Index

• active shootings, 52, 73, 85, 86–105, 128, 179; defined, 88; media coverage of, 88–89; and mental health, 92–95; numbers killed in, 88, 225n12; and off-duty guns, 99; and police chiefs, 22, 89–100; police feelings of shame/failure over, 88, 97–98, 99, 100; police training and tactics for, 87–88; and race, 22; and social geography of violence, 91–92; and SWAT teams, 87; as terrorism, 89–90, 92, 93, 100; victims of, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 104. See also mass shootings; school shootings
• African American family, 72, 161
• African American ghettos, 30
• African American men: arrest of, 232n10; and child custody and support, 165; and crime, 2, 8, 11; and degradation ceremonies, 169; and gun boards, 152, 154, 162, 169; and gun homicide, 193; and intimate partner violence, 165, 166–68; legally armed, 2; and police traffic stops, 164; sexuality of, 11, 145, 161; stereotypes of as criminal or lazy, 145, 151, 160–61; surveillance of, 232n10. See also race
• African Americans, 34, 66, 77, 198, 233n32; and Charleston church shooting, 96; colonial whites as apprehending, 28, 109; and community policing, 30, 171–72; and crack epidemic, 42; criminal image of, 11, 133, 152; criminal records of, 59, 122, 143–44, 145, 146–49, 152–58; and federal gun crime convictions, 59; and Great Migration, 216n34; and gun boards, 143–44, 145, 146–49, 152–58, 160–68, 169, 186–87; and gun licenses, 1–3, 23, 118, 122, 143–44, 145, 147, 152–53, 186, 228n34; as gun offenders, 59, 72; gun rights for, 63; harassment of, 2; lynchings of, 39; and mass shootings, 89; and mental health problems, 93; in Michigan, 117, 118, 122; middle class reformers among, 171; as militants, 41; and militias, 193–94; and Mulford Act, 62; and nineteenth-century charities, 214n21; Northern policing of, 29–30; and Northern urban ghettos, 32; and NRA, 41, 217n71; numbers of guns owned by, 8; as police, 72; and police as militarized, 10–11; police assisted by, 127–28; police contact with, 162–63, 164–65; police killings of, 103, 175; police officers organizations of, 49; and police traffic stops, 1, 83, 149, 164, 211n41; and police training, 202–3; and post-bellum militias, 214n11; and poverty, 161; and Project Safe Neighborhoods, 58; and self-defense, 157–58; stereotypes of, 145, 158, 160–68, 169; and tropes of criminality, 133; and vice, 30, 32, 33; and warrants, 146–47, 149, 152–53, 154–55. See also blackness; race
• African American women, 32, 118, 162, 164, 165. See also women and girls of color
• Africans, 28
• Ahrens, Lorne, 4
• alcohol, war on, 32–37, 60, 218n81
• Alexander, Michelle, The New Jim Crow, 68
• The American Rifleman, 25
• America’s First Freedom, 117
• ammunition, 20, 215n33; and background checks, 114; caliber of, 65; cop-killer bullets as, 24, 45–46, 218n99. See also magazine capacity
• Andersson, Ed, 106–7, 127
• Anglo-Americans, 31. See also whiteness
• Anglo-Saxons, 28
• Anglo settler militias, 12
• anti–horse theft societies, 31
• Arizona, 82; age for gun ownership in, 18; armed civilians in, 22–23, 117, 141; citizen-protectors in, 106–7; civilians assisting officers in, 106–8, 127–29; concealed carry in, 123–24, 228n38, 228n39; co-policing in, 110, 123, 129, 142, 228n39; Department of Public Safety incident in, 127; DUI laws in, 132; expanded gun access in, 17; felony murder in, 79; and government overreach and overcriminalization, 130; and gun crimes sentencing, 63; gun laws in, 17–18, 110, 123, 124, 126, 129, 134, 136; gun ownership in, 18, 228n38; gun populism in, 109, 110, 123–29, 142; gun regulation in, 123–24; gun training in, 123, 124–25; gun violence in, 126, 127, 212n59, 229n43; law enforcement and punishment in, 64; local, state, and federal politics in, 19; mandatory minimums in, 64, 65, 132; open carriers in, 136; police chiefs in (see police chiefs); police databases in, 123; as pro-police, 123, 126; restraining orders in, 133–34; retired California police in, 116; and Second Amendment, 123; social problems in, 95; state constitution of, 18, 212–13n61, 215n28; tourism in, 18. See also police chiefs
• Arizona Citizens Defense League, 18
• Arizona Department of Public Safety incident, 106–8
• Armed Career Criminal Act of 1984, 62
• Arms and the Man, 49
• Asian Americans, 33
• assault weapons, 47, 75, 112, 113, 115, 141
• assault weapons, bans on: in California, 20; debate over, 146; FOP support for, 51, 52; and police, 5, 6, 25, 44–48; public support for, 6, 58; and Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, 24
• asset forfeiture, 44
• Aurora, Colorado, movie theater shooting, 91–92, 200
• Australia, 48

• background checks, 6, 7, 180, 231n7; in Arizona, 18; in California, 20, 110, 114; enhanced, 94, 95; federal, 20; and men of color, 122; mental health, 94; and NRA, 52; and Pasco, 52; and police chiefs, 94; public support for, 25; and race, 122; universal, 25, 58. See also gun boards; gun licenses
• Baker, James, 49, 51–52
• Balko, Radley, 58–59, 60
• Baton Rouge, police assassinations in, 90
• Bell Tower shooting (1966), 87, 88, 224n5
• Birmingham, Alabama, 143
• Bisbee Deportation, 215n28
• Black Lives Matter movement, 3, 4
• blackness, 32, 69, 70, 180. See also African Americans
• Black Panthers, 61, 172, 194, 217n71
• Black Power, 61–62, 93
• Bland, Sandra, 225n27
• blind pigs, 33
• Bloods gang, 42
• border patrols, 39
• Boston Miracle, 77
• Bradford, Emantic, Jr., 122, 144
• Brady Bill, 51
• Brady Campaign, 68
• British Metropolitan Police Act, 215n29
• broken windows policing, 173
• Brothers Changing the Hood, 172
• Broward County, Florida, 103
• Brown, Jerry, 113
• Brown, Michael, 234n62
• Brown v. Plata, 67
• Bulletproof Warrior training, 2, 10. See also Warriors/Warrior identity
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), 19, 51, 52
• Bush, George H. W., 44, 48
• Bush, George W., 101
• Butler, Paul, 1–2, 212n44, 232n10

