NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. For present purposes, it does not matter whether Jesus himself actually told this story. It was credited to him and reflected the views of at least some early Christians.

2. Robert N. Bellah and Hans Joas, eds., The Axial Age and Its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2012). The term “Axial Age” was coined by Karl Jaspers in 1949.

3. Shaul Shaked, ed., Irano-Judaica (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute for the Study of Jewish Communities in the East, 1982); Shaul Shaked, “Iranian Influence on Judaism,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 1, The Persian Period, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 308–325.

4. Baruch Halpern, From Gods to God, edited by M. J. Adams (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2009); Jerry L. Walls, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).

5. Terence L. Donaldson, Judaism and the Gentiles (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007).

6. For the pre-Flood figures, see Philip Jenkins, The Many Faces of Christ (New York: Basic Books, 2015).

7. Paine is quoted in Isaac Kramnick, “Reflections on Revolution,” History and Theory 11, no. 1 (1972): 62.

8. For similar language in a messianic context, see the Aramaic Levi Document, in The Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 259. For Simon, see 3 Macc. 2 (3 Maccabees is found in Greek and Slavonic versions of the Bible). For the Pirkei Avot, see Moshe Schapiro and David Rottenberg, eds., Midrash Shmuel (Jerusalem: HaKtav Institute, 1994).

9. From Saki’s story “The Jesting of Arlington Stringham,” in The Chronicles of Clovis (London: John Lane, 1911), 86–92.

10. Lester L. Grabbe, Gabriele Boccaccini, and Jason M. Zurawski, eds., The Seleucid and Hasmonean Periods and the Apocalyptic Worldview (London: T. & T. Clark 2016).

11. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.13.5; Josephus, Jewish War, 1.4.3. Throughout, except where otherwise stated, I have used the translation of Josephus by William Whiston, at http://sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/. See also Joshua Efron, Studies on the Hasmonean Period (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1987).

12. Timothy H. Lim, The Formation of the Jewish Canon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013).

13. Mathias Delcor, “The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Hellenistic Period,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 409–503; James L. Kugel, Traditions of the Bible (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); George W. E. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mishnah, 2nd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005).

14. I am drawing here on David deSilva, The Jewish Teachers of Jesus, James, and Jude (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). DeSilva argues powerfully that Jesus and his immediate circle would assuredly have known most of the key intertestamental works and been influenced by them in different ways. Gerbern S. Oegema and James H. Charlesworth, eds., The Pseudepigrapha and Christian Origins (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2008). Major collections and editions of such literature include James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985); Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, eds., Outside the Bible, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013); and Richard Bauckham, James R. Davila, and Alex Panayotov, eds., Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Noncanonical Scriptures, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013–?). For earlier collections of these documents, see R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913); and M. R. James, The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1920).

15. Alan F. Segal, Rebecca’s Children (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Moshe Weinfeld, Normative and Sectarian Judaism in the Second Temple Period (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005).

16. Philo, “Of the Contemplative Life,” http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book34.html.

CHAPTER 1

1. Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002); Thomas Römer, The Invention of God (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015). Throughout this chapter, I have used Jan Christian Gertz, ed., T&T Clark Handbook of the Old Testament (London: T. & T. Clark, 2012).

2. Beate Pongratz-Leisten, ed., Reconsidering the Concept of Revolutionary Monotheism (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011).

3. Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “angelology,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1521-angelology; Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “angels,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01476d.htm.

4. William M. Schniedewind, How the Bible Became a Book (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Douglas A. Knight and Amy-Jill Levine, The Meaning of the Bible (New York: HarperOne, 2011).

5. Philip Jenkins, Laying Down the Sword (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011).

6. George J. Brooke, Hindy Najman, and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, eds., The Significance of Sinai (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008).

7. Diana Vikander Edelman, ed., The Triumph of Elohim (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996); Baruch Halpern, From Gods to God, edited by M. J. Adams (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2009); Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “monotheism,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10950-monotheism.

8. Some scholars would put the shift to pure monotheism still later, into the early sixth century. See Römer, The Invention of God; and Francesca Stavrakopoulou and John Barton, eds., Religious Diversity in Ancient Israel and Judah (New York: Continuum, 2010).

9. Judith M. Hadley, The Cult of Asherah in Ancient Israel and Judah (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

10. See, for example, Linda S. Schearing and Steven L. McKenzie, eds., Those Elusive Deuteronomists (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999); Antony F. Campbell and Mark A. O’Brien, Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000); Thomas Römer, ed., The Future of the Deuteronomistic History (Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2000); Schniedewind, How the Bible Became a Book; Jeffrey C. Geoghegan, The Time, Place, and Purpose of the Deuteronomistic History (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006); and Thomas C. Römer, The So-Called Deuteronomistic History (London: T. & T. Clark 2006).

11. Jenkins, Laying Down the Sword.

12. Oded Lipschits and Joseph Blenkinsopp, eds., Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2003); Stephen L. Cook, The Social Roots of Biblical Yahwism (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004); Richard E. Rubenstein, Thus Saith the Lord (New York: Harcourt, 2006); Jonathan Stökl and Caroline Waerzeggers, eds., Exile and Return (Boston: De Gruyter, 2015).

