Page numbers in italics refer to maps and tables.
Aaron, 24, 56, 58, 101, 110, 172, 173
Abednego, 118
Abraham, 3, 22, 37, 89, 122, 154, 165, 213
Abraham, Apocalypse of, 228
Abraham, Testament of, 210
See also Persian Empire
Acts, book of, 130, 158, 211, 238
Adam, 94, 138, 162, 176, 183, 188, 191, 193, 194, 213, 228, 240, 241
Adam, Apocalypse of, 242
Adam and Eve, 160, 163–164, 187, 189–190, 192, 243
afterlife, 3, 7, 13–16, 76, 87, 115–116, 127, 128, 129, 130, 192, 213
See also Heaven; Hell; resurrection
Ahura Mazda, 147
Alexander, Jonathan, 106
Alexander the Great, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 42, 45, 51, 64, 102, 120, 249
Alexandria, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40–41, 43, 54, 179, 210, 211, 218, 220, 221, 237, 239
Amram, Testament of, 137
Andronicus, 39–40
Angel of the Lord, 11, 150, 185
angels
in apocalyptic works, 10, 156, 157
2 Baruch and, 223
Basilides on, 219
in Daniel Additions, 127
Daniel and, 87, 121, 151, 159, 170, 229
Dead Sea Scrolls, 158–159
and dualism, 231
1 Enoch and, 48, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76, 83, 86–87, 152, 153
Essenes and, 157
Ezra’s Apocalypse and, 224
fallen/rebel, 12, 48, 70, 89, 90, 166, 227
First Zechariah and, 11
forces of, 149
Gnosticism and, 236
growing emphasis on, 7–8, 12, 13, 155, 166, 174
hierarchy of, 8, 48, 154–156, 161, 220
intermediary figures standing higher than, 186
in Jubilees, 159
2 Maccabees and, 127
Moses on, 154–155
naming, 150–151
as national guardians, 159–160
New Testament and, 150, 151, 168
Old Testament and, 2, 11, 150, 151, 152, 154
personification of, 153–154
Pharisees and, 130
polytheism and, 159
proliferation of, 150
Psalms and, 189
resources for exploring, 249
as rhetorical necessity for authenticity, 23, 157
role of, 16
sanctity of, 160
types and functions of, 151–154
view of, influence of philosophy on, 177
Zarathustra on, 145
in storytelling, 117
See also archangels; demons/devils
Animal Apocalypse, 71
animals, as symbols, 71, 117, 119, 120, 152, 222, 225
Annunaki, 89
Antigonus of Sokho, 52, 53, 60
anti-Judaism, 220, 231, 234, 238, 239
Antioch, 32, 33, 54, 179, 211, 220, 231, 232, 236–237, 238
Antiochus II Theos, 29, 30, 31
Antiochus III the Great, 29, 30, 31, 61, 98–99
Antiochus IV, 29, 30, 45, 49, 62, 63, 99, 100, 103, 112, 115, 116, 120, 122, 123
Antiochus XII, 105
anti-Semitism, 220
apocalyptic
authenticity of, 157
dating the writings of, 71
and Enoch Studies, 70
fictional, exercise in, 117–118
golden age of, 222
increase in, 115–116
and Jerusalem’s central role, 206
malleable framework of, 122
Mesopotamian precedent for, 88–89
and messianic ideas, 115–116, 195, 204–205, 213, 222, 227, 243
and points of influence, 145
shift from prophecy to, 10–12
suspicion of, 227
tyrants of, 120
understanding politics through, 223
Zoroastrianism and, 146
See also specific apocalyptic texts
apocalyptic judgment. See End Times; Judgment Day
apocrypha, 68, 70, 78, 210, 242, 245, 249
See also specific apocryphal texts
Aramaic language, 40, 70, 72, 227
Aramaic Levi Document, 139, 158, 167
archangels, 67, 75, 78, 81, 147, 151, 152, 154, 158, 159, 167, 168, 210, 229
See also specific archangels
aretalogies, 182
Aristarchus of Samos, 34
Aristoboulos I, 47, 60, 105, 106, 110
Aristotle/Aristotelianism, 36, 178
Armageddon, battle of, 223
Armenian empire, 106–107
Artaxerxes, 9
asceticism, 233
Asher, Testament of, 139–140
Asia Minor, 51, 98, 100, 106–107
astrology, 35, 36, 37, 69, 70, 77, 88, 236
Astronomical Book, 70–71, 72, 82, 86–87
astronomy, 34–35, 69, 70, 77, 86, 88
Azariah, Prayer of, 123
Azazel, 76, 77, 85, 86, 154, 160, 162
Babylon, 17, 27, 33, 41, 87, 114, 119, 161, 210, 223
Babylonia, 12, 29, 33, 36–37, 73, 89, 123, 180, 198, 226
cultural impact of, 34, 54, 85, 86, 87, 88, 151
and the Diaspora experience, 41, 54, 211
Babylonian Exile, 4, 6, 7, 22, 23, 57, 58, 91, 118, 119, 169, 218, 224
Babylonian Talmud, 226
See also Jewish Christianity
Baptismal Liturgy, 144
Baptists, Babylonian, 239
Bar-Kokhba revolt, 221, 231, 238, 239
Barnabas, Epistle of, 230
Basilides of Alexandria, 219–220, 235, 239
Beatitudes of Jesus, 129
Bel and the Dragon, 123
Belial/Beliar, 12, 122, 126, 128, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, 154, 155, 160, 162–163, 164, 166, 230
See also Satan
Belshazzar, 118
Benjamin, Testament of, 141
Bible
and the Assyrian invasion, 23
and Deuterocanonical sources, 245
Greek philosophy and, 179
historical fiction accepted in, 22
number of references to angels in, 151
and rejection of anthropomorphism, 185
as the source of Jewish-Christian doctrines, belief in, 2
as a story, 3–4
See also Hebrew Bible; New Testament; Old Testament
Caesar, Julius, 198
calendars, 35, 86, 88, 91–92, 93
Canonization of scripture, 19–20
See also specific canonical texts
Carpocrates, 239
Carthage, 98
Caesarea Maritima, 199, 200, 215, 217
Charles, R. H., 166
Charlesworth, James H., 186
Christ
divine nature of, 158, 186, 229–230
and dualism, 230
Gnosticism and, 234
Old Testament and, 2
portrayal of, 194
