Part 8, July 8, 1957.
30. Ibid.
31. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), July 22, 1957, Young to Larkin.
32. Ibid.
33. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), August 6, 1957, Gray, letter to Larkin.
34. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), June 1, 1957, Young to Larkin.
35. H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria ’56–’57), November 21, 1957, Young to Larkin.
36. Ibid., February 4, 1958, Larkin to Senator Kennedy.
37. IISH ISC, Box 1089 (Algeria ’56–’59), Circular No. 18/1957–58 on the arrest of Khemisti. See also H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria).
38. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), December 2, 1957, Moore to Larkin.
39. H/NSA, Box 26 (Emmerson), October 17, 1962, Don Smith report to Don Emmerson on the White House reception with Ben Bella and the private meeting. See the photograph of Ben Bella and Khemisti in the plates section of this volume.
40. Ibid., November 10, 1957, Moore to international assistant Richard Beck.
41. H/NSA, Box 88 (Algerian Scholarships), October 5, 1958, Idzik to Willard Johnson.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Interview with Daniel Idzik, Otis, Mass., August 29, 2005.
47. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), December 2, 1957, Moore to Larkin.
48. Interview with Crawford Young, Madison, Wisc., October 17, 2005. He discovered the existence of this dossier the year after he left Paris, when he returned to testify on behalf on UGEMA leaders who were on trial. For months he darted in and out of Paris, often leaving minutes ahead of the French police.
49. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), Clement Moore, “J’Accuse,” an undated account of his January 13, 1958, arrest.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid., January 28, 1958, Larkin to Moore, reiterating earlier statements.
52. H/NSA, Box 156 (Algeria ’56–’57), December 26, 1957, Moore’s speech; see also Box 32 (Moore), December 27, 1957, French translation in Le Monde.
53. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), January 17, 1958, Moore to Larkin.
54. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), March 11, 1958, Gray to Larkin.
55. Ibid., February 11, 1958, Gray to Indonesian Nugroho Notosusanto.
56. IISH ISC, Box 1089 (Algeria ’57–’58), February 28, 1958, Young to Larkin.
57. Ibid., February 17, 1958, Young rejects request for Moore speech; see also H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), February 15, 1958, Young to Larkin.
58. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), November 10, 1957, Moore to Richard Beck.
59. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), April 17–18, 1958, Moore report on the Algerian conference in England.
60. H/NSA, Box 158 (Algeria), newspaper clippings; see also IISH ISC, Box 1089 (Algeria ’57–’58).
61. IISH ISC, Box 1089 (Algeria ’57–’58), February 15, 1958, Crawford Young to Yugoslav student officials.
62. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 539.
63. H/NSA, Box 157 (Algeria ’59–’60), June 1, 1959, Scholarship program announcement.
64. For scholarship information, see the PB Web site.
65. Interview with Idzik; see also H/NSA, Box 30 (Correspondence), December 19–23, 1960, conference transcript.
66. Julia Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).
67. Ramón L. Bonachea and Marta San Martín, The Cuban Insurrection, 1952–1959 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1974), 69–70.
68. Ibid. 71.
69. Ibid. 107. Echeverría physically assaulted Castro’s letter carrier, Faustino Pérez, when he discovered that Castro had accused Echeverría of treason and betrayal.
70. Bonachea and Martín, Cuban Insurrection, 116.
71. Ibid., 60.
72. Ibid., 119.
73. Ibid. 129.
74. H/NSA, Box 16 (COSEC), April 9, 1957, Circular 42/1956–57, Reference 110/Cuba.
75. H/NSA, Box 25 (Della Cava), June 1, 1957, Della Cava to Larkin.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid., June 30, 1957, Della Cava to Larkin.
78. Ibid., June 19, 1957, Della Cava to Larkin.
79. H/NSA, Box 59 (10th Congress), copy of the August 1957 NSA Congress resolution on Cuba.
80. “Latin Aid Queried,” New York Times, March 1, 1959.
81. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 412.
82. Ibid.
83. Interview with Luigi Einaudi, Washington, D.C., December 7, 2007.
84. Enrique Cirules, The Mafia in Havana (New York: Ocean Press, 2004). See also, Thomas G. Paterson, Contesting Castro: The United States and the Cuban Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 63.
85. Lyman Kirkpatrick, The Real CIA (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 162.
86. Ibid., 159.
87. Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 179.
88. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba), April 24, 1958, Robert K. Brown to Lucille Dubois, NSA subcommission; Box 73, July 15, 1958, Dubois to Larkin.
89. Sweig, Inside the Cuban Revolution, 70–71.
90. H/NSA, Box 26 (Einaudi), January 14, 1957, Larkin to Einaudi.
91. H/NSA, Box 228 (Latin America), April 14, 1958, Dubois to Larkin. See also Boxes 73, 227.
92. H/NSA, Box 63 (Int’l Commission Reports), March 21, 1958, Della Cava to Dubois.
93. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba), April 29, 1958, Dubois to Robert K. Brown.
94. H/NSA, Box 59 (11th NSA Congress), August 1958, Copy of resolution on arms embargo.
95. Jules Dubois, Fidel Castro: Rebel, Liberator or Dictator? (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959), 363.