13. Lawrence H. Schiffman, From Text to Tradition (Jersey City, NJ: KTAV, 1991); Lawrence H. Schiffman, Understanding Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism (Jersey City, NJ: KTAV, 2003); Gabriele Boccaccini, Roots of Rabbinic Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002); Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, 2nd ed. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006); Lester L. Grabbe, Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period (London: Routledge, 2000); Lester L. Grabbe, An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism (New York: Bloomsbury T. & T. Clark, 2010). Throughout this book, I have used Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, 2 vols. (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004).

14. For the aniconic tradition, see Halpern, From Gods to God.

15. George W. Savran, Encountering the Divine (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005); James L. Kugel, The God of Old (New York: Free Press, 2003).

16. Valery Rees, From Gabriel to Lucifer (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2013).

17. Reinhard G. Kratz, The Prophets of Israel (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015).

18. L. Stephen Cook, On the Question of the “Cessation of Prophecy” in Ancient Judaism (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2011). For Josephus, see Louis Feldman, “Josephus,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 901–921; Jack Pastor, Pnina Stern, and Menahem Mor, eds., Flavius Josephus (Boston: Brill, 2011); and Michael Tuval, From Jerusalem Priest to Roman Jew (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2013).

19. These issues are discussed in multiple contributions in John J. Collins, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014): see, for instance, Stephen L. Cook, “Apocalyptic Prophecy”; and Hindy Najman, “The Inheritance of Prophecy in Apocalypse.” See also Michael H. Floyd and Robert D. Haak, eds., Prophets, Prophecy, and Prophetic Texts in Second Temple Judaism (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006); and John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2016). For prophecy among the Qumran sect, see Kristin de Troyer and Armin Lange, eds., Prophecy after the Prophets? (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2009).

20. Lester L. Grabbe and Robert D. Haak, eds., Knowing the End from the Beginning (London: T. & T. Clark, 2003).

21. Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975); E. J. C. Tigchelaar, Prophets of Old and the Day of the End (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1996); David P. Melvin, The Interpreting Angel Motif in Prophetic and Apocalyptic Literature (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013).

22. Antti Laato and Johannes C. De Moor, eds., Theodicy in the World of the Bible (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003); Joel S. Burnett, Where Is God? (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2010).

23. Adam Kotsko, The Prince of This World (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016).

24. Philip Johnston, Shades of Sheol (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002); Alan F. Segal, Life After Death (New York: Doubleday, 2004); Philip C. Almond, Afterlife (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016).

25. For some incidental statements suggesting an afterlife, see, for instance, Isaiah 26:19: “Thy dead shall live, their bodies shall rise.”

26. Mark Larrimore, The Book of Job (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).

27. Samuel L. Adams, Wisdom in Transition (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008).

28. Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:1, http://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Sanhedrin.10.1?lang=en&layout=lines&sidebarLang=all.

29. Jerry L. Walls, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), especially the essays by Bill T. Arnold, “Old Testament Eschatology and the Rise of Apocalypticism”; and John J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Ancient World.”

30. Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, Amos (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).

31. Bernard M. Levinson, Legal Revision and Religious Renewal in Ancient Israel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Adams, Wisdom in Transition; Halpern, From Gods to God; Miryam T. Brand, Evil Within and Without (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013).

32. Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, 2nd ed. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006); Grabbe, Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period; Grabbe, Introduction to Second Temple Judaism; Gertz, T&T Clark Handbook of the Old Testament.

33. Josephus, Against Apion, 1:37–43, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/apion-1.html; John M. G. Barclay, “Against Apion,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 3:2898–2923.

34. Erich S. Gruen, “The Letter of Aristeas,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2711–2769; Benjamin G. Wright III, The Letter of Aristeas (Boston: De Gruyter, 2015); Mladen Popović, ed., Authoritative Scriptures in Ancient Judaism (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2010); Timothy H. Lim, The Formation of the Jewish Canon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013).

35. John Kampen, The Hasideans and the Origin of Pharisaism (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988).

36. Ronald Hendel, “Isaiah and the Transition from Prophecy to Apocalyptic,” https://www.academia.edu/821243/Isaiah_and_the_Transition_from_Prophecy_to_Apocalyptic.

37. Mark R. Sneed, The Social World of the Sages (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015). Of course, the proliferation of texts did not suggest anything like a modern market or business in books. See Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

38. R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913), cited at http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-jubilees/. The Terah story is also found in Genesis Rabbah 38:13, http://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.38.13?lang=he-en&layout=heLeft&sidebarLang=all.

39. Melvin, Interpreting Angel Motif.

40. Gary N. Knoppers, Jews and Samaritans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).

41. Ibid.; Menachem Mor and Friedrich V. Reiterer, eds., Samaritans (New York: De Gruyter, 2010); Reinhard Pummer, The Samaritans (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2016).

42. Jörg Frey, Daniel R. Schwartz, and Stephanie Gripentrog, eds., Jewish Identity in the Greco-Roman World (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Oded Lipschits, Gary N. Knoppers, and Manfred Oeming, eds., Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011).

CHAPTER 2

1. Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, 2 vols. (London: T. & T. Clark, 2006–2011), vol. 2, The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period.