• CalGuns Foundation, 21
• California: active police in, 115, 116; ammunition in, 20; anti-elitism in, 111, 116, 142; armed civilians in, 111, 116, 117; Armed Prohibited Persons System, 63–64, 68, 130; AR-style patrol rifles in, 48; assault weapons in, 20, 48, 112, 113, 115; background checks in, 20, 110, 114; civilian access to guns in, 110; concealed carry in, 20, 21, 213n71; contradictory, complex laws in, 111–17; county sheriffs in, 21; decriminalization and decarceration in, 113; Department of Justice, 63; and Eighth Amendment, 67, 113; Felon with a Firearm law, 63–64; felony murder in, 79, 223n79; ghost guns in, 110; gun control in, 21, 43, 44, 48, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 130; gun deaths in, 21; gun laws and regulation in, 17, 20–21, 48, 62, 109–10, 111–17, 123, 125, 126, 130–31, 134, 136; and gun manufacturers, 21, 130; gun militarism in, 43–45, 111, 116; gun ownership in, 20, 21; gun populism in, 109–17, 142; Gun Violence Restraining Order Act (AB1014), 20; law enforcement and punishment in, 64; magazine capacity in, 20, 110, 130; mandatory minimums in, 63–64, 113, 116; may-issue system in, 21; and Mulford Act, 217n71; on-duty and off-duty police in, 114; open carry in, 20, 136, 217n71; police exemptions from gun laws in, 114; prison conditions in, 67, 113; prison guard union in, 112; prohibited persons list in, 20; Proposition 47 (2014), 67; Proposition 63 (2016), 67, 114; and Red Flag laws, 20; restraining orders in, 133–34; retired police in, 114, 115; Roberti-Roos Assault Weapons Control Act of 1989, 115; sentencing enhancements in, 64, 113; shall-issue laws in, 20; and Stand Your Ground laws, 20; three strikes law (1994) in, 63; tough on crime policy in, 67, 112–13; Use a Gun and You’re Done law (1997), 63; war on crime in, 113. See also police chiefs
• California Police Chiefs Association (Cal-Chiefs), 110, 111, 114
• Canada, 33, 48, 139
• Carter, Harlon B., 39
• Castile, Philando, 1–4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 82, 122, 138, 144, 173, 235n9
• Ceasefire Violence Interrupters, 172
• Centers for Disease Control, 174
• Central Park jogger sexual assault of 1989, 43
• Charleston church shooting (2015), 96
• Chicago, Illinois, 12, 33, 36, 75, 126, 127
• child custody, 165
• child support, 165–66
• Chinese Americans, 109
• Chinese laborers, 215n28
• citizen patrols, 12
• citizen-protectors, 12, 102–3, 106–7, 110, 130, 140
• citizens, 2, 79, 84, 120–21; armed, 22, 41, 228n35; as benefit to law enforcement, 22, 110, 126, 129; and co-policing, 110, 123, 129, 142; dangers of concealed carry to, 140; guns as disadvantage for, 36; as heroic, 108; and NRA, 38; and police, 22–23; as policing agents, 109; and slave patrols, 109; and slavery, 28; sovereign, 136, 137–38
• citizenship, 2, 61, 169, 172, 228n35
• civilians, 8, 176–77; as allies in public safety, 13, 22, 26; in Arizona, 22–23; armed, 13, 22, 23, 53, 102, 106–42; as crime fighters, 22, 117, 120, 121, 122; as criminalized, 131; as first responders alongside police, 128–29; as good guys with guns, 13, 50, 108, 121, 122, 136, 142; gun access for, 27, 110; and gun control, 48; and gun populism, 13, 22, 26, 50, 53, 107–8, 109–10, 111, 116, 117, 120, 121, 122, 126, 129, 130, 142, 178; law-abiding, 4, 13, 22, 26, 38, 50, 54, 105, 108, 109–10, 116, 131, 142, 178; and legitimate violence, 7, 177, 178; and NRA, 26, 34; and police, 22, 71, 106–42; police assisted by, 11–12, 22–23, 41–42, 106–8, 110, 117, 120, 121, 122, 127–29, 130, 140; self-defense by, 53, 117–18; and social order, 23, 107–8, 117, 121, 178
• Civil War, 28, 230–31n4
• Clinton, Bill, 24–25, 48, 86
• colonial era, 28, 109
• color-blindness: and concealed carry, 119, 122; and crime control, 109; and good guys vs. bad guys imagery, 9, 76, 96, 142; and gun boards, 162; and gun licenses, 22; and gun populism, 13, 108, 178; policing as, 14; and racial foundations of policy, 175; and racism, 74–75; and reform, 180; and urban crime, 83
• Colt New Police revolvers, 35
• Columbine High School shooting (1999), 86–88, 92, 97–98, 199–200
• Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, 88
• common law, 31
• community policing, 30, 128–29, 171–72, 173, 180, 190
• concealed carry license. See gun licenses, concealed carry
• constitutionalists, 136, 138
• Constitutional Sheriffs and Peace Officers Association, 25
• controlling images, 43, 145, 152, 160, 161, 162, 165, 168, 169, 218n83, 218n89, 231n6
• Cook County, Illinois, 233n32
• Coral Gables, Florida, 103
• Corney, Ken, 114
• courts, 5, 30, 66, 169, 198–99, 231n5
• crack cocaine, 37, 42, 70. See also drugs
• Craig, James, 53, 117
• crime, war on, 42, 43, 74; and active shootings, 91; and assault weapons bans, 47, 48; and gun militarism, 10, 22; and gun populism, 13; as militarized, 47; and police chiefs, 90; and race, 22; and Reagan, 44
• crime rates, 20, 40, 52, 58, 67–68, 126, 174, 193, 228n30, 229n43
• criminality, 15, 76; and active shootings, 89, 92, 93; and blackness, 32, 69; and gun boards, 152, 153, 160, 161; and mental illness, 93, 94; as presumed of black Americans, 11; and race, 32, 69, 74, 82, 83, 85, 89, 93, 94, 122, 133, 152, 180; tropes of urban, 74, 75; and vice in African American communities, 32
• criminal justice: and gun boards, 157–59; and NRA, 45; and people of color, 26; punitive turn in since 1960s, 17
• criminal justice system, 60; and African Americans’ records, 122; and background checks, 122; and gun boards, 147, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158, 187; and Native Americans, 223n89; police cynicism about, 65–67, 68; and race, 169–70; and rehabilitation, 66; revolving door of, 64, 66; and war on guns, 57; and whites, 212n44
• criminal records, 61, 62; of African Americans, 59, 122, 143–44, 145, 146–49, 152–58; and concealed carry, 122
• Crips gang, 42
• Cullen, Dave, 86