96. H/NSA, Box 63 (NSA News), reported in the February 1959 NSA newsletter.
97. Ibid.
98. Interview with Robert Kiley, Cambridge, Mass., January 22, 2008.
99. H/NSA, Box 32 (Marcus), 1959–60, copies of Robert and Manuel Aragon biographical information.
100. Interview with Kiley; see also H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba 59–60), February 2–3, 1959, on the trip to Havana. Robert Kiley and Bruce Larkin were guests of Reynaldo Corpion, then an aide to Juan Nuiry Sánchez, a participant in the palace attack (1957) and described in 1959 as the “number three man in the army.”
101. H/NSA, Box 191 (Cuba), September 1959, NSA Congress, José Puente Blanco speech.
102. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 507.
103. H/NSA, Box 228 (Latin America), January 16, 1960, Della Cava letter to Bruce Larkin (COSEC).
104. Paget Files: “Ninth International Student Conference, Resolutions,” 91.
105. Ibid.
106. Interview with Kiley.
107. “Cuba: Caning the Students,” Time, March 18, 1966.
108. Telephone interview with Paul Becker, Toronto, Canada, August 14, 2006.
109. Interview with Tony Smith, New York, November 7 and 9, 2007. See Chapter 18, below, for more on Cubela.
1. H/NSA, Box 28 (Gray), May 26, 1958, Gray to Larkin.
2. H/NSA, Box 299 (WFDY, 59–63), December 1, 1958, Bruce Larkin to Willard Johnson; “Memorandum of Discussion of the 415th Meeting of the National Security Council” (July 30, 1959), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, vol. 3: National Security Policy: Arms Control and Disarmament, Document 69, available at U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian Web site, http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v03/d69.
3. Interview with Richard Medalie, Washington, D.C., June 10, 2005.
4. Interview with Clive Gray, Cambridge, Mass., January 19, 2000. For attacks on Steinem by radical feminists, see Sydney Ladensohn Stern, “The Redstockings, Gloria, and the CIA,” in her Gloria Steinem: Her Passions, Politics, and Mystique (Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press, 1997), 291–306.
5. Interview with Gray.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 63 (Internat’l Student News), November 16, 1958, for a complete list of IRS incorporators. It includes Clement Moore, William J. Spinny, Prescott Evans, John Voll, Hull Daniels.
8. Ansara Files (IRS), Typed compilation of incorporation dates/names.
9. Interview with Leonard Bebchick, Washington, D.C., April 27, 2000.
10. H/NSA, Box 63 (Internat’l Student News), February 1958, Independent Service for Information on the Vienna Youth Festival, and the position of the U.S. Department of State.
11. Abrams quoted in “Our 400 and the Reds,” Newsweek, July 6, 1959.
12. H/NSA, Box 55 (WYF), May 8, 1958, Clement Moore report, “Vienna Trip, May 5–8.”
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid. See also H/NSA, Box 299 (WFDY, 59–63), December 1, 1958, Larkin letter to Johnson re the same fear of demonstrators.
15. H/NSA, Box 55 (WYF), May 8, 1958, Clement Moore report.
16. H/NSA, Box 299 (WFDY, 59–63), December 1, 1958, Larkin to Johnson.
17. Ibid.
18. For an overview, see “The Vienna Youth Festival,” July 15, 1958, Background report, Archival I.D.: HU OSA 300-8-3-13174, Records of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Institute at Open Society Archives at www.osaarchivum.org.
19. Oliver Rathkolb, “Austria Between Neutrality and Non-Alliance, 1953–2000,” Journal of European Integration History 7, no. 2 (2001):103–26.
20. Interview with Bebchick.
21. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: Norton, 2003). See especially chapter 15, “The Berlin Crisis and the American Trip: 1958–1959,” 396–441.
22. Biographical data on C. D. Jackson can be found at the Web site of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, www.eisenhower.archives.gov.
23. Kai Bird, The Chairman: John J. McCloy—the Making of the American Establishment (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 483–84.
24. Interview with Bebchick.
25. Harrington’s commitment to the underprivileged later led him to publish his landmark study The Other America (1962), which put poverty on the American political agenda. See Maurice Isserman, The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington (New York: Perseus, 2001).
26. Isserman, Other American, 171.
27. Interview with Walter Pincus, Washington, D.C., March 24, 2006.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid. Pincus recounted that Bill Dentzer invited him to dinner and Cord Meyer suddenly “jumped out of the shadows.”
30. Interview with Bebchick.
31. Romerstein worked for the New York State Legislature and frequently testified about “subversive” activities. See Paul Kengor, “Remembering Herb Romerstein,” American Spectator, May 10, 2013, at www.spectator.org/archives.
32. Joseph Keeley, Alfred Kohlberg: The China Lobby Man (New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1969), 245.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid. See also Congressional Record, 86th Congress, Charles Wiley HUAC testimony, February 4, 1960.
35. Stephen Unsino, as told to Phil Santora, “Diary of a ‘Red’ Delegate, Daily News Special Feature, August 12, 1959; Charles Wiley testified before Congress that he infiltrated the New York group: Congressional Record, Wiley HUAC testimony.
36. Interview with Thomas Garrity, Boulder, Colo., September 24, 1998.
37. H/NSA, Box 299 (WFDY 59–63), n.d. [early 1959], John Simons’s handwritten notes re festival plans.
38. Giles Scott-Smith, e-mail communication with the author re NATO archives, March 4, 2004; see also H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), July 11, 1958, Moore to Larkin re NATO involvement.
39. Bird, The Chairman, 484.
40. Ibid., 485.
41. Interview with Medalie.
42. Interview with Malcolm Rivkin, Bethesda, Md., May 5, 2000.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid. See also AP photo, Boston Traveler, July 30, 1959.