2. Throughout the chapter, I have used F. W. Walbank et al., eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, pt. 1, The Hellenistic World, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

3. Graham Shipley, The Greek World After Alexander (New York: Routledge, 2000); Peter Thonemann, The Hellenistic Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

4. Paul J. Kosmin, The Land of the Elephant Kings (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014).

5. Domenico Musti, “Syria and the East,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 175–220.

6. Günther Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire (New York: Routledge, 2001); Eric Turner, “Ptolemaic Egypt,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 118–174; “Translation of the Rosetta Stone,” http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/trs/trs07.htm.

7. Dee L. Clayman, Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

8. H. Heinen, “The Syrian-Egyptian Wars and the New Kingdoms of Asia Minor,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 412–445.

9. Christoph Baumer, The Church of the East (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006); Wolfram Gajetzki, Greeks and Parthians in Mesopotamia and Beyond (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2011); Rachel Mairs, The Hellenistic Far East (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Kosmin, Land of the Elephant Kings.

10. This section is drawn from Glenn R. Bugh, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); and James J. Clauss and Martine Cuypers, eds., A Companion to Hellenistic Literature (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).

11. G. E. R. Lloyd, “Hellenistic Science,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 321–347.

12. Nicola Denzey Lewis, Cosmology and Fate in Gnosticism and Graeco-Roman Antiquity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013); Helen R. Jacobus, Zodiac Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Their Reception (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015). For the Seleucid use of Mesopotamian royal ideologies, see Eva Anagnostou-Laoutides, In the Garden of the Gods (New York: Routledge, 2017).

13. Jian-Liang Lin and Hong-Sen Yan, Decoding the Mechanisms of Antikythera Astronomical Device (Berlin: Springer, 2016).

14. Peter Adamson, Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

15. John Donne, “An Anatomy of the World,” http://www.bartleby.com/357/169.html.

16. Ian S. Moyer, Egypt and the Limits of Hellenism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Johannes Haubold et al., eds., The World of Berossos (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013); John Dillery, Clio’s Other Sons (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015).

17. Gregory E. Sterling, “Eupolemus,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 1:686–704; Gregory E. Sterling, “Pseudo-Eupolemus,” in ibid., 705–713 (the claims about Abraham can be found at 708–710). For the penetration of Greek language and culture into Jewish society, see the essays collected in Pieter W. van der Horst, Japheth in the Tents of Shem (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2002); and James L. Kugel, ed., Shem in the Tents of Japhet (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2002). For cosmopolitanism as an imperial ideology, see Myles Lavan, Richard E. Payne, and John Weisweiler, eds., Cosmopolitanism and Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

18. Milton S. Terry, ed., The Sibylline Oracles (New York: Eaton and Iains, 1899), 84, bk. 3, 724–726, http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/sib05.htm.

19. M. Dandamayev, “The Diaspora,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 1, Introduction: The Persian Period, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 326–400; Harald Hegermann, “The Diaspora in the Hellenistic Age,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 115–166; Erich S. Gruen, Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).

20. Justin Pollard and Howard Reid, The Rise and Fall of Alexandria (New York: Penguin Books, 2007); Sheila L. Ager and Riemer A. Faber, eds., Belonging and Isolation in the Hellenistic World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013).

21. Sara Raup Johnson, Historical Fictions and Hellenistic Jewish Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).

22. Josephus, Jewish War, 7.10.2–3; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.3.4.

23. “Since so excellent” is from the Letter of Aristeas, 310–311, http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/aristeas.htm; Erich S. Gruen, “The Letter of Aristeas,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2711–2769; Benjamin G. Wright III, The Letter of Aristeas (Boston: De Gruyter, 2015); Harry M. Orlinsky, “The Septuagint and its Hebrew Text,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Davies and Finkelstein, 2:534–562; Tessa Rajak, Translation and Survival (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Timothy M. Law, When God Spoke Greek (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); James K. Aitken and James N. Carleton Paget, The Jewish-Greek Tradition in Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014). Some scholars go much further in suggesting Hellenistic influence to the point of suggesting that much of the Bible as we have it was written in this period. See the debate in Lester L. Grabbe, ed., Did Moses Speak Attic? (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001).

24. Howard Jacobson, “Ezekiel the Tragedian,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:730–742. For Jewish culture in Egypt, see Anthony Hilhorst and George H. van Kooten, eds., The Wisdom of Egypt (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2005).

25. Benjamin G. Wright III, “Wisdom of Ben Sira,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2208–2353.

26. Jacob Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1969); M. Rahim Shayegan, Arsacids and Sasanians (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Seth Sanders, From Adapa to Enoch (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017).

27. Yigal Levin, ed., A Time of Change (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2007).

28. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.6.

29. Iain Browning, Jerash and the Decapolis (London: Chatto & Windus, 1982); David Kennedy, Gerasa and the Decapolis (London: Duckworth, 2007); Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of the Holy Land (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

30. John J. Collins, Between Athens and Jerusalem, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000).

31. Madeleine Hallade, Gandharan Art of North India (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1968); Jeffrey D. Lerner, The Impact of Seleucid Decline on the Eastern Iranian Plateau (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1999); Ladislav Stančo, Greek Gods in the East (Prague: Charles University in Prague, Karolinum Press, 2012); Rachel Mairs, The Hellenistic Far East (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Christopher I. Beckwith, Greek Buddha (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).