• Dallas, Texas, police assassinations in, 4, 90
• Davis, Edward, 41
• Deacons for Defense, 172, 193–94
• Deadbeat Dad stereotype, 161, 165–68, 169. See also stereotypes
• degradation ceremonies, 160, 168, 169
• Democratic party, 24, 29
• Denvir, Daniel, 59
• Detroit, Michigan, 19–20, 33, 36, 62–63, 73–74, 175; black criminality stereotypes in, 160–61; 8 Mile border in, 162; and gun boards, 143, 160–61, 162, 163, 186, 187; and gun populism, 117, 118; as murder capital, 233n47; and Prohibition-era, 33; riots of 1967 in, 40; and urban criminality, 75, 76
• Detroit 300, 172
• Detroit Police Department, 53, 146, 216n54
• DiIulio, John, 43, 45
• Dirty Harry (1971), 71
• Divine Knights, 172
• Dodd, Thomas J., 217n62
• domestic violence, 73. See also intimate partner violence (IPV)
• domestic violence restraining orders, 5, 18, 19, 133–36, 229n52
• Donald, Michael, 214n11
• driving under the influence (DUI), 233n41
• drug crimes, 58, 59, 62, 84
• drug dealers, 43, 56, 80, 104; and assault weapons bans, 48; and gun laws, 131; and illegal gun possession, 138; and race, 84; and self-defense, 78, 79; and urban criminality, 74, 75; white suburban, 211n41
• drug law enforcement, 58–59, 65, 68
• drugs, 57, 202; and African Americans, 72; and arrest rates, 84; and assault-style weapons, 45; and asset forfeiture, 44; and California sentencing laws, 64; and gun boards, 156; and gun possession, 61; possession of, 44, 59, 67; and race, 37, 42, 60, 70; as social problem, 95, 218n83; treatment of, 225n27; war on, 47, 60, 84, 87; and Warrior image, 70
• Du Bois, W.E.B., 59, 83
• Duggan, Michael, 119

• The Enforcer, 71
• England, 31, 48
• ethnographic research, 182–203; anonymization in, 184, 204; informed consent process in, 184; researcher positionality in, 183, 184, 191, 192–97
• ethnographic self, 182–83
• Ewing, Eve, 59–60, 78, 179

• Falcon Heights Police Department, 2
• Fanon, Frantz, 212n46
• farmers, 131, 138
• FBI, 37, 88, 101
• FBI Uniform Crime Report of 1964, 40
• Federal Firearms Act of 1938, 33
• federal government, 110; and assault weapons bans, 48; and background checks, 20; and death penalty, 24; and gun control, 34, 38, 39–40; and gun sales to local police, 25; and military equipment transfers, 44; and sentencing guidelines, 63; and 1033 Program, 44
• federal gun laws and regulations: and Arizona, 17, 18; and intimate partner violence, 165; NRA as opposing, 41, 62; and personal protection orders, 18; and race, 59; as tough on crime, 62. See also gun laws and regulations
• federal prisons, 58
• felonies, 5, 33, 62, 64, 67, 68
• felony murder, 78–80, 223n79
• felony records, 59, 61
• felony stops, 5, 209n10
• feminism, 166
• Firearms Owners Protection Act of 1986, 61
• Flint, Michigan, 20
• Florida, 17; Stand Your Ground law, 103
• Forman, James, Jr., 60, 63, 70
• Fotis, James, 51, 52
• Fraternal Order of Police (FOP), 25, 220n135; and assault weapons bans, 51, 52; and gun control, 25, 46, 52; and LEAA, 51; and LEOSA, 53, 101–2; and NRA, 53; and Pasco, 51, 52; and rank-and-file police sentiment, 51; and Trump, 54
• Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 145, 186