46. Charles Wiley, part of the Romerstein group, named Jean Garcias: see Congressional Record, Wiley HUAC testimony.
47. Interview with Rivkin.
48. Interview with Steve Max, New York, May 3, 2000.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Ramón L. Bonachea and Marta San Martín, The Cuban Insurrection, 1952–1959 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1974), 351.
52. Interview with Medalie.
53. Interview with Bebchick.
54. Ibid.
55. Interviews with Bebchick and Medalie.
56. Interview with Bebchick.
57. Raymond L. Garthoff, A Journey Through the Cold War (Washington, D.C., Brookings Institution Press, 2001), 35.
58. William Blum, Killing Hope (London: Zed, 2003), 61.
59. Bird, The Chairman, 484.
60. Interview with Pincus.
61. Bird, The Chairman, 484.
62. Ibid.
63. Ibid.
64. Interview with Bebchick.
65. Ibid.
66. New York Times, July 29, 1959.
67. Interview with Pincus.
68. Ibid.
69. Interview with Bebchick.
70. Interviews with Pincus and Bebchick. Pincus remembers sheets being tied together; Bebchick called them banners.
71. Interview with Bebchick.
72. Ibid.
73. Cliff F. Thompson, “Vienna Festival Chants ‘Peace, Friendship,” Harvard Crimson, October 14, 1959.
74. Sydney Ladensohn Stern, taped interview with Clive Gray, courtesy of Stern. Stern interviewed Gray for Gloria Steinem.
75. Ibid.
76. Interview with Clive Gray, Greensboro, Vt., September 1–2, 2005.
77. “Reds Displeased with Red Fete,” New York Times, October 26, 1959.
78. Kennedy met with witting NSA students who opposed the 1962 Helsinki Festival. See Cord Meyer, Jr., Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 103.
79. Stuart Weisberg, Barney Frank: The Story of America’s Only Left-Handed, Gay, Jewish Congressman (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2009), 50. Frank, who went to Helsinki with the Steinem group, wrote that more Finns than Africans came to the nightclub.
80. Interview with Gray, September 1–2, 2005.
81. O. Igho Natufe, Soviet Policy in Africa: From Lenin to Brezhnev (Bloomington, Ind.: iUniverse, 2011).
1. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy: 1958–1964 (New York: Norton, 1997), 5–11.
2. Daniel Flynn, interview with Howard Phillips, April 17, 2005, Conservative USA, at www.conservativeusa.org, part 3, and at www.flynnfiles.com/blog/phillips/phillips3.htm.
3. H/NSA, Box 189 (Cuba 1958–60), April 25, 1959, NSA press release.
4. Phillips founded the Conservative Caucus in 1974; see his Web site: Conservative USA (www.conservativeusa.org).
5. Flynn interview of Phillips, part 3.
6. Richard E. Ashcraft and Peter J. Rothenberg, “Lonely Men of Harvard,” Harvard Crimson, September 30, 1958; see also FOIA (CIA), #1250, Harvard report on the NSA.
7. FOIA (CIA), #1250, Harvard report on the NSA.
8. Peter J. Rothenberg, “Council Refuses Request for Discussion on NSA,” Harvard Crimson, September 25, 1958; Richard E. Ashcraft, “Council Defeats Motion to Study NSA Decision,” Harvard Crimson, September 30, 1958; “Students Report Petition for NSA Vote Complete,” Harvard Crimson, October 3, 1958.
9. Andrew Warshaw, letter to the editor, “NSA: Rationale for Leaving,” Harvard Crimson, October 11, 1958.
10. Reported in “Controversy Arises over NSA Decision,” Harvard Crimson, September 24, 1958.
11. H/NSA, Box 73 (LA Sub-commission), July 15, 1958, Dubois to Larkin.
12. H/NSA, Box 24 (M. Aragon), December 4, 1958, Manuel Aragon to Willard Johnson.
13. SLATE’s history can be found online at SLATE Archives, slatearchives.org/history.htm.
14. Interview with Isabel Marcus, Buffalo, N.Y., August 26, 1999.
15. Ibid.
16. H/NSA, Box 24 (Baad). See, for example, a document of December 23, 1959, in which Miller outlined a strategy in a letter to David Baad at COSEC to remove a Marcus letter from COSEC files.
17. Interview with Marcus. I heard jokes about staff members and their case officers during the year my husband was with the NSA.
18. H/NSA, Box 108 (ISRS), Spring 1959, Don Hoffman application for ISRS.
19. H/NSA, Box 28 (Hoffman), September 19, 1960, Hoffman to NSA president Richard Rettig re Dubrovnik meeting.
20. Interview with Donald Hoffman, Madison, Wisc., July 25, 1997.
21. Ibid. During the interview Hoffman confirmed his witting status and subsequent work with the CIA. The seven-year career figure is also contained in his obituary, “Donald Hoffman, Former New Orleans City Attorney, Dies at Age 76,” Times-Picayune, May 25, 2012. His last post/cover was with the U.S. Mission to European Regional Organizations in Paris. Not long before he died, Hoffman bragged to a former NSA colleague, Robert Walters, about how many agents he had run while in Paris (Walters, e-mail to me, December 8, 2012).
22. FOIA (CIA), #3, December 3, 1958, declassified memo on office integration re security concerns, particularly the problem of financial accounting.