32. F. W. Walbank, “Monarchies and Monarchic Ideas,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 62–100; Tessa Rajak et al., eds., Jewish Perspectives on Hellenistic Rulers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Rolf Strootman, Courts and Elites in the Hellenistic Empires (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014).

33. Ted Kaizer, ed., The Variety of Local Religious Life in the Near East (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008); Esther Eidinow and Julia Kindt, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

34. Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974); Martin Hengel, Jews, Greeks, and Barbarians (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980).

35. John J. Collins and Gregory E. Sterling, eds., Hellenism in the Land of Israel (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2001); Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of the Holy Land (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Regev Eyal, The Hasmoneans (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013).

36. David deSilva, The Jewish Teachers of Jesus, James, and Jude (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

CHAPTER 3

1. Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “Hellenism,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7535-hellenism.

2. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, bk. 12, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/ant-12.html.

3. Lester L. Grabbe and Oded Lipschits, eds., Judah Between East and West (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2011).

4. William Linn Westermann and Elizabeth Sayre Hasenoehrl, eds., Zenon Papyri (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934–1940); R. S. Bagnall, The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions Outside Egypt (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1976); Lee Levine, Jerusalem (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002).

5. Martin Hengel, “The Political and Social History of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 35–78.

6. For the “messenger,” see Patrick Tiller, “The Sociological Settings of the Components of 1 Enoch,” in The Early Enoch Literature, edited by Gabriele Boccaccini and John J. Collins (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007), 238. The description of John Hyrcanus is from Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.10.7. See Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr. and Edward Cook, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 178, for the tongues of fire. For the Persian era, see Jeremiah W. Cataldo, A Theocratic Yehud? (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2009).

7. James C. VanderKam, From Joshua to Caiaphas (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004).

8. Vasile Babota, ed., The Institution of the Hasmonean High Priesthood (Boston: Brill, 2013).

9. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Judaism: The First Phase (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009); Oded Lipschits, Gary N. Knoppers, and Manfred Oeming, eds., Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011).

10. George W. E. Nickelsburg, “Tobit,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 3:2631–2662.

11. Christine E. Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

12. Deborah W. Rooke, Zadok’s Heirs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

13. Lawrence M. Wills, ed., Ancient Jewish Novels (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

14. Hengel, “Political and Social History of Palestine,” 35–78; Lester L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, 2 vols. (London: T. & T. Clark, 2004), vol. 2. This section draws heavily on Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, bk. 12.

15. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, bk. 12, chap. 4; 12.4.9 for the joke about stripping Syria to the bone.

16. The Damascus Document includes a specific prohibition of this kind of marriage, possibly with Tobiad behavior in mind: Joseph L. Angel, “Damascus Document,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2991.

17. H. Heinen, “The Syrian-Egyptian Wars and the New Kingdoms of Asia Minor,” in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, pt. 1, The Hellenistic World, edited by F. W. Walbank et al., 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 412–445.

18. Aryeh Kasher, Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1988). For the struggles of Hyrcanus, see Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 12.4.11.

19. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 12.5.

20. H. Heinen, “The Syrian-Egyptian Wars and the New Kingdoms of Asia Minor,” in Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Walbank et al., 412–445.

21. Christopher Tuckett, The Book of Zechariah and Its Influence (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003).

22. Marko Jauhiainen, The Use of Zechariah in Revelation (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2005); Charlene McAfee Moss, The Zechariah Tradition and the Gospel of Matthew (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008). For the use of these texts at Qumran, see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 58.

23. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “Will the Prophetic Texts from the Hellenistic Period Stand Up, Please?” in Judah Between East and West, edited by Grabbe and Lipschits, 255–279. For a Hellenistic context for the work, see, for instance, Hervé Gonzalez, “Zechariah 9–14 and the Continuation of Zechariah During the Ptolemaic Period,” Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 13 (2013). Such arguments are of course anything but new. For a Hellenistic date, see Hinckley G. Mitchell, John Merlin Powis Smith, and Julius August Bewer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Jonah (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1912), 218–259. A Hellenistic date is also followed in Hengel, “Political and Social History of Palestine,” 51–52.

CHAPTER 4

1. E. Isaac, “1 (Ethiopian Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 1:5–90; Miryam T. Brand, “1 Enoch,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 2:1359–1452; George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004).

2. The literature on 1 Enoch in recent decades includes multiple contributions to conferences as well as a great many books and scholarly articles. Some key works include Annette Yoshiko Reed and James C. VanderKam, Enoch, a Man for All Generations (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995); Nickelsburg and VanderKam, 1 Enoch; Gabriele Boccaccini, ed., Enoch and Qumran Origins (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005); Gabriele Boccaccini and John J. Collins, eds., The Early Enoch Literature (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Michael A. Knibb, Essays on the Book of Enoch and Other Early Jewish Texts and Traditions (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009); and Loren T. Stuckenbruck, The Myth of Rebellious Angels (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2014).