Proverbs and, 182
story culminating with the reign of, 223
See also Jesus; Messiah
Christian, defined, 33
Christianity
calendar of, 86
continuity of themes in, claims about, 2, 247, 248
cultural and intellectual pressures impacting the making of, 186, 187
Dead Sea Scrolls and, 132
debates between followers of Judaism and, 69
1 Enoch and, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72–73, 76, 90, 186
first recorded sermon in Jerusalem, 17
foundational text of early, 40
gap in continuity for, 245–246, 249
as heirs of the spiritual revolution, 220
impact of the Angelic Liturgy on, 158
interpretation of Genesis and, 176
liturgy in, root of, 209
in Mesopotamia, 232–233
messianic idea central to, 169
perceived as a rival to Judaism, 227
Qumran rituals with parallels to, 143, 144
Roman Empire and, 227, 243, 249
and Second Zechariah, 65
separation of Judaism and, 227, 231, 238–239
state support for, 240–241
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in, 125
and theories of body and soul, 129
Zoroastrianism and, 146
See also specific aspects of Christianity; specific Christian sects
Chronicles, 51
1 Chronicles, 165
Chrysostom, John, 231
Church of the East (Nestorian Church), 233, 243
circumcision, 2, 3, 47, 80, 91, 92, 94, 100, 109, 111, 122, 142–143, 163, 225, 232, 247
civil war, 39, 61, 63, 65, 97, 100, 103, 110, 112, 133, 196, 216
Cleopatra, 30–31
Colossians, Letter to the, 230
Common Judaism, 111–112
Communion of Saints, 128
Community Rule (1QS), 136, 137, 143–144
2 Corinthians, 230
corporal punishment, 181
cosmic warfare, 11, 77, 115–116, 118, 120–121, 124, 134, 135, 148, 149, 156–157, 160
See also apocalyptic
cosmopolitan standards, 37
Covenant at Sinai. See Sinai (Mosaic) Covenant
Creation
deity of, Basilides claim about, 219
in Enoch’s Parables, 171
intellectual challenges that arose over the story of, 176, 177, 179–180, 187, 234–235
Jubilees and, 94
language of, 94
and Platonic views, 178–179
Qumran text of 4QInstruction and, 138
and the Qur’an, 242
reconstruction of, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
responsibility for, issue of, 179–180, 187
seeking an intermediary associated with, 180–184
creative fragmentation, 52–54
Damascus, 42, 43, 54, 105, 218, 243
Damascus Document, 133, 163, 172, 190
Daniel, book of
afterlife in, 115
angels in, 87, 121, 151, 159, 170, 229
first section of, stories in, 118–119
First Zechariah and, 11
as historical fiction, 22
inspiration for, 118
main subject of, 97–98, 120–121
messianic ideas in, 118, 121, 169, 170–171, 172, 195
Revelation and, 222
revolutionary generation and author of, 134
second section of, stories in, 119–120
on Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires, 31–32
versions of, 118
and visions of heavenly books/tablets, 87
Dante, 156
Darius, 118
David, 3, 58, 104, 107, 165, 169, 172, 204, 205
Davidic kingdom, 110, 173, 195, 204
Day of Tribulation. See Judgment Day
Dead Sea Scrolls, 70, 72, 79, 125, 126, 131, 132, 135, 137, 139, 158–159, 172–174, 212, 233, 237, 246
See also Qumran; specific Dead Sea Scroll documents
Death, personification of, 163
death and dying, concepts involving. See afterlife; Heaven; Hell; resurrection; Sheol
Demetrius III Eucaerus, 113
Demetrius the Chronographer, 40–41
demons/devils
blaming, instead of God, 164–165
concept of, summary of, 166
Dead Sea Scrolls and, 79
1 Enoch and, 68, 77–78, 84, 85, 152, 154, 162, 166
Gnosticism and, 236
hierarchy of, 165–166
images of, originals for, 250
Jesus and, 213
practical functions served by, 166–168
Tobit and, 81
types and functions of, 153–154
Zarathustra on, 145
See also specific demons/devils
Deuterocanonical books, 151, 245
See also specific Deuterocanonical texts
Deuteronomistic movement, 91
Deuteronomy, book of, 1, 4, 6, 159, 220
Deutero-Zechariah. See Second Zechariah
Devil. See Satan
Dialogue with Trypho, 227
Diaspora experience, 38–41, 43, 53, 54, 92, 170, 201, 210–211, 218, 221, 232, 238, 243
dietary laws, 2, 91, 111, 119, 225, 232, 247
Domitian, 120
Donne, John, 36
Dosithean sect, 238
Dream Visions, Book of, 71, 80, 91
dualism, 132, 135–138, 140–141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 180, 192, 220, 230–231, 234, 235, 239, 240, 241, 244, 247
Dura-Europos, 233
Ebionites, 232
Ecclesiasticus (Ecclus). See Sirach
Eden. See Garden of Eden
Egypt
asceticism in, and monasticism, 233
cultural impact of, 85, 86, 87, 145, 151
culture of, 36, 54, 167, 180, 182
Diaspora experience in, 38–41, 53, 243
discovery of early documents in, 235, 241
1 Enoch and, 69
God’s rescue of the Hebrews from, 4
and the Kitos War, 221
origin story applicable to, 89
origins of, scholarly writing on, 36–37, 73
Roman Empire annexation of, 199
suffering of God’s people in, 12
synagogues as institutions in, 38
Egyptian language, 31
Elchasai/Elchasaites, 239–240, 241, 242
Eleazar (priest), 60
Eleazar (son of Mattathias), 106
Elijah, 172
Encyclopedia Judaica, 169
End Times
Daniel warning of, 120
1 Enoch and, 71, 74–76, 90, 91
Ezra’s Apocalypse and, 224–225