23. Jerry Glaser, “MIT Disaffiliates with NSA: Kaplan Proposes Alternate Group,” The Tech, November 9, 1959.
24. Interview with Curtis Gans, Washington, D.C., May 5, 2000.
25. Interview with Timothy Jenkins, Washington, D.C., December 5, 2007.
26. Interview with Gans.
27. Ibid.
28. Interview with Jenkins.
29. The Taconic and Field Foundations were leading civil rights funders. Taconic, an early supporter of Martin Luther King, funded the NSA-sponsored meeting of April 22–23, 1960, on the sit-in movement, publicizing its support in campus newspapers. See, for example, Mary Frances Barone, “Gordon Roberts, Jim Walters Attend National Conference,” Wilkes College Beacon, April 29, 1960. The Field Foundation supported another NSA project, the Southern Student Human Relations Seminar in Atlanta, directed by Constance Curry, who wrote about re-directing funds to support the civil rights movement in 1960 without objection by Field. See Constance Curry, “NSA’s Southern Civil Rights Initiatives,” in American Students Organize: Founding the National Student Association after World War II, ed. Eugene G. Schwartz ([Westport, Conn.]: American Council on Education/Praeger, 2006), 447.
30. John Lewis, Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (New York: Harcourt, 1998).
31. Constance Curry, “Wild Geese to the Past,” in Constance Curry et. al., Deep in Our Hearts: Nine White Women in the Freedom Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002), 14.
32. FOIA (FBI), Press clipping, T. R. Bassett, “Students from 38 States Map South Sitdown Aid,” Wall Street Journal, May 1, 1960.
33. Interview with Jenkins.
34. FOIA (FBI), May 10, 1960, A. H. Belmont to D. J. Parsons; attached is a March 3, 1960, memo from Hoover.
35. See Taylor Branch’s seminal histories Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999) and At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006).
36. FOIA (FBI), Press clipping, “Student Leader Denies Reds Inspire Protests,” New York Post, July, 19, 1960.
37. Ibid.
38. The KPFA archives contain recordings of the HUAC hearings and interviews with demonstrators: www.kpfa.org/history.info/huac_home.html. See also television footage excerpted from Berkeley in the Sixties, a Documentary, by Mark Kitchell at http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=berkeley+in+the+sixties+documentary.
39. John A. Andrew III, The Other Side of the Sixties: Young Americans for Freedom and the Rise of Conservative Politics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 26.
40. Tom Hayden reprints Cason’s speech in his memoir, Reunion (New York: Random House, 1998), 40–42.
41. Curry, “Wild Geese to the Past,” 19. See also David Barber, A Hard Rain Fell: SDS and Why It Failed (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008), 99–100.
42. FOIA (FBI), Press clipping. The final vote was reported in “Students in Action,” Daily Worker, September 18, 1960.
43. H/NSA, Box 35 (Misc. corres.), August 1961, “Inside NSA” (copy in file); the essay contains Phillips’s views.
44. Interview with Neal Johnston, New York, June 25, 2005.
45. H/NSA Box 28 (Hoffman), September 19, 1960, re Hoffman special mission to see Weissman.
46. Interview with Gary Weissman, Minneapolis, August 11, 2003.
47. Conversation with Jenkins at the NSA reunion, Madison, Wisc., July 26, 1997; Jenkins repeated his observation during his later interview.
48. Interview with Gans.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Gregory L. Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism: Young Americans for Freedom and the Rise of the Contemporary Right (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 60–61.
52. Andrew, Other Side of the Sixties, 125.
53. Telephone interview with Kay Wonderlic Kolbe, Phoenix, Az., June 8, 2006.
54. Paget Files: copy of Kay Wonderlic’s report, “An Analysis of the Structural and Functional Aspects of the United States National Student Association.”
55. M. Stanton Evans, “The Battle Against NSA,” in Revolt on Campus (New York: Regnery, 1961), 156.
56. Wonderlic, “Analysis,” 17. The Conference on Foreign Student Affairs was the name given at the 1959 and 1960 NSA Congresses to a group meeting for all foreign students in attendance.
57. Evans, “Battle Against NSA,” 156.
58. For an overview of Al Haber, Tom Hayden, and the early SDS, see Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS: The Rise and Development of Students for a Democratic Society (New York: Vintage, 1973). See also Hayden’s memoir, Reunion.
59. National Security Archives, a private nonprofit at George Washington University, has a special collection of declassified documents on the U.S. government actions re Cuba leading up to the Bay of Pigs and after at http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/.
60. Interview with Luigi Einaudi, Washington, D.C., December 7, 2007.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Casey Hayden [Sandra Cason], “Fields of Blue,” in Curry et al., Deep in Our Hearts, 340.
64. “Education: Campus Conservatives,” Time, February 10, 1961.
1. Studies on the Left, a journal published by Madison activists, is available in most university libraries. See also C. Wright Mills, Listen Yankee: The Revolution in Cuba (New York: Ballantine, 1961).
2. H/NSA, Box 35 (Misc. Corres.), David Duval, editor, Committee for a Responsive National Student Organization Newsletter, vol. 1, no. 1 (August 7, 1961).
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., “Liberal Reform Group Started” (report on Barney Frank’s activities).
5. Interview with Curtis Gans, Washington, D.C., May 5, 2000.
6. John A. Andrew III, The Other Side of the Sixties: Young Americans for Freedom and the Rise of Conservative Politics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), 98.