3. R. Doran, “Pseudo-Eupolemus,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 2:881.

4. Philip Jenkins, The Many Faces of Christ (New York: Basic Books, 2015).

5. David R. Jackson, Enochic Judaism (New York: A&C Black, 2004).

6. George W. E. Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001); George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch 2 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011); Brand, “1 Enoch.”

7. Knibb, Essays on the Book of Enoch, 197. The most comprehensive recent reading of the text is Daniel C. Olson, A New Reading of the Animal Apocalypse of 1 Enoch (Boston: Brill, 2013).

8. Boccaccini, Enoch and Qumran Origins.

9. Gabriele Boccaccini and Jason von Ehrenkrook, eds., Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007); Darrell L. Bock and James H. Charlesworth, eds., Parables of Enoch (London: Bloomsbury, 2013).

10. 1 Enoch 1. 8–9, from R. H. Charles, ed., The Book of Enoch (London: SPCK, 1917), http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe004.htm.

11. 1 Enoch 91. 9, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe095.htm.

12. James C. Vanderkam, An Introduction to Early Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 103. This apocalypse includes 1 Enoch 93:1–10 and 91:11–17. “All the works” is from 91:14–17, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe097.htm.

13. 1 Enoch 21, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/bep/bep03.htm.

14. 1 Enoch 22, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe025.htm.

15. 1 Enoch 54:6, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe057.htm.

16. 1 Enoch 51:1–2, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe054.htm.

17. 1 Enoch. 8, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe011.htm; Annette Yoshiko Reed, Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Angela Kim Harkins, Kelley Coblentz Bautch, and John C. Endres, eds., The Watchers in Jewish and Christian Traditions (Augsburg, Germany: Fortress Press, 2014); Archie T. Wright, The Origin of Evil Spirits (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015).

18. Compare the treatment of the Noah story in the Genesis Apocryphon found in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Matthew J. Morgenstern and Michael Segal, “The Genesis Apocryphon,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:237–262; and Michael E. Stone, Aryeh Amihay, and Vered Hillel, eds., Noah and His Book(s) (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2010). For other traditions, see Dorothy M. Peters, Noah Traditions in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2008).

19. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 246–25; Loren T. Stuckenbruck, “The Book of Giants,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:221–236.

20. John C. Reeves, Jewish Lore in Manichaean Cosmogony (Jerusalem: Hebrew Union College, 1992).

21. O. S. Wintermute, “Jubilees,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth; James L. Kugel, “Jubilees,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:272–466; James L. Kugel, A Walk Through Jubilees (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

22. “The first among men” is from Jubilees 4:16–19, in R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913), http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/4.htm; Gabriele Boccaccini and Giovanni Ibba, eds., Enoch and the Mosaic Torah (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009).

23. Mark Bredin, ed., Studies in the Book of Tobit (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006); Athalya Brenner-Idan and Helen Efthimiadis-Keith, eds., Tobit and Judith (London: Bloomsbury T. & T. Clark, 2015).

24. The Qumran group also cited the Watchers: Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 53.

25. Randal A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995).

26. “Observe, Enoch, these heavenly tablets,” is from 1 Enoch 8:1–3, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe084.htm.

27. The sayings to Methuselah are from 1 Enoch 82:1, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe085.htm; “according to that which appeared” is from 1 Enoch 93:1–2, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe096.htm; Leslie Baynes, The Heavenly Book Motif in Judeo-Christian Apocalypses 200 B.C.E.–200 C.E. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill: 2012); Seth Sanders, From Adapa to Enoch (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017).

28. Jubilees 8:3, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/8.htm.

29. Paul J. Kosmin, The Land of the Elephant Kings (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 102. For the Astronomical Book, I have benefited from a presentation by Elena Dugan of Princeton University at the Sixth Enoch Graduate Seminar held in Austin, Texas, in May 2016.

30. Leslie Baynes, The Heavenly Book Motif in Judeo-Christian Apocalypses, 200 BCE–200 CE (Boston: Brill, 2012).

31. Helge S. Kvanvig, Roots of Apocalyptic (Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany: Neukirchener Verlag, 1988); Helge S. Kvanvig, Primeval History (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Ida Frohlich, “Enmeduranki and Gilgamesh,” in A Teacher for All Generations, edited by Eric F. Mason et al. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012); Sanders, From Adapa to Enoch; James VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1984); Marc Van De Mieroop, Philosophy Before the Greeks (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016); Eva Anagnostou-Laoutides, In the Garden of the Gods (New York: Routledge, 2017).

32. Kvanvig, Roots of Apocalyptic; Matthew Neujahr, Predicting the Past in the Ancient Near East (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2012); Robert P. Gordon and Hans M. Barstad, eds., Thus Speaks Ishtar of Arbela (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013).

33. Jeremy Black and Anthony Green, Gods, Demons, and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992); R. Doran, “Pseudo-Eupolemus,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 2:880; Gregory E. Sterling, “Pseudo-Eupolemus,” Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:708, 712.

34. Sterling, “Pseudo-Eupolemus,” 712. For “Antediluvian Knowledge,” see Pieter W. van der Horst, Japheth in the Tents of Shem (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2002), 140–158.