messianic ideas and readings of, 169–174
period profligate in creating visions of, 66
preparation for, 144
question surrounding resurrection and, 193
Qumran and, 93
struggles in, 150
visions of, 10, 17, 66, 116, 223
See also apocalyptic; Heaven; Hell; Judgment Day; Revelation
Enmeduranki, 88
Enoch
emphasis on, over Moses, 91
followers of, as a sectarian movement, 232
Islam and, 242
pseudepigrapha and, 10
references to, 67, 69, 78, 80, 82–83, 88, 89–90, 190
as a scribe, 82
1 Enoch
angels in, 48, 67, 68, 74, 75, 76, 83, 86–87, 152, 153
Christianity and, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72–73, 76, 90
Daniel popularizing themes in, 118
dating the writings of, 67, 69, 71–73, 246
demons/devils in, 68, 77–78, 84, 85, 152, 154, 162, 166
determinism and predestination in, 141, 143
End Times and, 71, 74–76, 90, 91
foreshadowing later works, 68, 76
and the Garden of Eden story, 85, 189
heavenly realm in, 67
Hellenistic empires and, 48, 85–87, 87–88, 89
Judaism and, 67, 69, 70, 85, 90
and Judgment Day, 18, 67, 70, 74, 75–76, 87, 90, 91
major omissions in, 91, 92, 94
messianic ideas in, 70, 76, 195
phases of popularity and oblivion, 69–70, 227
Revelation and, 222
revolutionary generation and authors of, 134
sections dividing, 70–71
suppression of works that had proliferated since, 226–227
Testaments connected to, 139
Tobit and, 81
and visions of heavenly books/tablets, 82–84, 87
Wisdom and, 182
Enoch, Epistle of, 71, 74–75, 80
Enoch, Parables (Similitudes) of, 70, 72–73, 76, 84, 141, 155, 171, 183
Enoch Studies, 70
Enochian writings
availability of, 249
development of, 54
influence on Manichaeans and Sethians, 241–242
linkage between Essene and Qumran beliefs and, 93, 95, 133
origins of, 85–86
shift in attitudes toward, 227
sources of, 85
See also Giants, book of; Jubilees, book of; Noah, book of
Enosh, Prayer of, 173
Epiphanius, 240
Eratosthenes, 34
eschatology, 68, 74, 121, 124, 146, 190, 242
See also End Times
2 Esdras/4 Ezra (Apocalypse of Ezra), 193, 223, 224–225, 227
Essenes, 20, 53, 69, 93, 95, 110–111, 129, 132–133, 134, 137, 142, 143, 157, 192, 212, 226, 232, 233, 237, 240
Ethiopian church, 67, 69, 79, 82–83, 227, 241
ethnicity, new concepts and definitions of, 23–24
Eucharistic rites, 209
Euclid, 34
Eve. See Adam and Eve
evil/sin
deliverance from, 128
and dualism, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140
emphasis on, understanding, 86
explaining, 12, 73–74, 77–78, 187–193
fallen angels and, 48
and the issue of theodicy, 12, 14, 15, 74, 187
origins of, 2, 7, 12–13, 77, 85, 90, 160–161, 167, 176, 187, 189
punishment for, 4, 12, 13, 18–19, 78, 117–118, 122, 123, 127, 128, 135, 145, 156, 224, 236
Qumran’s obsession with, 190, 236
as a reality, 149
See also cosmic warfare; demons/devils; End Times; Hell; Judgment Day
Exodus, 6, 12, 41, 162, 183, 185
Ezekiel, 6, 14, 18, 152, 161, 169, 189
Ezekiel the Tragedian, Exagoge of, 41
Ezra, Apocalypse of (2 Esdras/4 Ezra), 193, 223, 224–225, 227
Ezra, book of, 6–7, 19, 20, 57, 58
Fall of Man, 161, 176, 187–189, 190, 191–192, 193, 240, 241, 243
Fate, 111
First Jewish-Roman War. See Jewish War
First Temple, 2, 3, 5, 6, 20, 56–57, 91, 152, 162, 184
First Zechariah, 11, 23, 64, 74, 75, 173
Flood, 3, 70, 78, 88, 89, 153, 162, 193
4QInstruction (Wisdom literature/Sapiential Work), 138, 142
Gabriel, 67, 76, 121, 147, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 242
Galilee, 206, 206–207, 207, 216
Garden of Eden, 85, 123, 151, 161, 187, 188, 189, 190–191, 192
Genesis, 1, 22, 69, 77, 79, 88, 154, 165, 175–176, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 234
Genesis Pesher (commentary), 173
Gentile, defined, 24
Giants, book of, 68, 71, 72, 76–77, 78–79, 117, 167, 241
Gnosticism, 129, 180, 212, 219, 220, 228, 234–239, 241, 243, 247
God
allocation of Israel to, 1, 4, 94, 159
depicting and naming, limitations on, 7, 45, 153
disobeying, 4
inaccessibility of, 7–8
obeying, 3
presence of, site of, 116, 152
prophets of, legitimate sequence of, 9
situated among other deities, 1–2, 4, 5, 38, 69, 151
See also Christianity; Judaism; monotheism; theodicy; specific texts/scriptures
good/righteousness
and dualism, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 230
origins of, 85
prophets speaking for God on, 9
responsibility for, 111
and suffering, questioning, 12
vindication and reward for, 13, 14, 15, 117, 126–129, 145, 156–157, 224, 236
See also angels; cosmic warfare; End Times; Heaven; Judgment Day
Great Assembly, 51–52
Great Beast, 223
Great Church, 231
Great Library of Alexandria, 31, 40
Greece, 29, 33, 37, 65, 89, 98, 159
Greek empires. See Hellenistic empires
Greek language, 28, 30, 36–37, 40, 41, 53, 60, 169, 184, 208, 210, 227
Greek philosophy, 35–36, 43–44, 85, 129, 176, 177–180, 184, 187, 189
Greek-translated Bible. See Septuagint
Habakkuk Pesher (commentary), 135, 142
Hasidim, 20
Hasmonean dynasty
conquer of Idumea, 201
divine kingship claimed by, 47
expansion of, 107–109
feuds and factions dividing the nation under, 109–112
genealogy of, 106