7. FOIA (FBI), SAC [Special Agent in Charge], heavily redacted coverage of NSA Congress, Milwaukee, September 13, 1961.
8. Ibid.
9. H/NSA, Box 35 (Misc. Corres.), copy of Rettig’s August 1961 speech to the fourteenth NSA Congress.
10. Ibid., Rettig mimeographed report to the NEC, August 1961.
11. Rick Perlstein, Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus (New York: Nation, 2009), 155.
12. Ibid., 109.
13. Andrew, Other Side of the Sixties, 84.
14. Paget Files: Copy of NSA Codification of Policy, 1961. This booklet contains resolutions passed by the 1961 NSA Congress.
15. Operation Abolition can be seen on YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MeiW63M3bcI.
16. Robert M. Schuchman, “Charge of the Light Brigade,” National Review 11, no. 10 (September 9, 1961): 161; see also Richard Merbaum, “The Right at NSA,” New University Thought 2 (Autumn 1961): 29.
17. Paget Files: NSA Codification of Policy 1961.
18. H/NSA, Box 190 (Cuba ’60–’61), n.d. [ca. January 1961], Dubois to James Scott.
19. Ibid., February 2, 1961, Manuel Aragon to Dubois.
20. A Bay of Pigs chronology is available at the National Security Archive Web site: “Bay of Pigs: 40 Years After,” www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/bayofpigs/chron.html.
21. Meyer, Box 5, Diary, entry of November 21, 1961.
22. H/NSA, Box 24 (M Aragon), June 20, 1961, Manuel Aragon to Tom Patton, Catholic University student body president.
23. FRUS, 1961–63, vol. 11: Cuba, Document 349, Office of Current Intelligence detail on student activity, July 3, 1962.
24. H/NSA, Box 24 (M Aragon), December 21, 1960, Aragon to Richard Miller.
25. H/NSA, Box 41 (IUS-Havana), Report of the IUS Executive Committee meeting, May 23–June 2, 1961.
26. Ansara Files: copy of May 23–June 2, 1961, IUS Executive Committee, General Resolution on Cuba, Record of Proceedings, 70.
27. Interview with Robert Kiley, Cambridge, Mass., January 22, 2008.
28. FOIA (FBI), 1/36 (15–17), St. Louis Dispatch clipping.
29. “Liberal Control,” Time, September 1, 1961.
30. Schuchman, “YAF and the New Conservatism,” New Guard, cited in Andrew, Other Side of the Sixties, 98.
31. Ibid., Schuchman quoting Scott. See also Austin C. Wehrwein, “Students Appeal for Cuban Youths,” New York Times, August 21, 1961.
32. Jefferson Morley, interview with Manuel Salvat, Miami New Times, April 12, 2001.
33. FRUS, 1961–63, vol. 11: Cuba, Document 173, Memorandum from President Kennedy, November 30, 1961.
34. DRE students were happy to claim credit for the raid; see Newsweek, August 27, 1962. See also H/NSA, Box 191 (Cuba ’60–’61), “Complete Information on the raid of Castro’s Cuba by members of the Cuban Student Directorate,” The Cuban Report (DRE: 1962).
35. Van Gosse, Where the Boys Are: Cuba, Cold War America, and the Making of a New Left (New York: Verso, 1993), 122.
36. For more detail on key members of the exile DRE, see the PB Web site.
37. Shackley photo and quote in Morley, interview with Salvat.
38. Ibid.
39. H/NSA, Box 191 (Cuba), August 29, 1961, Salvat to Manuel Aragon. For information on Muller and Puente Blanco, see PB Web site.
40. Paget Files: NSA Codification of Policy 1961.
41. FOIA (FBI), September 13, 1961, SAC Milwaukee to Hoover, heavily redacted.
42. Interview with James Scott, Palo Alto, Calif., November 10, 1998. Scott identified the Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) questioner as Eustace Mendis, a former member of the COSEC staff.
43. NSA News release, August 22, 1961, courtesy of Tim Jenkins.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Austin C. Wehrwein, “Talk by Buckley Angers Students,” New York Times, August 23, 1961. FOIA (FBI), 1a/36, September 27, 1961, SAC Chicago to Hoover, includes a copy of Buckley’s defense in the National Review.
47. Information on SNCC affiliation vote is in Austin C. Wehrwein, “Students’ Vote Favors Abolition of Un-American Activities Unit,” New York Times, August 29, 1961.
48. H/NSA, Box 78 (Memoranda), March–April 1962, Ed Garvey report to NEC.
49. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), March 31, 1961, Kiley to Jim Scott.
50. Ibid.
51. Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1998), 50.
52. Ibid., 49.
53. Ibid., 51.
54. Ibid.
55. H/NSA, Box 30 (Corres. 1956–60), November 21, 1960, Matthew Iverson to Files re his views on Garvey.
56. Interview with Edward Garvey, Madison, Wisc., October 17, 2005.
57. Interview with Edward Garvey, Madison, Wisc., July 26, 1997.
58. Interview with Edward Garvey, Madison, Wisc., July 7, 1992.
59. Interview with Garvey, October 17.
60. Scott Kirkpatrick, “Emmerson, VP of NSA Finds Job Worthwhile,” The Daily Princeton, October 17, 1961.
61. Telephone interview with Kay Wonderlic Kolbe, Phoenix, Az., June 8, 2006.
62. Ibid.
63. FOIA (CIA), #489, declassified memo, February 8, 1962.
64. Telephone interview with Wonderlic Kolbe; Wonderlic later divorced YAF member James Kolbe, who became a U.S. congressman from Arizona.
65. FOIA (CIA), #489.
66. Ibid.
67. H/NSA, Box 123 (ISRS Regional), February 8, 1960, Gary Weissman to Gary Glenn.
1. “The Expendable Premier,” Time, June 27, 1960.