• gambling halls, 32
• gangs, 37, 43, 56, 76, 104, 179, 218n83; and assault-style weapons, 44; and concealed carry licenses, 81; containment of violence from, 77; and crack epidemic, 42; and gun laws, 131; and illegal gun possession, 138; and perpetrators vs. victims, 77; and race, 84; and self-defense, 79; and urban criminality, 74, 75
• gangsters, 33, 75
• Garfinkel, Harold, 160
• Garner, Eric, 234n62
• Gates, Daryl, 43, 47
• gender, 175; and active shootings, 89; and degradation ceremonies, 160; and police chief interviews, 191. See also African American men; African American women; men and boys of color; Native American men; Native American women; women; women and girls of color
• genocide, 12, 30, 31
• Giffords, Gabrielle, 18, 128
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, 17, 20, 21
• Granholm, Jennifer, 119
• Grant, Oscar, 82
• Guardians/Guardian identity, 13, 22, 88, 95–100, 103, 104, 105
• gun bans, 4, 5, 6, 38, 113, 114. See also assault weapons, bans on; gun control; gun laws and regulations
• gun boards, 185–87, 195, 231n5; and African Americans, 143–44, 145, 146–49, 152–58, 160–68, 169, 186–87; ambivalence of, 160; arrests at, 152–55; and citizen-protectors, 12; and color-blind sensibilities, 162; and concealed carry, 23, 143, 144, 145, 147, 153, 155, 157, 159; cost of visits to, 150; and criminal records, 143–44, 145, 146–49, 152–58; disciplining by, 145, 147, 148, 152, 155, 156, 159–61, 164, 165, 168, 169; and disclosure of status to police, 161–62, 163; as drawn from law enforcement, 16, 145, 169; as gatekeeper brokers, 16, 177; and gun carry licenses, 9, 150–51; and gun militarism, 23, 145, 152, 160, 168–69; and gun populism, 23, 145, 151, 152, 160, 168–69; and legitimate vs. illegitimate violence, 9; observations at, 16; and people of color, 23; and police contact, 161–62; and procedural pains, 146–52, 186, 187, 232n12; and race, 23, 143–70; research on, 185–87; and respectability, 151; and self-defense, 151; and tough on crime sensibility, 158; and warrants, 146, 148, 152–54; and whites, 23, 163–64. See also background checks; gun licenses
• gun control, 58, 200; in California, 21, 43, 44, 48, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 130; and Castile case, 3; and civilians, 48; and Clinton, 24–25, 48; and Congress, 47; and crime control, 43, 48, 49–50, 53; as disarming good guys, 4, 50; and federal government, 34, 38, 39–40; and FOP, 25, 46, 52; and gun violence statistics, 174; and McNamara, 44–45, 50; in Michigan, 19, 119; and National Rifle Association, 217n62; NRA opposition to, 38, 47, 49–50, 56; and police chiefs, 44–45, 47, 49, 98, 111, 113, 126, 130, 139, 200; and police militarization, 44, 48; police opposition to, 6, 25, 139; police support for, 6, 24–25, 26, 27, 39–40, 42–49, 50, 56, 216n56; public opposition to, 6; public support for, 6, 25, 58; and race, 59, 61, 62; and self-defense, 50; as term, 9; and urban warfare, 48; and war on guns, 58; and women, 48. See also gun bans; gun laws and regulations
• Gun Control Act of 1968, 58
• gun control lobby, 46; and FOP, 25; and International Association of Chiefs of Police, 49; police as ally of, 42; and police as victims of gun violence, 55–56; and police militarization, 49; and police organizations, 25
• gun crimes: and active shootings, 89; and African Americans, 59, 73, 93–94; and gun possession, 52; mandatory minimums for, 63–64; and mental illness, 93–94; and pleas, 66; and Prohibition, 33; and race, 93; rates of, 193; urban, 22, 77, 89, 104; and white men, 193. See also gun homicides; gun violence
• gun dealers, 33, 45
• gun homicides, 58; and gangs, 77; and gun availability, 65; justifiable, 193; police-perpetrated, 225n12; and race, 193; rates of, 58, 174, 229n43; and self-defense, 79. See also gun crimes; gun violence
• gun laws and regulations, 15, 192, 203; in Arizona, 17–18, 110, 123, 124, 126, 129, 134, 136; in California, 17, 20–21, 48, 62, 109–10, 111–17, 123, 125, 126, 130–31, 134, 136; as contradictory, complex, 111–17; federal, 17, 18, 41, 59, 62, 165; and gangs, 131; and gun populism, 109; and International Association of Chiefs of Police, 36; legitimacy of, 138; loopholes in, 75; may-issue, 21; may-issue vs. shall-issue, 144, 230–31n4; in Michigan, 9, 17, 19, 110, 119, 122, 134–36, 144, 145, 157, 165, 169; and middle-class, 131, 142; and NRA, 21, 55; and persons vs. guns, 61; police as benefited by, 6, 42; police as supporting, 36; and police chiefs, 36, 64, 66, 84, 95, 109–10, 111–17, 129, 130–31, 139; police cynicism about, 40; and race, 61, 62, 131, 142, 168; Red Flag, 18, 19, 20; and self-defense, 13, 53; shall-issue, 13, 19, 20, 119; Stand Your Ground, 20, 128, 193; and superpredator stereotype, 131; tough on crime, 62, 95; and urban gun criminals, 131, 132; and war on guns, 57; and Warrior training, 10; and work ethic, 131. See also federal gun laws and regulations; sentencing
• gun laws and regulations, enforcement of, 6, 16, 185, 191; and active shootings, 88; and Arizona, 18, 123; and California, 20, 112, 114, 132; consequences of, 60; and gun militarism, 9, 84; institutions for, 60; and Michigan gun boards, 9, 136, 144, 145, 157, 165, 169; and NRA, 38–39, 50; and police chiefs, 5, 64, 65, 66, 80–81, 88, 112, 114, 132–33, 136, 139; and race, 80–81, 84, 144; and tough on crime policies, 68, 176; and war on guns, 58
• gun licenses: and African Americans, 228n34; and Castile, 1, 12; and child custody, 165; and child support, 165–66; and civic inclusion, 157; and color-blindness, 22; and court system, 169; data availability limits in, 186; disclosure of to police, 161–62; and domestic violence restraining orders, 5, 18, 19, 133–36, 229n52; employment tied to, 150–51; and Federal Firearms Act of 1938, 33; and gun boards, 9, 143–70; and intimate partner violence, 165, 166–68; and Michigan State Police, 169; public scrutiny of, 144–45; responsibility of, 159, 163. See also background checks; gun boards; gun registration
• gun licenses, concealed carry, 230–31n4, 230n55, 231n7; as administrative privilege vs. right, 157; and African Americans, 1–3, 23, 118, 122, 143–44, 145, 147, 152–53, 186; in Arizona, 18, 123–24, 228n38, 228n39; background checks for, 121, 122; in California, 20, 21, 213n71; and Castile, 1; and color-blindness, 119, 122; and criminal records, 122; and gangs, 81; and gun boards, 23, 143–44, 145, 147, 152–53, 155, 157, 159, 186; impact of on crime, 121; and LEOSA, 53, 101; may-issue, 19; and may-issue laws, 21; and may-issue vs. shall-issue laws, 144, 230–31n4; and medical marijuana, 155; in Michigan, 19, 23, 117, 119, 228n37, 228n39; moral fitness for, 119–20; numbers of licenses for, 8; police as supporting, 25; and police chiefs, 4–5, 21, 81, 82, 117, 118, 119–20, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 136, 139, 140, 228–29n39, 230n55; as proxy for police, 110, 117, 120, 121, 122; and racial profiling, 82; and responsible civilians vs. criminals, 120, 122; in Southern states, 230–31n4; training for, 119, 120–21; in Vermont, 230n4; vetting for, 121
• gun licenses, open carry, 139; in Arizona, 18, 136; in California, 20, 136; and California Mulford Act, 217n71; in Michigan, 19, 136–37; and police chiefs, 82, 136, 137, 139, 230n55; and racial profiling, 82
• gun manufacturers, 18, 21, 24, 45, 130
• gun militarism, 138, 174; and active shootings, 104; and African Americans, 145; in California, 43–45, 111, 116; defined, 10–11, 220n1; and gun boards, 23, 145, 152, 160, 168–69; and gun law enforcement, 9, 84; gun populism vs., 9, 12, 13, 107, 108–9, 110, 139; and gun talk, 177–78; and LEOSA, 53; and Michigan, 23; and NRA, 26, 49–54; and police, 48; and police as Warriors, 2, 85; and police monopoly on legitimate violence, 107; and police-private civilian divide, 108–9; and race, 9, 11, 14, 23, 61, 84, 140, 178, 181; as racial frame, 14, 15, 23, 61; and state, 9, 178; as term, 9; and urban gun crime, 22; and war on crime, 10, 22. See also police, militarization of; violence, legitimate
• gun populism, 85, 141, 174; and African Americans, 109, 145; in Arizona, 110, 123–29, 142; in California, 109–17, 142; defined, 9, 11–14, 227n11; and elites, 178; and gun boards, 23, 145, 151, 152, 160, 168–69; gun militarism vs., 9, 12, 13, 107, 108–9, 110, 139; and gun talk, 177–78; and LEOSA, 53; limits of, 139–40; in Michigan, 23, 109, 110, 117–23, 142; and NRA, 26, 49–54; and police-civilian boundaries, 138; and police prerogatives, 172–73; and race, 9, 14, 23, 181; as racial frame, 14, 15, 23; and state-society boundary, 9; and white middle class, 178; and whiteness, 13–14. See also violence, legitimate
• gun registration, 18, 19, 39–40. See also gun licenses
• gun rights: for African Americans, 63; as endangering vs. benefiting police, 56; gun control vs., 6; local understandings of, 149–51, 158; loss of in California, 64; in Michigan, 20, 110; NRA as broker for, 27; NRA support for, 2, 38, 39, 45–46, 47–48, 50, 54, 55, 56; and police chiefs, 4–5, 22; police chiefs’ rejection of, 139; police chiefs’ support for, 78, 83; police support for, 6, 13, 25, 26, 27; public support for, 26; and race, 2; and regulation of persons vs. guns, 61; as respect for police, 54, 55; as term, 9; and Trump, 54; and war on guns, 57
• gun rights lobby, 47; NRA as, 50, 55; and police, 16, 26; and police militarization, 49; and police organizations, 25
• gun suicides, 58, 174, 193, 225n12, 225n27
• gun talk, 13, 176–81; and chiefs, 139; defined, 9; and gun militarism, 139; and gun populism, 107, 109, 139, 141–42; and police chiefs, 60, 108, 109
• gun training: in Arizona, 123, 124–25; in Michigan, 20, 119, 120–21; for police, 25, 26, 34–37, 38, 56
• gun violence, 185; and active shootings, 86, 88, 89, 90; in Arizona, 18; blurred lines between perpetrators and victims of, 77; in California, 21; consequences of, 65; containment of, 76–77; costs of, 58; and demographics, 76–77; distribution of, 193; and gun policy, 174–75; and gun populism, 109–10, 126, 127, 129; and mental health, 92, 93, 95; in Michigan, 20; nonpolice victims of, 56; numbers wounded or killed by, 58; against police, 40, 47, 55; in Prohibition era, 33; and race, 8, 21, 22, 47, 57, 60, 73, 74, 75, 76, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 105, 127, 175, 179, 188; rates of, 20, 58, 174, 229n43; and stop and frisk policies, 58; as terrorism, 104; urban, 22, 47, 57, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 88, 98, 100, 104, 126–27, 188; victims and perpetrators of, 78; and war on guns, 58. See also gun crimes; gun homicides; violence; violence, legitimate