illegitimate lineage of, 112
Jubilees and, 124–125
last decades of, political chaos in, 197–199
political influence of, 42
protracted internecine war during, 112–113, 129
and the Psalms of Solomon, 204
realm of, at its height, 108
religious authority of, validation for, 157
in a succession of regimes, effect of, 114
writers and the agenda of, 101
See also specific rulers
Heaven
Basilides imagining of, 220
creation of, 175
as euphemism for God, 7
holy Temple of, 158
Islam and, 242
Jubilees and, 94
messengers from, as rhetorical necessity for authenticity, 23
Old Testament and, 3
period becoming commonplace, 16
Revelation and, 222
Torah and, 84
Zarathustra on, 145
See also angels
heavenly battles. See cosmic warfare
heavenly books/tablets, visions of, 82–84, 87
Hebrew Bible
additions and revisions after closure of, 19
dualism and, 132
Genesis and the Fall in, 187
Greek philosophy and, 177–178
heavenly realm in, 155
Jesus and, 245
numerology and, 154
rewritten scriptures and, 6
Sadducees and, 130
and Satan, 162
view of the afterlife changing after closure of, 14–15
See also Old Testament; Septuagint; specific books of the Hebrew Bible
Hebrew language, 40, 41, 55, 72, 94, 175, 227
Hebrews, Epistle to the, 229, 229–230
Hell
Annunaki and, 89
categorized, 155
confining evil spirits to, 168
Islam and, 242
Jesus warning of, 213
period becoming commonplace, 16
personification of, 163
Revelation and, 222
Zarathustra on, 145
See also demons/devils
Hellenistic empires
center of learning, 237
constant strife between, few Jewish sources for period of, 50–52
cultural impact of, 27–28, 32–36, 68, 73, 85, 87–88, 89, 148, 178, 179, 234
Diaspora experience under, 38–41
divine pretensions of, 45–48
dynasties comprising, 28–32
and endemic turbulence and warfare, 63–66
globalization of ideas under, 36–38
and the influence of Greek and Gentile settlers, 42–45
and magical beliefs in Egypt, 167
rule by, differing from Persian rule, 54
withdrawal and near collapse of, 98
See also Ptolemaic Empire; Seleucid Empire
Hellenistic Triangle, 33, 220, 243
Hellenization/Hellenism, 28, 38, 42, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 61, 63, 99, 100, 104, 105, 109, 120, 141, 194, 206
Hendel, Ronald, 21
henotheism, 5
Hero of Alexandria, 35
Herod Agrippa II, 160
Herod the Great, 20, 62, 106, 109, 112, 120, 196–197, 198–199, 199–202, 205, 206, 208, 215
Herodian regime
era of, 208
expansion of, 202
Greek influence on, 29
realm of, at its height, 203
Roman Empire ruling through, 199, 202
rule by, 199–202
in a succession of regimes, effect of, 114
high priesthood
as a caste, 57
families controlling, 58–59, 60
Hasmonean dynasty and, 110
partisan conflicts involving, 56, 58, 62, 64, 80, 124, 133, 206
political power of, 55–56
Ptolemaic Empire and, 59–60
religious authority of, validation for, 157–158
Seleucid Empire and, 62–63
and speaking God’s name, 7
transfer of power from, 225
See also Temple establishment/elites
Hipparchus, 34, 35, 36, 86, 88
historical fiction, 22–23
See also cosmic warfare
Hyrcanus, John, 56, 60, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 112
Hyrcanus II, 60, 106, 198, 199
Hyrcanus the Tobiad, 61, 62, 64, 66, 81
Idumea (Edom), 107, 109, 201, 206, 207
India, 29, 31, 32, 34, 44, 45, 89, 147, 233
intermarriage, 43, 56, 57–58, 59
intermediary beings, growth of, 7–8, 12, 13, 74, 180, 183, 186, 210, 220, 229
See also angels
interwar period, 220, 221–222, 238, 239
Isaac, 165
Isaiah, book of, 1, 10, 16–17, 152, 161, 169
Isaiah, Martyrdom and Ascension of, 164
Islam, 33, 67, 70, 135, 146, 169, 242–243, 244
Israel, 1, 4, 5, 6, 14, 17, 23, 24, 49, 57, 83, 94, 109, 153, 157, 159–160, 171, 172, 173, 182, 201, 224, 226
See also Palestine
Israelite, meaning of, transformed, 23–24
Issachar, Testament of, 140
Jacob, sons of, 125
Jannaeus, Alexander, 60, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 112–113, 125, 126, 198, 206
Jason of Cyrene, 53
Jeremiah, book of, 6
Jerusalem
and Alexandria, 38
and Antioch, 237
anti-Roman movements in, 206, 215
Babylonian conquer of, 4
2 Baruch and, 223
captivity and, 17
central role in apocalyptic, 206
conflicts over Hellenization in, 61, 99
and the Diaspora experience, 211
distance from, to Damascus and Nazareth, 43
expulsion of Jews from, 221
factional feuds in, 39, 112, 133
Hasmonean palace in, 47
heart of Seleucid power in, 103
Herodian regime and, 200
ideal, creation of, 223
Jesus’s birth in, 196
looting of King David’s tomb in, 104
and Pentecost, 17
renaming of, 222
restored, 19
Revelation and, 223
Roman recapture of, 217
as sacred space, 57
Second Zechariah and, 64
seeking vengeance for, 117
turbulence of, 206
Jerusalem Talmud, 226
Jerusalem Temple. See First Temple; Second Temple; Temple establishment/elites
Jesus
arrest of, 195
birth of, 196
cultural genealogy of, 211–215
death of, 232
1 Enoch and, 72
excessive reaction to activities of, 204, 207
Hasmonean era and, 109
healing by, from demonic forces, 149
and the Hebrew Bible, 245
and the idea of original sin, 188
on imperial ideologies, 47–48