2. Quee-Young Kim, The Fall of Syngman Rhee (Berkeley: University of California East Asian Institute, February 1983).
3. NARA, RG 511.00/6-2460, Herter to All American Diplomatic and Consular Posts, World Youth Forum, Moscow—July and August, 1961.
4. H/NSA, Box 228 (Latin American—General), n.d. [ca. 1961], “Some Thoughts on Yesterday’s Meeting,” a conference of Catholic students affiliated with the Chilean-based ORMEU (Office of Relations of University Student Movements) in Santiago; the author is most likely Manuel or Robert Aragon.
5. H/NSA, Box 24 (Baad), December 6–8, 1959, Baad to Peter Hornsby (British representative on COSEC).
6. Ibid.
7. Interview with Ram Labhaya Lakhina, Leiden, the Netherlands, October 9, 2004. Lakhina, the last director of COSEC, showed me the location of the former offices and discussed the Pan American purchase.
8. Interview with Ronald Story, Amherst, Mass., August 30, 2005.
9. H/NSA, Box 33 (Young), July 14, 1959, Young to Johnson suggesting strategy to remove Hans Dall.
10. Interviews with Hans Dall, Gilleleje, Denmark, October 7–8, 2006, and with David Baad, Saddlebrooke, Ariz., January 13, 2009. Dall could never understand why the loan was forgiven.
11. Interview with Robert Kiley, Cambridge, Mass., January 22, 2008.
12. Ibid.
13. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), September 9, 1960, Kiley to Jim Scott, suggesting strategy to remove Eustace Mendis.
14. Interview with Jyoti Shankar Singh, New York, August 22, 2006.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. IISH ISC, Box 1221 (SupCom 1962), March 12, 1962, John J. Simons to COSEC Supervision Commission re seminar programs.
18. H/NSA, Box 28 (Hoffman), June 5, 1960, Hoffman to Scott.
19. Interview with Kiley.
20. William Finnegan, “Underground Man,” New Yorker, February 9, 2004.
21. H/NSA, Box 100 (FLSP), n.d. [ca. 1963], James Hendrick, FSLP history.
22. H/NSA, Box 31 (R Miller), December 26, 1959, James Scott, nineteen-page report on the FEANF (North African students) Congress, which includes a long discussion of Pan-Africanism. Scott suggested supporting it in public or principle but undermining specific applications.
23. Interview with David Baad, Saddlebrooke, Az., January 13, 2009.
24. H/NSA, Box 88 (African Scholarship), documentation on the NSA role at the Howard University conference, June 11–13, 1953.
25. Interview with Gwyn Morgan, London, October 11, 2006.
26. Ibid.
27. On Mutambanengwe’s anti-Western attitude, see H/NSA, Box 237 (Nigeria), September 23, 1963, Tony Smith, confidential report on the NUNS [National Union of Nigerian Students] congress, and Box 77 (IAB), sixteen-page confidential report by Alex Korns to International Advisory Board, February 10, 1964. The NSA suspected that Mutambanengwe had inspired criticism of the NUSAS for its lack of black members.
28. Interview with Kiley.
29. H/NSA, Box 32 (Moore), January 6, 1958, Clement Moore to Bruce Larkin.
30. H/NSA, Box 187 (Congo), June 15, 1961, James Scott, evaluation of N’Goya, also spelled N’Goie.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., n.d., late spring 1961, N’Goie to Scott, asking for scholarship assistance; June 14, 1961, Scott to N’Goie stating lack of scholarship opportunities (which suggests a loss of interest in him).
33. Kofi Annan never identifies the FSLP or NSA, citing a Ford Foundation scholarship. See, for example, Kofi Annan (with Nader Mousavizadeh), Interventions: A Life in War and Peace (New York: Penguin, 2012), 12–13, where he mentions a Ford Foundation talent scout at a conference in Sierra Leone. However, the Ford Foundation funded but never actively participated in FSLP. The timing of the conference suggests that Annan encountered Crawford Young, the NSA representative for Africa, who visited West Africa, including a meeting with the Ghanaian National Union of Students, in 1958. See H/NSA, Box 106 (5th ISRS), Crawford Young’s confidential report on his visit to Ghana and Kumasi, July 16–18, 1958, during a more general African tour.
34. H/NSA, Box 78 (Memoranda ’60-’61), April 8, 1961, Matthew Iverson, memorandum to files, “Assessment after March 15, 1961 campus visit.” In an earlier assessment, of November 22, 1960, Iverson described Annan as “an amazing politician and knows virtually everybody of importance on the campus.” See also Box 13 (COSEC gen ’57-’59), April 28, 1959: a Kenyan, Isaac Omolo, then the associate director for Africa on the COSEC staff, recommended Annan to Harald Bakken, director of the Foreign Student Leadership Project.
35. Ibid.
36. Nkrumah, who came to power in 1957, ruled Ghana until he was ousted in a 1966 coup. See FRUS, 1964–68: Africa, for U.S. role in the overthrow of Nkrumah.
37. Interview with Baad.
38. H/NSA, Box 237 (Nigeria), April 23, 1961 Kiley, to Don Clifford, FLSP director.
39. Paget Files: Copy of NSA Codification of Policy 1961.
40. Luís Nuno Rodrigues, “A New African Policy? JFK and the Crisis in Portuguese Africa,” available at http://www.academia.edu/1691582.