35. Jackson, Enochic Judaism; John C. Reeves, “Complicating the Notion of an Enochic Judaism,” in Enoch and the Mosaic Torah, edited by Boccaccini and Ibba, 373–383.

36. Boccaccini and Ibba, Enoch and the Mosaic Torah.

37. “Reared up that tower” is from 1 Enoch 89:73, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe092.htm.

38. For a critique of many current theories on these issues, see Paul Heger, Challenges to Conventional Opinions on Qumran and Enoch Issues (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

39. Philip R. Davies, “Sects from Texts,” in New Directions in Qumran Studies, edited by Jonathan G. Campbell, William John Lyons, and Lloyd K. Pietersen (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005), 69–82.

40. Boccaccini, Enoch and Qumran Origins; Joan E. Taylor, The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Otto Betz, “The Essenes,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 444–470; Joseph L. Angel, “Damascus Document,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2975–3035.

41. Gabriele Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998).

42. “Destined to be destroyed” is from Jubilees 15:26, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/15.htm.

43. “This Law is for all the generations for ever” is from Jubilees 15:25–26, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/15.htm.

CHAPTER 5

1. John Grainger, The Rise of the Seleukid Empire (Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword, 2014); John Grainger, The Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III (Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword, 2015); John Grainger, The Fall of the Seleukid Empire (Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword, 2015).

2. Polybius 29.27.4, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/29*.html; H. Heinen, “The Syrian-Egyptian Wars and the New Kingdoms of Asia Minor,” in The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 7, pt. 1, The Hellenistic World, edited by F. W. Walbank et al., 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 412–445.

3. “Those that were of dignity” is from Josephus, Jewish War, 1.1.1, http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/war-1.htm; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 12.4–5; 2 Macc. 2–6; Otto Mørkholm, “Antiochus IV,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 278–291.

4. Jonathan A. Goldstein, “The Hasmonean Revolt and the Hasmonean Dynasty,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Davies and Finkelstein, 2:292–351; Sylvie Honigman, Tales of High Priests and Taxes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Seth Schwartz, The Ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

5. Honigman, Tales of High Priests and Taxes.

6. For Phinehas, see Philip Jenkins, Laying Down the Sword (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011).

7. D. T. Potts, Mesopotamia, Iran and Arabia from the Seleucids to the Sasanians (Farnham, England: Ashgate Variorum, 2010); D. T. Potts, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013); Rolf Strootman, Courts and Elites in the Hellenistic Empires (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014); Boris Chrubasik, Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

8. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.

9. Vasile Babota, ed., The Institution of the Hasmonean High Priesthood (Boston: Brill, 2013).

10. Josephus, Jewish War, 1.2.5; Diodorus Siculus, xxxiv–xxxv, https://www.loebclassics.com/view/diodorus_siculus-library_history/1933/pb_LCL423.53.xml; Peter Schäfer, Judeophobia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).

11. The major original sources here are Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, bk. 13 (covering the years 160 BC—67 BC); and Josephus, Jewish War, bk. 1.

12. Regev Eyal, The Hasmoneans (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013), 175–223.

13. For Mithridates, see Adrienne Mayor, The Poison King (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).

14. Aryeh Kasher, Jews, Idumaeans, and Ancient Arabs (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1988).

15. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.9.1; James D. Purvis, “The Samaritans,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Davies and Finkelstein, 2:591–613.

16. Louis H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 288–340.

17. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.11.

18. Ibid., 13.5.9; Joachim Schaper, “The Pharisees,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 402–427; Günter Stemberger, “The Sadducees,” in ibid., 428–443; Albert I. Baumgarten, “Jewish War: Excursus on Jewish Groups,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 3:2888–2897.

19. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 13.10.5–6; Jacob Neusner and Bruce Chilton, eds., In Quest of the Historical Pharisees (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007). For Common Judaism, see E. P. Sanders, Judaism (London: SCM, 1992); and Wayne O. McCready and Adele Reinhartz, eds. Common Judaism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008).

20. Josephus Jewish Antiquities, 13.10.

21. Ibid., 13.14.2.

22. Ibid., 13.16.1.

23. Kenneth Atkinson, Queen Salome (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012).

CHAPTER 6

1. See the excellent range of essays on these issues in Lester L. Grabbe, Gabriele Boccaccini, and Jason M. Zurawski, eds., The Seleucid and Hasmonean Periods and the Apocalyptic Worldview (London: T. & T. Clark, 2016). For Yose’s title, see Mishnah Chagigah 2.7, http://www.sefaria.org/Mishnah_Chagigah.2.1-7?lang=en&layout=lines&sidebarLang=all.

2. Joshua Efron, Studies on the Hasmonean Period (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1987); H. L. Ginsberg, “The Book of Daniel,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 504–523; Martha Himmelfarb, The Apocalypse (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010); John J. Collins, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014); John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2016).

3. Dean R. Ulrich, The Antiochene Crisis and Jubilee Theology in Daniel’s Seventy Sevens (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015).