messianic ideas about, 65, 169, 173–174, 229
naming disciples of, 237
naming followers of, 33
Passover and, 195
Philo of Alexandria and, 184
precursor of, 239
on the Sea of Tiberias, 200
and the Second Temple, 208
spiritual revolution by the time of, 220
warning issued by, 217
written materials during the age of, production and consumption of, 209–210
See also Christ; Messiah
Jesus movement, 212–215, 218, 228–229, 231, 232–233, 238–239
Jew, defined, 24
Jewish Antiquities (Josephus), 9, 51, 111
Jewish Christianity, 72, 218, 229, 231–232, 237, 239–240, 243, 244, 247
Jewish nation/land. See Israel; Judea; Palestine
Jewish revolts. See interwar period; Jewish War; Kitos War; Maccabean revolt
Jewish Tax, 221
Jewish War (First Roman-Jewish War), 129, 210, 214, 215–217, 217–218, 221, 232, 237, 238
Jewish War, The (Josephus), 9, 110
Job, book of, 7, 13, 14–15, 22, 51, 74, 162, 164, 165, 224
Job, Testament of, 164
John (son of Mattathias), 106
John, Apocalypse of. See Revelation
John, Gospel of, 186, 200, 213, 230
John the Baptist, 144, 173, 212, 214, 232, 239, 242
Jonathan Apphus, 42, 60, 102, 103, 106, 133, 134
Joseph and Aseneth, 210
Joseph the Tobiad, 59–61, 73, 81
Josephus (historian), 9, 39, 40, 51, 56, 58–59, 61, 62, 99, 110–111, 112, 113, 129, 132, 137, 142, 143, 157, 160, 192, 197, 205, 207, 237
Jubilees, book of, 249
acceptance and suppression of, 79, 227
afterlife in, 128
circumcision and, 142–143
determinism and predestination in, 142–143
as an expansion of Genesis, 22, 79, 190
Hasmonean dynasty and, 124–125
manifesto for Maccabean revolt in, 122–123
Mastema/Satan in, 162, 165, 166
other works reflected in, 68, 76–77, 79–80, 83, 91, 94–95
resources for exploring, 249
revolutionary generation and author of, 134
Testaments connected to, 139
See also Judea
Judah, Testament of, 128–129
Judah the Maccabee (Judas Maccabeus), 37, 51, 100, 102, 106, 128
Judaism
alternative, widespread diaspora of, 232
assumption about, 229
closure of the Hebrew Bible and thoughts present in, 3
coinage of the word, 24
continuity of themes in, claims about, 2, 247, 248
crisis within, interwar period marking, 221
Daniel on Antiochus IV and his hatred of, 120
debates between followers of Christianity and, 69
distinguishing among sects in, 129–130
1 Enoch and, 67, 69, 70, 85, 90
expansionist, 109
exploring the origins of, key to, 250
foundation of, 179
Gnosticism and, 234–235
as heirs of the spiritual revolution, 220
influence of Greek and Gentile settlers on, 43–45
intellectual center of, 41, 226
interpretation of Genesis and, 176
inverted, 220
justification of doctrines in, approaches to, 2, 248
liberal approach to, 130
Mesopotamian Christians and, 233
messianic ideas in, 169
Persian influences and, 145
and Platonism, 186
and Qumran rituals with parallels to Christianity, 144
radical anti-Judaism, 238
reconstruction of, 218, 225–228
redefining, 225
separation of Christianity and, 227, 231, 238–239
stereotyping, 250
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs in, 125
See also specific aspects of Judaism; specific Jewish sects
Judas (son of Hezekiah), 207
Jude, Epistle of, 69
Judea, 17, 23, 24, 55, 61, 107, 147, 196, 197, 198, 199, 216–217, 222, 237
See also Palestine
Judeo-Christian tradition, 3, 247–248
Judgment Day
1 Enoch and, 18, 67, 70, 74, 75–76, 87, 90, 91
Ezra’s Apocalypse and, 224–225
growing belief in, 7
increased emphasis on, 16–18, 87, 115
Isaiah and, 17
Islam and, 242
Jesus and, 213
Jubilees and, 80
Levi and, 126
martyrdom and, 127
monotheism and, 74
Noah and, 78
Old Testament and, 3
psalms and, 14
Qumran and, 134–135
Sibylline Oracles and, 124
Zoroastrianism and, 146
See also End Times; Revelation
Judith, book of, 22
justice, 12, 13, 16, 19, 74, 114
See also Judgment Day
Last Judgment. See Judgment Day
Latin language, 92, 161, 224, 227
Law, 3, 4, 5, 20, 21, 27, 91, 92, 93–94, 101, 111, 119, 122, 126, 138, 143, 157, 158, 205, 225, 229
lawlessness, 50, 100, 123, 153, 164, 230
See also evil/sin
Leontopolis Temple, 39, 99, 124, 217
Levi, Testament of, 125–126, 139, 140, 155–156, 158, 166
Life, Book of, 87
Life of Adam and Eve, 163–164, 192, 243
Life of Jesus (Renan), 212
Light and Darkness, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 142, 144, 146, 230, 240
Lightfoot, J. B., 212
literacy, emphasis on, 21
literary creativity, 21–22
Lives of the Prophets, 205
Luke, 48, 150, 171, 173–174, 194, 213
Maccabean revolt, 27, 28, 29, 32, 37, 47, 53, 80, 97, 99, 100–101, 102, 104, 116–117, 118, 122, 127, 129, 133, 179, 206, 208, 238, 249–250
1 Maccabees, 9–10, 27, 49, 50, 100, 101, 102, 104, 116, 127
2 Maccabees, 24, 49, 53, 62, 63, 115, 127, 128, 129, 153
3 Maccabees, 39
magic/superstition, 166–168
Magnesia, battle of, 98
Maimonides, 84
Manasseh, 60
Mandaeans, 239
Mani/Manichaeanism, 135, 220, 240–241, 242
Manoah, 8
Marcion of Pontus, 239
martyrdom, 126–129, 158, 164, 196, 205, 223, 238, 241, 250
Mary, 171
Mass, 209
See also Satan
Mattathias (scholar), 196, 205
Matthew, gospel of, 70, 149, 157
Menander of Antioch, 235, 236, 237, 238