41. George Wright, The Destruction of a Nation: U.S. Policy Towards Angola Since 1945 (London: Pluto, 1997), 36; Wright places the first contact between U.S. officials and Roberto in 1959.
42. Fernando Andresen Guimarães, The United States and the Decolonization of Angola: The Origins of A Failed Policy (Instituto Português de Relações Internacionais, 2004), available at www.ipri.pt/artigos/artigo.php?ida=5.
43. FRUS, vol. 21: Africa, Document 350, Rusk to Deputy Undersecretary for Political Affairs (Alexis Johnson), June 18, 1961.
44. H/NSA, Box 160 (Angola), September 15, 1961, Emmerson to COSEC re NSA travel grant of $500.
45. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), December 18, 1961, Emmerson to Kiley.
46. Ibid., December 18, 1961, Peter Eckstein to Kiley re distribution of applications to UPA and MPLA.
47. H/NSA, Box 160 (Angola), September 15, 1961, Emmerson to Kiley re $500 funding for UGEAN meeting in Rabat.
48. Ibid., December 8–10, 1961, Report on Conference held at Camp Green Lane, Pennsylvania.
49. Ibid., Detail on formation of UNEA and Jonas Savimbi. Savimbi also served as secretary general of Roberto’s Union of Peoples of Northern Angola.
50. Ibid., March 30, 1962, Emmerson letter to Joaquim Lourenco Mateus Neto, UNEA.
51. Ibid., “The Role of Angola’s Students,” Current, March 1962.
52. H/NSA, Box 33 (Tony Smith), February 7, 1963, Copy No. 1 of UNEA newsletter. See also Box 160 (Angola), December 22, 1961, Tomas Turner to Johnny Eduardo in Leopoldville re opportunity to be the voice of the Angolan students.
53. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), December 18, 1961, Emmerson to Kiley.
54. Interview with Ed Garvey, Madison, Wisc., October 17, 2005.
55. H/NSA, Box 160 (Angola), June 10, 1961, Deolinda de Almeida to Scott.
56. Ibid., January 4, 1961, Magnus Gunther to Jim Scott.
57. Ibid., July 3, 1962, George Hazelrigg to Johnny Eduardo, Deputy Foreign Minister, GRAE.
58. The NSA staff members who dealt closely with Angola include Robert Kiley, Donald Emmerson (1961–62), Thomas Turner (1961–62), Tony Smith (1962–64), George Hazelrigg (1962–63), James Hendrick (1963–64), Julius Glickman (1964–65), Norman Uphoff (1964–65), Robert Backoff (1964–65), and Robert Witherspoon (1964–65).
59. Tor Sellstrom, Sweden and National Liberation in South Africa (Uppsala: Nordic African Institute, 1999), 395.
60. Ibid., 403.
61. “Portugal: Soothing with Bullets,” Time, April 28, 1961.
62. Interview with John Shingler, Montreal, October 25–27, 2007.
63. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), March 30, 1961, list of South Africans traveling to a meeting in Tunisia.
64. Ibid., December 21, 1960, Kiley to Dick Beck re Billy Modise.
65. Interview with Shingler.
66. Ibid. See also Jonathan Mirsky, “Murdoch and Mandela,” Prospect, April 20, 1998. Mirsky confronted Mandela over his reluctance to condemn human rights violations in China. A Mandela aide made it clear to Mirsky that Mandela had refrained from criticism since the Chinese communists had been unequivocally on the side of the ANC.
67. H/NSA, Box 24 (Baad), May 18, 1960, Baad to John (Shingler); Baad requested that Shingler tear the letter up after reading it.
68. Ibid.
69. Magnus Gunther, “The National Committee of Liberal (NCL)/African Resistance Movement (ARM),” in The Road to Democracy in South Africa, vol. 1: 1960–70 (South African Democracy Education Trust, 2005). For information on the SADET series of publications, see www.sadet.co.za/road_democracy.html.
70. Ibid., 189.
71. Interview with Shingler.
72. Ibid.
73. Gunther, “National Committee of Liberal (NCL)/African Resistance Movement (ARM),” 693.
74. Adrian Leftwich, “I Gave the Names,” Granta (Summer 2002), 9–31.
75. Gunther, “National Committee of Liberal (NCL)/African Resistance Movement (ARM),” 249.
76. H/NSA, Box 266 (American Committee on Africa), October 17, 1957, Bruce Larkin to Gil Jonas, fundraiser for ACOA; January 19, 1959, Willard Johnson to George Houser, chair of ACOA.
77. H/NSA, Box 251 (S. Africa ’62–’64), February 1964, George Hazelrigg to Alex Korns.
78. Donald Woods, Biko (New York: Holt, 1991).
79. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), February 19, 1962, letter to Kiley (COSEC) from unidentified NSA officer (most likely Donald Emmerson) who visited Laval College and found that pedestrian access would have to be restricted; he suggested issuing badges.
1. Interview with David Baad, Saddlebrooke, Az., January 13, 2009.
2. H/NSA, Box 229 (Latin America), November 27, 1961, Peter Eckstein to Don Emmerson.
3. IISH ISC (FYSA) 180 (634), July 21, 1961, COSEC proposal to FYSA, “Study Seminar on Social and Economic Integration for Latin-American Students.”
4. IISH ISC, Box 1220, April 3, 1961, Albert Reiner FYSA to Silvio Mutal.
5. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), April 25, 1961, Manuel Aragon to Bob Kiley.
6. William Blum, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since WWII (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), 195; see also Jonathan Hart-lyn, The Struggle for Democratic Politics in the Dominican Republic (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998).