4. Andy M. Reimer, “Probing the Possibilities and Pitfalls of Post-colonial Approaches to the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in New Directions in Qumran Studies, edited by Jonathan G. Campbell, William John Lyons, and Lloyd K. Pietersen (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005); Anathea Portier-Young, Apocalypse Against Empire (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011); Daniel L. Smith-Christopher, “A Postcolonial Reading of Apocalyptic Literature,” in The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, edited by John J. Collins (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

5. For Bel, see Lawrence M. Wills, ed., Ancient Jewish Novels (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Matthias Henze, “Additions to Daniel,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 1:122–139.

6. John J. Collins, “Sibylline Oracles,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 1:317–472; John J. Collins, Seers, Sybils and Sages in Hellenistic-Roman Judaism (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1997).

7. Milton S. Terry, ed., The Sibylline Oracles (New York: Eaton and Mains, 1899), 88, bk. 3, lines 830–843, http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/sib05.htm.

8. Ibid., 89, bk. 3, lines 861–871.

9. Joshua Efron, Studies on the Hasmonean Period (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1987).

10. Jubilees 32:1–2, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/32.htm; “Kings bearing rule”: Testament of Moses/Assumption of Moses, 6, http://wesley.nnu.edu/index.php?id=2124.

11. H. C. Kee, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 1:775–828; James L. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1697–1855.

12. “And ye shall be puffed up” is from the Testament of Levi 4:16, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe275.htm.

13. Testament of Levi 2:2, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe273.htm.

14. Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 98; Hanan Eshel, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Hasmonean State (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008).

15. George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Alan F. Segal, Life After Death (New York: Doubleday, 2004); Jon D. Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006); Kevin J. Madigan and Jon D. Levenson, Resurrection (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008); Philip C. Almond, Afterlife (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016).

16. Daniel R. Schwartz, “2 Maccabees,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2832–2888.

17. Martha Himmelfarb, “Afterlife and Resurrection,” in The Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

18. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.8.10–11; Almond, Afterlife.

19. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.8.14; Acts 23.8.

CHAPTER 7

1. Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 150–172; Gabriele Boccaccini, ed., Enoch and Qumran Origins (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005); Géza G. Xeravits, ed., Dualism in Qumran (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2010); Jean Duhaime, “War Scroll,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 3:3116–3151; Kipp Davis et al., eds., The War Scroll: Violence, War and Peace in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015).

2. I have throughout this chapter used Jonathan G. Campbell, William John Lyons, and Lloyd K. Pietersen, eds., New Directions in Qumran Studies (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005); Timothy H. Lim and John J. Collins, The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010); Devorah Dimant, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls in Scholarly Perspective (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012); and John J. Collins, The Dead Sea Scrolls (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).

3. John J. Collins and Robert A. Kugler, eds., Religion in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000).

4. Joan E. Taylor, The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Josephus’s account of the Essenes is in his Jewish War, 2.8.2–14. Otto Betz, “The Essenes,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 444–470. A minority view held by some distinguished scholars associates the sect with the Sadducees.

5. Modern scholars disagree about the identity of the Teacher and other figures in the story, with likely dates for the action ranging from the early second century into the mid-first century BCE. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 52; Joseph L. Angel, “Damascus Document,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2975–3035. The relationship between Teacher and Priest is told at length in the Pesher (commentary) on Habbakkuk found at Qumran: Bilhah Nitzan, “Pesher Habakkuk,” in ibid., 1:636–666.

6. Hanan Eshel, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Hasmonean State (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008).

7. “To whom God had made known”: Nitzan, “Pesher Habakkuk,” 1:648; Sacha Stern, ed., Sects and Sectarianism in Jewish History (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011).

8. Timothy H. Lim et al., eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls in Their Historical Context (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2000).

9. “On the day of Judgment”: Nitzan, “Pesher Habakkuk,” 1:662.

10. “Brutal men seek’: Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 93; “my office is among the gods,” is from ibid., 113. Compare Angela Kim Harkins, “Thanksgiving Hymns (Hodayot),” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:2018–2094.

11. “You appointed the Prince”: Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 162–163; Jean Duhaime, “War Scroll,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:3140.

12. “Now, this God created man” quoted in Theodor H. Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures, 3rd ed. (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1976), 48–49; Alex P. Jassen, “Rule of the Community,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2923–2974. The Treatise on the Two Spirits is found at 2935–2940.

13. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 433–36; Andrew D. Gross, “Visions of Amram,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1507–1510.

14. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 84–114.

15. Daniel J. Harrington, Wisdom Texts from Qumran (New York: Routledge, 1996); Matthew J. Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003); Matthew J. Goff, Discerning Wisdom (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Samuel L. Adams, Wisdom in Transition (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008); Florentino García Martínez, eds., Echoes from the Caves (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009); Armin Lange, “Wisdom Literature from the Qumran Library,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2399–2443. For 4QInstruction, Musar leMevin, see 2418–2440; the passage quoted is on 2423–2424. The other translation cited is Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 381. The legend about Seth is recorded in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 1.2.3.

16. F. I. Anderson, “2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 1:91–221; Andrei A. Orlov and Gabriele Boccaccini, eds., New Perspectives on 2 Enoch (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012); Andrei A. Orlov, Divine Scapegoats (Albany: SUNY Press, 2015).

17. H. C. Kee, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 1:775–828; James L. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1697–1855.