Menander Soter, 45–46
Meshach, 118
Mesopotamia, 22, 29, 36, 41, 53, 87–89, 93, 102, 107, 145, 226, 232–233, 235, 240, 243
See also Babylon; Babylonia
Messiah
2 Baruch and, 223
as a central figure, 168
claim to be, 195
Ezra’s Apocalypse and, 225
and Jewish Christians, 232
meaning of, 169
Revelation and, 223
view of, influence of philosophy on, 177
See also Christ; Jesus; messianic ideas
Messiah, War of the, 174
Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521), 173–174
messianic ideas
about Jesus, 65, 169, 173–174, 229
apocalyptic and, 115–116, 195, 204–205, 213, 222, 227, 243
Daniel and, 118, 121, 169, 170–171, 172
emerging, diverse forms of, 168–174
First Zechariah and, 11
images of, originals for, 250
Satan and, 166
in Second Zechariah, 65
of self-proclaimed prophets, 207
suspicion of, 227
in Zoroastrianism, 146
Michael, 67, 76, 121, 136, 137, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156–157, 159, 160, 164, 171, 210
Middle East, 28, 29, 98, 104, 107, 243, 244
Milton, John, 160
Mithridates, 102, 104, 106, 107, 198
monasticism, 233
monotheism, 1–2, 3–4, 5, 7–18, 19–21, 57, 73–74, 152, 159, 177–180, 186
Mosaic Covenant. See Sinai (Mosaic) Covenant
Mosaic Law. See Law
Moses
on angels, 154–155
Beliar and, 162–163
brother of, 56
Damascus Document and, 172
Deuteronomy and, 1
and direct contact with God, 9
emphasis on Enoch over, 91
Essenes and, 93
father of, 137
Jubilees and, 79, 94, 162, 165
Maccabean leaders citing, 101
rewritten tales of, 6
sense of inheritance from, 24
and the Sinai Covenant, 3, 4, 83
and the story of the Exodus, 41
tales of, 89
Moses, Assumption/Testament of, 125, 164, 200–201, 249
Muhammad, 242
multiculturalism, 42, 43, 109, 237, 243
Muslims. See Islam
mythologies, 16, 36, 41, 74, 77, 78–79, 89, 94, 135, 144, 146, 147, 150–151, 154, 160–161, 162–164, 165, 176, 192, 232, 236
Naphtali, Testament of, 140
Near East, 37, 64, 86, 180, 217, 221, 231
Nebuchadnezzar, 118
Nehemiah, book of, 7, 19, 20, 57, 58, 59
Neoplatonism, 228
New Testament
apocalyptic book in, 10
apostles of, Hasmonean era and, 109
composition of epistles and gospels in, 229
comprehensibility of, 40
epistle close to being included in, 230
ideology of the Roman Empire and, 47, 249
Jews and Samaritans in, 23
perception of worldly governments in, 114
Platonic language and, 229
and the Qur’an, 242
as a source for understanding the Jesus movement, 211–215
teaching a radical separation between the Old Testament and, 239
transition between the Old Testament and, 248–249
and the worldly presence of spiritual evil, 167
See also specific books of the New Testament
Noah, book of, 68, 76–77, 78, 80, 81, 85–86, 88, 89, 94, 166, 167–168, 189
Numbers, book of, 221
numerology, 154
Old Testament
additions and revisions after closure of, 19
angels in, 2, 11, 150, 151, 152, 154
and apocalyptic works versus classic prophecy, 10
concepts lacking in, 2–3, 128, 187
deity of, Basilides claim about, 219
Gnosticism and, 234
messianic ideas in, 169
and mining for doctrines, 248
monotheism and polytheism in, 1
New Testament references to, 40
and predestination, 141
and the Qur’an, 242
rabbinic Judaism and, 226, 246
stereotyping and, 250
teaching a radical separation between New Testament and, 239
transition between the New Testament and, 248–249
worldview of, 68
See also Hebrew Bible; Septuagint; specific books of the Old Testament
origin stories, 3, 36–37, 73, 89, 175
See also Creation
See also Adam and Eve; Fall of Man; Garden of Eden
Orthodox churches, 118
Ossaeans, 240
pacifism, 214
Alexander the Great’s conquer of, 25
Antioch’s close link to, 237
aristocratic families dominating third-century, 58–61
Bar-Kokhba revolt in, 221–222
building boom in, 200
Essene migration to, 93
exposure to elephants, 32
Greek dominance of, 28–29
Hasmonean dynasty in, 42, 105, 107, 112–113
Hellenistic rule differing from Persian rule in, 54
in a Hellenistic triangle, 33
Herodian regime and, 199–202, 201
influence of Greek and Gentile settlers in and around, 42–45
intellectual centers within, 68
intercommunal massacres across, 217–218
Jewish people’s return to, 6–7
as land at the pivot of major empires, 109
and the Maccabean revolt, 29
multiculturalism in, 42, 43, 109
Parthian Empire and, 103
period under Hellenistic empires, 28
Persian rule over, 6, 7, 14–15
political influence of Hellenestic empires on, 45–48
prolonged period of revolution and wars in, 97–98
under Ptolemaic rule, 28, 31, 55, 58, 61
refugees and exiles from, during the Jewish War, 218
rise of religious nationalism in, 47–48
under Seleucid rule, 28, 31, 54, 58, 61, 62–63, 88, 102, 104, 114, 120–121
sparse source material on, period of, 50–52
synagogues as institutions in, 38
universalism and, 92
See also Israel; Judea
Paradise Lost (Milton), 160, 161, 163, 188
Parthian Empire, 29, 33, 41, 102–103, 104, 106, 107, 122, 198, 199
Passion Play, 65
Paul, 138, 184, 188–189, 193, 194, 220, 230, 232, 247
Penemue, 84
Pentecost, Day of, 17, 197, 206
Persian Empire, 6, 7, 14–15, 24, 25, 33, 34, 53–54, 87, 89, 102, 144–147, 159, 232, 235, 243