• Handgun Control, 46
• Harlem, 33
• Harris, Cheryl, 13
• Hispanics, 77
• Hollywood shootout (1997), 48
• Holmes Youthful Training Status (HYTA), 156
• homelessness, 95
• home security systems, 27
• hostage situations, 87
• hot spot policing, 173
• hue and cry, 28
• Huey Newton Gun Club, 172
• hunting, 19, 62

• immigrants/immigration, 17, 18, 29, 30, 34, 64, 65, 75, 107
• implicit bias, 69, 173, 180
• International Association of Chiefs of Police, 25, 36, 46, 49, 102
• intimate partner violence (IPV), 165, 166–68. See also domestic violence

• Jacobin, 59
• James, Jessica, 156–57
• Jefferson, Thomas, 131
• Jim Crow era, 29, 30, 31, 230–31n4
• Jones, Nikki, 77, 179
• Juan Crow, 31

• Kahr, Frank J., 25, 34, 35, 49
• Kendi, Ibram X., 15, 212n51
• Krol, Michael, 4
• Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 28–29, 214n11

• labor unions, 20
• Lakota People’s Law Project, 223n89
• LaPierre, Wayne, 50–51
• Las Vegas mass shooting (2017), 104, 179
• Lautenberg Amendment, 229n54
• Law Enforcement Alliance of America (LEAA), 25, 50–51, 52, 53, 101–2
• Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act (LEOSA), 52–53, 56, 101–2
• Loesch, Dana, “Clenched Fist,” 54
• London Police, 215n29
• Los Angeles, California, 31, 42, 44, 75
• Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), 43–44, 47, 219n114
• Lott, John, 228n30
• lynchings, 31, 32, 39, 109, 214n11, 214n27

• magazine capacity, 5, 20, 24, 110, 130. See also ammunition
• mail-order guns, 217n62
• marijuana, 155
• Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Safety Commission, 103
• Martin, Trayvon, 3
• Martinez, Manuel, 44
• masculinity, 11, 70–72, 88, 100, 224–25n9
• mass shootings, 48, 89, 121. See also active shootings
• McNamara, Joseph, 44–45, 50
• Mehserle, Johannes, 82
• men and boys of color, 77; and background checks, 122; in Chicago, 127; as criminal, 14; police harassment of, 11, 210n26; police killings of, 11, 138, 173; and prisons, 11; as sexual and violent threat, 43; as suspected criminals, 80; as victims, 179; and war on guns, 60. See also African American men; African Americans; people of color; race
• mental health, 61, 63, 92–95, 179, 225n27, 226n28
• Metzl, Jonathan, The Protest Psychosis, 93
• Mexican Americans, 30, 109, 214–15n27, 215n28. See also Tejanos (Mexican Americans)
• Mexicans, 34, 215n28
• Michigan, 62–63; background checks in, 119; concealed carry in, 19, 117, 118, 119, 228n37, 228n39; domestic violence in, 133–36; felony murder in, 79; and government overreach and overcriminalization, 130; gun boards in, 16, 23, 119, 143–70, 177, 186, 187; gun control in, 19, 119; and gun crimes sentencing, 63; gun death rates in, 20; gun laws in, 9, 17, 19, 110, 119, 122, 134–36, 144, 145, 157, 165, 169; gun licenses in, 19, 23, 117, 119, 136–37, 169, 228n37, 228n39; gun militarism in, 23; gun populism in, 23, 109, 110, 117–23, 142; gun registration in, 19; gun rights in, 20, 110; gun training in, 20, 119, 120–21; Holmes Youthful Trainee Act of 1927, 66; mandatory minimums in, 64, 65; mass shootings in, 121; open carriers in, 136–37; police chiefs in (see police chiefs); race and licensing rates in, 228n34; restraining orders in, 133–36, 229n51; and revolving door of criminal justice, 66; self-defense in, 79; sentencing enhancements in, 64; shall-issue law in, 19, 119; and urban criminality trope, 75; vetting process in, 122
• Michigan Coalition for Responsible Gun Owners, 20
• Michigan Open Carry, 20
• Michigan State Police, 19, 169
• Michigan Supreme Court, 79
• middle class, 33, 46, 183, 191; and Columbine shootings, 86, 87; and gun laws, 131, 142; and gun populism, 108, 109, 178; and police chief interviews, 191; and police chiefs, 133, 142
• military, 10, 19, 34
• military equipment, 10, 40, 42, 44
• militias, 12, 28, 41, 102
• mining companies, 31
• Montana, 116
• Moynihan Report (1965), 161
• Muhammad, Khalil Gibran, 30, 171
• Mulford, Don, 61–62
• Mulford Act of 1967, 61–62, 217n71

• National Black Police Association, 49
• National Crime Commission, 36
• National Firearms Act of 1934, 33, 61
• National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives, 46, 49
• National Rifle Association (NRA), 55, 117; and advice on patrol weapons, 25; and African Americans, 41, 217n71; America’s Safest Place, 54; and armed citizenry, 41; Arms and the Man, 25; and assault-style weapons, 44, 45; and ATF, 52; and background checks, 52; “Back Our Blue” campaign, 53–54; and California’s Armed Prohibited Persons System, 68; and cop-killer bullets, 45–46, 218n99; and criminal penalties, 25; defense of police by, 25; and Detroit Police Department, 53; federal gun legislation opposed by, 41, 62; and federal gun sales to local police, 25; and FOP, 53; formation of, 34; Foundation Grant program, 213n4; gun control opposed by, 21, 38, 47, 49–50, 56, 217n62; and gun law enforcement, 38–39; and gun militarism, 26, 49–54; and gun populism, 26, 49–54; gun rights supported by, 2, 38, 39, 45–46, 47–48, 50, 54, 56; Institute for Legislative Action (ILA), 39; Law Enforcement Division, 25, 38, 101, 213n5; Law Enforcement Firearm Instructor Training program, 38; and LEAA, 51; and legitimate vs. illegitimate violence, 8; and LEOSA, 53, 101–2; and line-of-duty death insurance, 25, 53, 55, 213n5; and Los Angeles officers, 219n114; matches and competitions of, 34, 36, 37, 213n5; and military, 34; and Officer of the Year Awards, 55; police chiefs as members of, 189; police chiefs’ support for, 189–90; and police gun training, 25, 26, 34–37, 38, 54, 55, 56; and police lobby, 50; police membership in, 35, 39, 40, 46; and police militarization, 49; police supported by, 38–39; and police support for gun control, 45–46, 47, 49; and Project Exile, 58; Range Services, 213n4; and San Jose officers, 219n114; and small grants to agencies, 53; and support for armed African American groups, 217n71; as tough on crime, 21, 45, 56; and training and discipline, 37; and Trump, 54; and war on crime, 39; and war on guns, 57
• National Sheriffs Association, 46
• National Troopers Association, 46
• Native American men, 223n89
• Native Americans, 12, 19, 30, 31, 175, 223n89
• Native American women, 223n89
• Native Lives Matter, 223n89
• nativists, 29, 62
• neighborhood watch groups, 27, 109, 141
• New Orleans Police Department, 28
• Newtown, Connecticut, 90
• New York City, 126
• New York Police Department Board of Police Commissioners, 35
• night watches, 28
• North: African Americans in, 29–30; charities in, 15; industrialization in, 31; racial control and early policing in, 29–30; segregation in, 29–30; urban ghettos in, 32