7. H/NSA, Box 24 (R. Aragon), January 19, 1960, Robert Aragon to Bruce Larkin.
8. Ibid.
9. Tim Mansel, interview with General Antonio Imbert, “I Shot the Cruellest Dictator in the Americas,” BBC, May 27, 2011; available at www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-13560512.
10. Volman had a flair for the flamboyant. See Georgie Anne Geyer, “Sacha Volman: Classic Original and Latin American Legend,” March 16, 2001; available at http://www.uexpress.com/georgieannegeyer/index.html?uc_full_date=20010316.
11. H/NSA, Box 229 (LA ’60–’65), Institute of Political Education, Newsletter, August 15, 1960.
12. H/NSA, Box 195 (DR), November 5–18, 1961, Love report on the Dominican Republic.
13. H/NSA, Box 245 (Puerto Rico), February 9, 1962, Volman to Love.
14. FOIA (CIA), #464, Prospectus for Leadership Seminar, Dominican Republic.
15. H/NSA, Box 78 (NEC), December 4, 1961, Garvey report.
16. Declassified CIA Inspector General’s Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro, available at NARA 104-10213-10101, House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA), segregated CIA collection. Also reprinted in Fabián Escalante, The CIA Targets Fidel: The Secret Assassination Report (Melbourne: Ocean Press, 2002.
17. Interview with Tony Smith, New York, November 7 and 9, 2007.
18. Interview with Robert Kiley, Cambridge, Mass., January 22, 2008.
19. Interview with Tony Smith.
20. Interview with Kiley.
21. Brian Latell, Castro’s Secrets: Cuban Intelligence, the CIA, and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 190–95. Latell, a former CIA officer, insists that Cubela was a double agent; Cubela’s case officer argues to the contrary.
22. NARA (HSCA), JFK Assassination Records, available at http://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/select-committee-report/part-1c.html, contains 335 separate documents on Cubela. See, for example, no. 161 (CIA), Information Report: Possible Defection of Major Rolando Cubela. See also PB Web site.
23. Paget Files: Copy of NSA Codification of Policy 1961, Cuba, 129–131.
24. Interviews with Tony Smith, Kiley, and Edward Garvey (Madison, Wisc., October 17, 2005).
25. IISH ISC, Box 158, S. Babak, Report of the IUS Delegation on the VIII ISC, Lima, Peru, February 15–29, 1959.
26. H/NSA, Box 229 (Latin America), n.d., The University Situation in Puerto Rico, USNSA Latin American Team Report.
27. H/NSA, Box 36, n.d. [ca. April 1960], Robert Aragon memo.
28. H/NSA, Box 229, December 22, 1961, Kiley to Hoffman.
29. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), April 2, 1962, Kiley to Emmerson.
30. H/NSA, Box 245 (Puerto Rico), 1960–62, anonymous memo on Puerto Rico.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., February 9, 1962, Sacha Volman to Joe Love.
34. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), April 2, 1962, Kiley to Don Emmerson.
35. H/NSA, Box 16 (COSEC), May 29, 1962, Kiley to American Embassy official G. F. Williams, Leopoldville, the Congo, re panic over ISC.
36. FRUS, 1961–63, vol. 11: Cuba Document 291, Program Review by Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), January 18, 1962; includes the use of sabotage squads.
37. H/NSA, Box 245 (Puerto Rico ’60–’62), May 7, 1962, Jose Antonio G[onzález]. Lanuza to Love.
38. Ibid., May 24, 1962, [González] Lanuza to Love.
39. H/NSA, Box 30 (Kiley), April 2, 1962, Kiley, letter to Emmerson.
40. H/NSA, Box 9 (10th ISC Quebec), n.d., Proceedings of the 10th ISC, transcript.
41. David Triesman, “The CIA and Student Politics,” in The Student Internationals, ed. Philip G. Altbach and Norman T. Uphoff (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow, 1973), 180.
42. Ibid.
43. H/NSA, Box 9 (10th ISC Quebec), n.d., Proceedings.
44. Ibid.
45. Interview with Jyoti Shankar Singh, New York, August 22, 2006.
46. H/NSA, Box 9 (10th ISC Quebec), n.d., Proceedings.
47. Ibid.
48. H/NSA, Box 14 (COSEC), October 11, 1962, Don Emmerson, ISC, summary to Don Smith.
49. H/NSA, Box 61 (14th Student Congress), Garvey report to the National Executive Committee at the August 1962 Congress.
50. Ibid., Emmerson report to National Executive Committee, August 1962.
51. Interview with Kiley.
52. Interview with Baad.
53. Interview with Kiley.
54. Associated Press, “Atty. General Able to Duck Cold Fried Egg in Indonesia,” Daily Mail, February 14, 1962. For more on Kennedy’s world tour, see http://rfkcenter.org/reassuring-an-anxious-world.
55. H/NSA Box 33 (Smith), October 1, 1962, Tony Smith reporting on the Aspen meeting in a letter to Don Smith.
56. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), 439.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. McLaughlin served in Berlin, Paris, and Washington before becoming special assistant for youth activities to the assistant secretary of state. In that post, he continued his relationship with NSA leaders. See, for example, W/NSA, December 24, 1964, Norman Uphoff, Report on Majid Anouz and Ali Sahli (UNEA, U.S. Section) re January meeting with NSA’s Julius Glickman and Martin McLaughlin re continuing Algerian scholarships.
60. Interview with Garvey, October 17, 2005. CIA officials emphasized RFK’s support.