Persian religion, 135, 144, 146–147, 233
Peter, 222
Pharaoh, 165
Pharisees, 20, 52–53, 69, 110–111, 112–113, 129, 130, 192–193, 198, 213, 226, 230
Philo of Alexandria, 38, 41, 184–186, 191, 192, 229, 233, 234
philosophy, 35–36, 43–44, 55, 85, 129, 176, 177, 178, 183, 187, 189
See also Plato/Platonism
Phraates I, 102
Plato/Platonism, 129, 178–179, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 191, 229–230, 234
Pliny, 133
polytheism, 1–2, 4, 5, 7–8, 38, 44, 46, 69, 73–74, 151, 152, 159, 177–180
Pompey, 198
Pontus, 106
prayer houses. See synagogues
predestination, 141, 142–143, 236
See also high priesthood; specific priests
prophecy
classical, decline of, 7, 9–12
textualization of, 20–21
Protestantism, 20, 21, 118, 245, 246
Proverbs, 51, 163, 181–182, 195
Psalms, 1, 13, 14, 117, 167, 169, 184, 187–188, 189, 190
See also Solomon, Psalms of
pseudepigrapha, 10, 20–21, 190, 226, 227, 246
See also specific pseudepigraphic texts
pseudoprophecy/scripture, 20–21, 37, 57, 71, 74, 91, 118, 120, 134, 139, 150, 193, 200, 217, 226, 227
Ptolemaic Empire, 249
claim of divine kingship in, 45–46
in conflict with Seleucid Empire, 28, 29, 39, 61, 64, 65–66, 102, 133
Diaspora experience under, 38–41
as a dynasty, 29–31
high priests and, 59–60
interactions with Egyptian culture under, 87
metaphors for, 65
Palestine under, 28, 31, 55, 58, 61
territorial extent of, 29
See also specific rulers
Ptolemy I Soter, 30, 31, 38, 40, 44
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 30, 31, 39
Ptolemy III Euergetes, 30, 31, 59
Ptolemy IV Philopator, 30, 31, 39, 61
Ptolemy V Epiphanes, 30
Ptolemy VI Philometor, 30, 39, 99
Pythagoras/Pythagoreans, 35, 178
Qabalistic tradition, 228
4QInstruction (Wisdom literature/Sapiential Work), 138, 142
Quietus, Lusius, 221
Qumran
calendar followed by, 91
end to the community of, 217, 237
and Essene beliefs, 93, 95, 132–133, 134, 142, 143, 157, 212
and Hasmonean dynasty, 126, 172–173
library of, 72
linkage from Christian Mesopotamia to, 233
and messianic ideas, 214
obsession of, on evil/sin, 190, 236
origins of, 132–135
Persian influences and, 144, 145
and political circumstances, 172–173
prayer in, 209
rediscovery of forgotten texts at, 228
religious authority in, 157–158
as rigid partisans, 93–94, 131, 134, 139
rituals with parallels to Christianity, 143, 144
Roman Empire and, 126
as a sectarian movement, 232
and Sethian thought, 241–242
Qumran texts/documents. See Dead Sea Scrolls
rabbinic Judaism, 7, 16, 70, 84, 169, 188, 209, 225–226, 226–227, 243, 246
Ramiel, 223
Raphael, 76, 78, 81, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 229
rationalism, 55
Reason. See Logos
redemption, 14, 15, 156, 173, 191, 219, 234, 236, 240
Reformation, 20
religious authority, 12, 20, 156
religious labels, issue with, 246–247
Renan, Ernest, 212
responsibility, shift from collective to individual, 18–19
resurrection, 3, 14, 15, 72, 76, 115, 116, 121, 127–129, 130, 146, 173, 192–193, 213, 223, 224, 229, 248
Reuben, Testament of, 140, 166
Revelation, 11, 47, 75, 87, 149, 163, 221, 222–223
See also End Times; Judgment Day
righteousness. See good/righteousness
ritual purity, 143–144
Roman Empire, 122
Christianity and, 227, 243, 249
cultural impact of, 200
diabolical context of, 149
Greek influence on, 29
Holy of Holies and, 45
imperial ideologies of, 47
interwar period under, 221–222
invasion of Jerusalem, 198, 204
and magical beliefs in Egypt, 167
Parthian Empire and, 102–103, 107
Persian Empire and, 235
Pontus and, 106
Qumran and, 126
refuge from, 41
revolutionary movement against, 160, 196–197, 204–206, 215
ruling through Herodian regime, 199, 202
Seleucid Empire and, 98–99, 100, 102
in a succession of regimes, effect of, 114
War Scroll and, 131
writings inspired by interwar period under, 222–225
and the Year of Four Emperors, 216
Roman-Jewish War, First. See Jewish War
Romans, Epistle to the, 138, 188, 193
Rome, 29, 37, 63, 210, 211, 217, 223, 226
Sabbath, 80, 91, 94, 112, 225, 232
sacred scriptures
expanding upon, 21–23
growing role of, 19–21
See also specific texts/scriptures
sacrifices, 2, 4, 8, 27, 46, 60, 63, 92, 100, 120, 127, 147, 154, 158, 199, 209, 215, 225
Sadducees, 52–53, 69, 110–111, 112, 113, 130, 198, 213, 216, 226
Salome Alexandra, 106, 110, 113, 114, 197–198, 221
See also Israel; Palestine
Samaritan Temple, 23, 24, 100, 107
Samaritans, 23–24, 38, 40, 107, 109, 202, 207, 237, 238
Sammael, 164
Samson, 8
Samuel, 14
2 Samuel, 165
Sassanian era, 147
Satan
blaming, instead of God, 164–165
in Christianity and Islam, 135
as an evil overlord, identification of, 12–13, 159
figures representing or serving, 222–223
First Zechariah and, 11
Hebrew Bible and, 162
Job and, 15
messianic ideas and, 166
mythology surrounding, in the Christian tradition, 160–162, 163–164
Old Testament and, 2–3, 150, 161–162
and partisan battles, 124
resources for exploring, 249
rise of, 189
role of, 150
Testament of Dan and, 153
view of, influence of philosophy on, 177
Wisdom and, 191–192