• Oakland County, Michigan, 145, 147, 157, 163, 165, 186, 187, 233n32
• Oakland Police Department, 202
• Obama, Barack, 226n31
• Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), 48
• open carry license. See gun licenses, open carry
• Orlando, Florida shooting, 90, 104, 200

• Parkland mass shooting (2018), 59, 103–4, 179
• Pasco, James, 24, 51–52
• Peel, Sir Robert, 215n29
• Pennsylvania, 19
• Penuelas-Escobar, Leonard, 107, 226–27n7
• people of color, 54, 180, 193, 201; and active shootings, 92; aggressive policing of, 15; crime in communities of, 15; as criminalized, 168; and criminal justice, 26; and defensive uses of guns, 128; and gun boards, 23, 152; and gun militarism, 168; police immersion with, 202–3; police killings of, 3; police violence against, 137; and stop and frisk policies, 58; and structural racism, 59–60; as threats, 82; and tough on crime policies, 42; and Warriors, 104; whites reporting as suspicious, 137. See also African Americans; men and boys of color; race; women and girls of color
• personal protection orders. See domestic violence restraining orders
• Peterson, Scot, 103–4
• Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 171
• Phoenix, Arizona, 126
• police: and active shootings, 87–105; and African Americans, 10–11, 83, 162–63, 164–65, 202–3; African Americans as, 49, 72; African Americans as assisting, 127–28; African Americans detained by, 1, 83, 149, 164, 211n41; African Americans killed by, 103, 175; and African Americans vs. whites, 83, 162–63, 164–65; and assault weapons bans, 5, 6, 25, 47–48, 51, 52; authoritarian conservatism of, 69; and Castile, 1–2, 173; and citizen-protectors, 12, 106–7, 110, 130, 140; civilians as assisting, 11–12, 22–23, 41–42, 106–8, 110, 117, 120, 121, 122, 127–29, 130, 140; civilians as first responders alongside, 128–29; concealed carry as proxy for, 110, 117, 120, 121, 122; concealed carry supported by, 25; federal gun sales to local, 25; as first responders, 98, 104, 201; gap between crime and response of, 41, 172, 177; as good guys, 56, 58; as Guardians, 13, 88, 95–100, 103, 105; gun as tool of expertise for, 21; and gun boards, 161–62; gun carrying by, 215–16n33; gun deaths contributed by, 176; gun homicides perpetrated by, 225n12; gun license status disclosed to, 161–62, 163; and gun militarism, 48; and gun populism, 13, 109, 172–73, 227n11; gun regulations as benefiting, 6, 42; and gun rights lobby, 16, 25, 26, 49; gun rights supported by, 6, 13, 25, 26, 27; and gun tracking mechanisms, 6; gun types used by, 40, 45, 48; killing of, 4, 40, 44, 90; and KKK, 29; line-of-duty death insurance for, 25, 53, 55, 213n5; and marijuana laws, 221n32; and masculinity, 70–72, 105; in Michigan, 19; militarization of, 10, 40, 42, 43–45, 48–49, 70, 84, 218n81, 218n90, 220n1, 222n58; and Native Americans, 223n89; and neighborhood watch groups, 141; and NRA, 8, 21, 25–27, 42, 54; and NRA matches and competitions, 37; as NRA members, 35, 39, 40, 46; NRA support for, 38–39; NRA training for, 25, 26, 34–37, 38, 54, 55, 56; number of, 24; numbers killed by, 175; and off-duty guns, 26, 35, 52–53, 88, 90, 99, 100–103, 139–40, 226n37; and people of color, 26, 137; people of color harassed and killed by, 3, 11, 103, 137, 138, 173, 175, 210n26; and personal protection orders, 19; professionalization of, 26, 32, 36, 141; Prohibition-era, 33–34; and racial profiling, 162; reform of, 180, 201–3; safety of, 124, 125; and self-defense groups, 41–42; social isolation of, 68–69; as subculture, 68–69; and 1033 Program, 70; traffic stops by, 1, 149, 211n41; training of, 10, 98, 202–3; as Warriors, 2, 10, 13, 22, 60, 69–74, 84, 85, 96–97, 105
• police chiefs, 173, 195; accountability of, 8–9; and active shootings, 22, 88, 89–100; anonymity of, 184–85, 204; anti-elitism of, 22, 111, 116, 142; and antiterrorist activities, 90; in Arizona, 16, 21–23, 64, 65, 66, 75, 78, 82, 94, 95, 100, 108, 110, 116, 117, 123–29, 132, 133, 136, 137–38, 142, 177, 185, 188–89, 190, 230n55; background of, 188; in California, 16, 21–22, 64, 65, 66–67, 75, 76–77, 78, 79, 80–82, 94, 95, 100, 108, 109–17, 123, 130–31, 136, 140, 142, 177, 185, 188–89, 190, 228n39; and California’s Armed Prohibited Persons System, 68; and concealed carry, 4–5, 21, 81, 82, 117, 118, 119–20, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 136, 139, 140, 228–29n39, 230n55; and crime prevention, 221n35; and criminal justice system, 65–67; and drug law enforcement, 65; and enhanced background checks, 94; as first responders, 22; as Guardians, 22, 104; and gun control, 44–45, 47, 49, 98, 111, 113, 126, 130, 139, 200; and gun law enforcement, 5, 64, 65, 66, 80–81, 88, 112, 114, 132–33, 136, 139; and gun laws and regulations, 36, 64, 65, 66, 80–81, 84, 88, 95, 109–10, 111–17, 129, 130–31, 132–33, 136, 139; and gun militarism, 17, 22, 60, 197–99; and gun populism, 17, 22, 108, 109–10, 199–201; and gun rights, 4–5, 22, 78, 83, 139; and immigration, 65; interviews with, 16, 183, 187–92, 205–7; and lawmakers and legislators, 22; and legitimate violence, 177; and mandatory minimums, 60, 64, 65, 66, 94; and mental illness, 94–95; in Michigan, 16, 22, 64, 65, 66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 94, 95, 96, 100, 108, 110, 117–23, 132, 133–34, 136–37, 142, 177, 185, 188–89, 190, 230n55; and NRA, 189–90; and off-duty guns, 99, 100–103, 139–40; and open carry, 82, 136, 137, 139, 230n55; and patrol activities, 16–17; and prisons, 5; and Proposition 47, 67; racial and gender diversity of, 16; research on, 184–85; resources of, 190–91; and self-defense, 4, 83; and sentencing enhancements, 64, 66, 94; and terrorism, 222–23n75; and tough on crime policies, 22, 60; and tough on guns policies, 64–65; and urban gun violence, 60–61, 74, 75–83; and war on guns, 60, 94; and Warrior identity, 22, 60, 71–74, 84, 94, 95, 104; in Washington, DC, 39–40
• Police Executive Research Forum, 46, 102
• Police Foundation, 46
• police militarization. See under police
• Police Officer’s Bill of Rights, 48
• police populism, 227n11
• posse comitatus, 31
• post–Civil Rights era, 161
• poverty, culture of, 43
• prisons, 43, 50, 159, 198; African Americans in, 72; in California, 67, 113; costs of, 68; and crime rates, 67–68; inadequate space in, 66; inhumane and unconstitutional conditions in, 67; mass incarceration in, 67, 68, 114; and men and boys of color, 11; as mental health facilities, 94; and realignment, 67; state, 67
• procedural harassment, 232n12
• procedural pains, 146–52, 186, 187, 232n12
• Prohibition era, 32–34, 215–16n33
• Project Exile, 58
• Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act of 1994, 24, 61
• Pyle, Leroy, 50–51