See also Belial/Beliar
Saturninus, 236
Saul, 13–14
science, 34–35, 36, 85, 86, 183
scribes, 6, 16, 21, 39, 41, 57, 82, 83, 87, 117, 209–210, 226
Second Temple
control of, as a primary goal, 124
as a copy of God’s Temple, 84, 157
counterparts/imitations of, 38, 39, 99, 124, 217
critique of, 134
and destruction of the Samaritan Temple, 107
End Times and books of, 170
enemy of, 59
era of, 7, 8, 10, 14, 83, 92, 109, 119, 189, 247
fall of, 69, 90, 122, 209, 217, 220, 231
Heliodorus and, 127
Herod’s rebuilding of, 201, 208
Maccabean restoration of, 27, 101, 102
precincts of, Hellenization and, 45
Ptolemy II and, 39
reconstruction giving rise to, 6, 20, 57, 91
Roman Empire and, 196, 202, 215
scholarship on Judaism, Enoch and, 70
seeking vengeance for, 117
Seleucid (Antiochus IV) desecration of, 27, 100, 116, 120
Second Zechariah, 11, 64–65, 66, 116, 118, 196, 222
Seleucia-Ctesiphon, 33, 220, 233, 241
aggression by, hopes and fears aroused by, 124
capital of, 33
claim of divine kingship in, 45–46
in conflict with Ptolemaic Empire, 28, 29, 39, 61, 64, 65–66, 102, 133
cultural impact of, 87–88
Diaspora experience under, 41
dissolving realm of, 105
1 Enoch and, 71
era of, 27
former capital of, 237
gods beloved in, 45
high priests and, 62–63
internal conflicts and civil wars of, 103–104
metaphors for, 65
Palestine under, 28, 31, 54, 58, 61, 62–63, 88, 102, 104, 114, 120–121
Roman Empire and, 98–99, 100, 102
Second Temple desecration during, 27, 100, 116, 120
territorial extent of, 29
timekeeping/dating systems, 27–28, 86
use of elephants, 32
vestiges of, reorganization of, 198
War Scroll and, 131
See also specific rulers
Seleucus I Nicator, 27, 29, 30, 32, 105
Seleucus IV Philopator, 30, 62
Septuagint, 19–20, 40, 159, 184, 185, 186, 189, 227
Sethians, 241–242
Seven Deadly Sins, 140
sexuality, 57, 58, 81, 82, 125, 137, 163
Shadrach, 118
Shalmaneser V, 22
Sibylline Oracles, 37–38, 123–124, 134
Sicarii movement, 207
Silk Road, 237
Simeon ben Shetach, 113
Simon (Temple conspirator), 62–63
Simon I, 60
Simon II (Simon the Just), 49, 52, 56, 59, 60, 62
Simon Thassi, 60, 102, 103–104, 105, 106, 134
Sinai (Mosaic) Covenant, 3, 4–5, 83, 91, 92, 94–95, 225, 240
Sirach, 20, 21, 41, 56, 68, 81, 82, 141, 159, 170, 182, 185, 190
Solomon, 3, 13, 58, 107, 181, 183
Solomon, Psalms of, 204, 205, 249
Solomon, Wisdom of. See Wisdom, book of
Solomon’s Temple. See First Temple
See also Christ
Son of Man, 70, 170–172, 189, 195, 213, 225, 229
See also Adam
Song of Solomon, 58
souls, 14, 18, 87, 129, 135, 139–140, 141, 143, 153, 178, 179, 191–192, 196, 224
spirit and matter, distinction/conflict between, 137–138, 176, 178, 180
synagogues, 38, 208–211, 215, 225, 227, 231, 233, 238
Syria, 29, 104, 105, 107, 109, 197, 198, 202, 211, 233, 235, 239
Syriac Christian churches, 28, 232
Syrian Wars, 31
Teacher of Righteousness, 133, 134, 135–136, 148
Temple establishment/elites
championing, 40
critique of, 54, 56, 57, 58, 61, 91–92, 93, 95, 133, 158
internal divisions, 56
Jesus and, 195
overthrow of, 103
political power of, 55
Roman Empire and, 199
support for intellectual endeavor beyond, 53
turbulence of Jerusalem, 206
See also high priesthood
Terah, 22
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 125, 139, 140, 153, 163, 227, 249
See also specific patriarchs
textualization of religion, 20–21, 209–210
Thales, 36
Thanksgiving Hymns, 135–136, 137–138, 142
Theodotus, 41
theophanies, 8
Therapeutae, 233
1 Thessalonians, 230
Thummim, 56
Tigranes the Great, 106–107
timekeeping/dating systems, 27–28, 33, 35, 86
2 Timothy, 245
Tobiad Romance, 58
Tobiads, 59–61, 62, 63, 80, 81, 99, 133
Tobit, book of, 22, 57, 61, 68, 81, 145, 153, 167, 170, 189–190, 229
Torah, 16, 24, 84, 91, 182, 225–226, 242
Tower of Babel, 89
Treatise on the Two Spirits, 137, 142, 144
Trinitarianism, 186
Truth, Book of, 87
Twelve Patriarchs. See Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
universalism, 89–90, 92, 94, 122, 169
Uriel, 75, 82, 86–87, 153, 224
Urim, 56
Vespasian, 216
Virgin Birth, 248
visionary literature, genre of, 228
War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness (War Rule/War Scroll), 131–132, 136, 156–157, 221
warfare, forms and degrees of, 130
See also civil war; cosmic warfare
Watchers, 77, 81, 83, 89, 90, 164, 190
Watchers, Book of the, 70, 72, 75, 77–78, 79–80, 81, 152–153, 189
Wicked Woman (4Q184), 163
wisdom, 21, 35, 68, 69, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 92, 119, 177
Wisdom (Sophia), 84, 138, 175, 176, 180–184, 185, 187, 192, 194, 229, 236, 242
Wisdom, book of, 16, 175, 185, 191–192
Wisdom literature, 138, 142, 176–177, 180, 183
Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira. See Sirach
Word, 9, 11, 180, 185, 186, 187, 194, 230
Words of the Luminaries, 190, 209
Year of the Greeks, 27, 28, 33
YHWH. See God
Yose ben Yoezer, 117
Zealot movement, 207, 214, 216
Zechariah, book of, 7, 11, 23, 64-66, 74-75, 116, 118, 162, 169, 173, 196, 222
See also First Zechariah; Second Zechariah
See also First Temple; Jerusalem; Second Temple