• race, 14, 179–80; and active shootings, 22, 89, 90, 91, 92; and arrest rates, 83–84; and assault weapons bans, 47; and assistance to police, 127–28; and background checks, 122; and Philando Castile, 1; and coercive social control, 8; and Columbine shootings, 86; and crime, 21, 45; and criminality, 32, 69, 74, 82, 83, 85, 89, 93, 94, 122, 133, 152, 180; and criminal justice system, 169–70; and degradation ceremonies, 160, 169; and discrimination, 75; and double standard, 3; and drugs, 37, 42, 58–59, 70, 84; and early policing, 28–30, 109; and federal gun crime convictions, 59; and gangs, 84; and gun boards, 23, 143–70; and gun control, 59, 61, 62; and gun homicides, 193; and gun laws and regulations, 61, 62, 80–81, 84, 131, 142, 144, 168; and gun militarism, 9, 11, 14, 23, 61, 84, 140, 178, 181; and gun offenders, 57; and gun policies, 8; and gun politics and police politics, 27; and gun populism, 9, 14, 23, 181; and gun rights, 2; and gun violence, 8, 21, 22, 47, 57, 60, 73, 74, 75, 76, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 105, 127, 175, 179, 188; and inequality, 75, 178; and KKK, 29; and legitimate violence, 8, 14, 23, 27, 29, 83, 146, 160, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180–81; and licensing rates, 228n34; and mental illness, 93; and militarization, 70; and Mulford Act of 1967, 61–62; and NRA, 2, 21, 26, 27; and police, 26, 29, 32, 33–34, 43; and police chiefs, 75; and police militarization, 222n58; and police shootings, 84; and police subculture, 69; and Prohibition-era policing, 32–34; and self-defense, 80–83; and sexual and violent threats, 43; and slavery, 30; and stereotypes, 169; and tough on crime policies, 17, 179; and urban crime, 83; and urban gun law enforcement, 80; and urban gun violence, 75–76; and U.S. history, 212n51; and war on crime, 22; and war on drugs, 84; and war on guns, 60. See also African American men; African Americans; men and boys of color; Native Americans; people of color; women and girls of color
• racial cleansing, 193
• racial code words, 74–75
• racial frames, 2, 8, 11, 14, 15, 23, 61, 210n28
• racialized tropes, 22, 37, 82, 169
• racial profiling, 72, 82, 173
• racial segregation, 29–30, 31
• racism, 54, 59, 82; and Philando Castile, 173; and Charleston church shooting, 96; and color-blindness, 74–75; structural, 59–60, 173
• Reagan, Ronald, 44, 62
• restraining orders. See domestic violence restraining orders
• risk, cultural theory of, 127
• road rage, 159, 163
• Roosevelt, Theodore, 35
• Ruger firearms, Prescott, Arizona, 18
• rural areas, 16, 105, 108, 116, 117, 137, 139, 185, 200, 212n44; and active shootings, 22, 91–92; in California, 21; crime in, 80–81; and Guardian mindset, 96–97, 104; in Michigan, 19–20; and social construction of gun violence, 88

• Saginaw, Michigan, 20
• San Bernardino shooting (2015), 90, 104, 111, 200
• Sanders, Dave, 87
• Sandy Hook shooting (2012), 90, 104, 200, 201
• San Francisco, 31
• San Jose, California, 44
• San Jose Police Department, 44, 50, 51, 219n114
• school resource officers, 128
• school shootings, 86, 91, 92, 175. See also active shootings
• search warrants, 33
• Second Amendment, 3, 15, 18, 61, 139, 144, 157, 158, 176, 194, 212–13n61
• self-defense, 36, 78–83, 172, 177, 192, 193; and African Americans, 157–58; and civilians, 53; consequences of engaging in, 140; criminalization of, 80; and drug dealers, 78; and felony murder, 80; and gun boards, 151; and gun carriers of color, 122; and gun control, 50; and gun populism, 109; and laws, 13; and legitimate violence, 7; and NRA, 38; and off-duty guns, 102; and police chiefs, 4; and race, 80–83; and state use of violence, 141
• self-defense groups, 41–42
• sentencing, 198–99; in Arizona, 63; in California, 63–64, 113; and drug felonies, 62; enhanced, 7, 57, 62, 66, 79, 94, 113; for gun vs. drug violations, 65; mandatory, 57, 58; in Michigan, 63; and plea bargains, 66; and police chiefs, 94; and Proposition 47, 67; and repeat offenders, 62; and states, 62; and violent felonies, 62; and zero-tolerance gun policies, 58. See also gun laws and regulations
• sentencing, mandatory minimums for, 59, 79, 180; in California, 63–64, 113, 116; for drug possession, 44; for gun possession, 44; and Reagan administration, 44; and tough on crime policies, 60, 62; and war on guns, 58
• September 11, 2001 attacks, 53, 90, 101, 222n75
• slave patrols, 28–29, 31, 32, 109
• slavery, 28, 30, 31, 73, 93, 214n11
• Slotkin, Richard, 71
• Smith, Michael, 4
• social order, 11–12, 23, 41, 107–8, 117, 121, 129, 177, 178, 210n34
• Soros, George, 185
• South, 12, 214n11, 230–31n4; lynchings in, 32; poor whites in, 34; racial control and policing in, 28–29, 30; Reconstruction, 12, 214n11; segregation in, 30; slavery in, 31; white supremacists in, 15
• sovereign citizens, 136, 137–38
• Stand Your Ground laws, 13, 18, 19, 20, 128, 193
• Stanford Mass Shootings in America database, 89
• Stanford Open Policing Project, 223n88
• state militias, 214n11
• stereotypes, 43, 160–61, 169. See also Deadbeat Dad stereotype; superpredator stereotype; Thug stereotype
• Sterling, Alton, 3
• Stockton school shooting (1989), 219n107
• Stokes, Dewey, 51
• substance abuse. See drugs
• suburbs, 63, 95, 97, 105, 108, 140, 145, 162, 163, 185; and active shootings, 22, 86, 91–92; and Guardian mindset, 104; and social construction of gun violence, 88
• suicides, 58, 174, 193, 225n12, 225n27
• superpredator stereotype, 37, 42, 43, 45, 56, 104, 218n83; and gun laws, 131; and illegal gun possession, 138; and race, 84; threat of, 176; and urban criminality, 74
• SWAT teams (specialized weapons and tactics teams), 43, 45, 87, 199, 224n5
• Sweet, Ossian, 216n54

• Tamarit, Joe, 44
• teachers, 103, 131, 138, 142
• Tejanos (Mexican Americans), 31, 39, 214–15n27. See also Mexican Americans
• 1033 Program, 70
• terrorism, 52, 53, 57, 75, 97, 104, 109, 222–23n75; active shootings as, 89–90, 92, 93, 100
• Texas, 17, 19, 228n34; Sandra Bland Act, 225n27
• Texas Rangers, 31, 32, 39, 214–15n27
• Thompson, Brent, 4
• Thug stereotype, 14, 42, 43, 74, 161–65, 169. See also stereotypes
• Tombstone, Arizona, 18
• Tonopah, Arizona, 106
• tough on crime policies, 13, 43; and black criminality, 161; in California, 67, 112–13; federal gun laws and regulations as, 62; and gun boards, 158; and gun laws and regulations, 68, 95; justification of, 176; and NRA, 21, 45, 56; and people of color, 42; and police chiefs, 22, 60; and police subculture, 68; and race, 17, 179; and Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, 24; and Warrior image, 70
• tough on guns policies, 64–65
• Toure, Maj, 194
• Transportation Security Administration, 52
• Trump, Donald J., 43, 54, 235n9
• twenty-first-century policing, 173, 226n31

• United States Border Patrol, 39, 214–15n27
• United States Constitution, 139
• United States Department of Defense, 70; 1033 Program, 70
• United States Supreme Court, 67, 157
• University of Arizona Nursing School shooting of 2002, 18
• University of Texas, Austin, 87, 224n5
• urban crime: and assault weapons bans, 48; and gun control, 48; and gun militarism, 22; and impotence of police guns, 104; negative dream of gun, 98, 99; and police, 48; and race, 83; and Warrior mindset, 70; and Warrior sensibilities, 94
• urban criminals, 74–83; and gun laws, 131, 132; and NRA, 21; and police chiefs, 60–61
• urban police departments, 185
• urban violence, 47, 56, 73, 104; active shootings vs., 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100; in Chicago, 127; mental health-related gun violence vs., 95; and race, 75–76; and war on guns, 57, 58; and Warrior, 72. See also violence

• Vermont, 230n4
• video games, 197–98
• Vietnam War, 37
• vigilantes, 31, 63
• violence: myth of regeneration through, 71; private, 7; public vs. private, 8; and Warrior image, 69, 70. See also gun violence; urban violence
• violence, legitimate, 174; and African American community groups, 172; and concealed pistol licenses, 122; criminal vs., 8, 78, 172, 173, 177, 178, 180; defined, 7; and gun boards, 16, 144, 145, 146, 160, 168–69, 177; and gun militarism, 9, 11, 12, 13, 26, 49, 60, 84, 107, 110, 145, 160, 169, 178; and gun populism, 13, 26, 49, 85, 107, 108, 109, 110, 138, 141–42, 145, 160, 169, 178; illegitimate vs., 7, 8, 180, 181, 211n36; license for and limit of, 9; and NRA, 55, 177; and police, 32, 173–74; and police as political actors, 116, 176; police monopoly on, 10, 57; and police personal weapons, 102; private and public forms of, 12; and race, 8, 14, 23, 27, 29, 83, 146, 160, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180–81; and Second Amendment, 15; and West, 30; by whites, 31. See also gun violence
• Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, 24
• Virginia Tech, 200

• Waco, Texas, 31
• war on crime. See crime, war on
• war on guns, 57–85, 91, 94
• warrants, 33, 146–47, 148, 149, 152–55
• Warriors/Warrior identity, 10, 60, 69–74; Guardians vs., 88, 96–97, 100; and guns, 71; hypermasculinity of, 70–72, 100; and militarized equipment, 70; police as, 2, 13, 84, 85, 105; police chiefs as, 22, 94, 95, 104
• Washington, DC, 39–40
• Washington, Jesse, 31
• watch and ward committees, 29
• Watts riot (1965), 43
• Weber, Max, 7, 84, 210n32
• West: class in, 30; genocide in, 30, 31; policing in, 30–31; private policing firms in, 15, 31; property in, 31; race in, 30–31; settlement of, 12, 30
• whiteness, 61, 128, 211n41; and active shootings, 22, 89, 90, 91, 92; and Columbine shootings, 86; and cop dramas, 43; and criminality, 32, 133; and criminal justice system, 212n44; and drug dealers, 211n41; and gun boards, 145, 147, 163–64, 186; and gun homicide, 193; and gun laws, 131, 142; and gun populism, 13–14, 109, 178; and innocence, 85, 180; and KKK, 29; and legitimate violence, 31; and mental illness, 93; and number of guns owned, 8; and perpetrators, 104; and persons of color reported as suspicious, 137; police treatment of, 83; privilege of, 224n3; in Prohibition era, 33–34; as property, 13, 211n43, 212n44; and settlers, 30, 31; as social achievement, 13–14; and social construction of gun violence, 88; and sovereign citizens, 137; and tough on crime policies, 42; and vice in black communities, 30, 32; and victims, 104; and vigilantes, 29. See also Anglo-Americans
• white supremacists, 15, 29, 62, 96, 109, 178, 193
• Williams, Robert, 217n71
• Winkler, Adam, 61–62
• women: colonial, 28; concealed carry by, 118; and gun control in Canada, 48; and intimate partner violence, 166–68; marginalized, 168; and rape, 32; and restraining orders, 133–36; stereotypes of, 135; violence against, 24. See also African American women; Native American women
• women and girls of color, 11, 164, 210n26. See also African Americans; African American women; people of color
• working class, 29, 33
• World War I, 34

• Yanez, Jeronimo, 2–3
• Young, Coleman, 62–63
• youths, 66, 202
• Yoxall, Thomas, 106–8, 127

• Zamarripa, Patricio, 4
• Zamudio, Joe, 128, 229n46
• Zimmerman, George, 3