18. Testament of Asher is quoted in http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-14.htm. “Choose therefore for yourselves” is from the Testament of Levi, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf08.iii.v.html. The Testament of Issachar is in http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe281.htm. Naphtali is quoted in http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe287.htm.

19. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1709. Despite the resemblance, the medieval list of deadly sins does not derive from the Testaments but rather looked to a passage in the book of Proverbs, 6:16–19. William Loader, Philo, Josephus, and the Testaments on Sexuality (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011); Miryam T. Brand, Evil Within and Without (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013). The Testament of Dan is quoted in http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe285.htm. Reuben is quoted in http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0801.htm.

20. Eugene H. Merrill, Qumran and Predestination (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1975); James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010).

21. Bilhah Nitzan, “Pesher Habakkuk,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:637; “From the God of knowledge” is from Florentino García Martínez and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 75.

22. For “But the wicked you created,” see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 89. Compare Angela Kim Harkins, “Thanksgiving Hymns (Hodayot),” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:2033.

23. “Read the book of all the deeds of mankind” is from 1 Enoch 81:1–3, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe084.htm.

24. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.8.7.

25. Alex P. Jassen, “Rule of the Community,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2934. For the baptismal liturgy, 4Q414, see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 390–391; Jonathan David Lawrence, Washing in Water (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006).

26. Jason M. Silverman, Persepolis and Jerusalem (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2012).

27. Mary Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism, 3 vols. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1975–1991); Mary Boyce, “Persian Religion in the Achemenid Age,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 1, Introduction: The Persian Period, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 279–307; Mary Boyce, ed., Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990). See also Shaul Shaked, ed., Irano-Judaica (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute for the Study of Jewish Communities in the East, 1982); Shaul Shaked, “Iranian Influence on Judaism,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Davies and Finkelstein, 1:308–325; and Anthony J. Tomasino, Judaism Before Jesus (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003).

28. Quoted in Boyce, “Persian Religion in the Achemenid Age,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Davies and Finkelstein, 1:283–284.

29. Bilhah Nitzan, “Pesher Habakkuk,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:636–666. For Herodotus, see William Stearns Davis, Readings in Ancient History (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912), 2:58–61.

30. Amesha Spentas, or Bounteous Immortals: “Amesha Spentas,” http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.

CHAPTER 8

1. Stephen D. Moore, Empire and Apocalypse (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Phoenix, 2006); Nienke Vos and Willemien Otten, eds., Demons and the Devil in Ancient and Medieval Christianity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011).

2. Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “angelology,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1521-angelology; Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “angels,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01476d.htm; Anthony J. Tomasino, Judaism Before Jesus (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003); Loren T. Stuckenbruck, The Myth of Rebellious Angels (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2014).

3. Saul M. Olyan, A Thousand Thousands Served Him (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1993); Kevin P. Sullivan, Wrestling with Angels (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004).

4. These calculations are based on http://www.biblegateway.com/.

5. “Raphael, one of the holy angels” is from 1 Enoch 20, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe023.htm. Other translations replace Raphael with Suriel: Miryam T. Brand, “1 Enoch,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 2:1359–1452.

6. James L. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1792–1793; Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “guardian angel,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07049c.htm.

7. Olyan, Thousand Thousands Served Him.

8. Andrei A. Orlov, Divine Scapegoats (Albany: SUNY Press, 2015).

9. Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “Gabriel,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6450-gabriel.

10. “For on the first day” is quoted from Jubilees 2:2, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/2.htm.

11. “The lowest is, for this cause, more gloomy” is from the Testament of Levi, 3, http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-07.htm.

12. Aleksander R. Michalak, Angels as Warriors in Late Second Temple Jewish Literature (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2012). “Today is [God’s] appointed time” is quoted in Kipp Davis, “There and Back Again,” in The War Scroll: Violence, War and Peace in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature, edited by Kipp Davis et al. (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015), 143–44. Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 159.

13. “And [they] will equally preserve” is from Josephus, Jewish War, 2.8.7.

14. For the Aramaic Levi Document, see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 252–253; Michael E. Stone and Esther Eshel, “Aramaic Levi Document,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1490–1506; Jonas C. Greenfield, Michael E. Stone, and Ester Eshel, eds., The Aramaic Levi Document (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004). For the seven angels ordaining Levi, see the Testament of Levi, 8, http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-08/anf08-07.htm. “The angel opened” is from James L. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1729; Michael D. Swartz, “Angelic Liturgy,” in ibid., 1985–2017.

15. For the Qumran text about Michael, see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 426–427; for the Zedekiah story, ibid., 402–403; Maxwell Davidson, Angels at Qumran (New York: Bloomsbury: T. & T. Clark, 1992).

16. Deut. 32:8, Septuagint, http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/septuagint/chapter.asp?book=5&page=32.

17. “There are many nations” is from Jubilees 15:31–32, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/15.htm.

18. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.16.4.

19. Jeffrey Burton Russell, Devil (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Harry A. Kelly, Satan: A Biography (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Philip C. Almond, The Devil (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014); Adam Kotsko, The Prince of This World (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016).

20. Hector M. Patmore, Adam, Satan, and the King of Tyre (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

21. “In the present age” is from Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 55. “And create in them an upright spirit”: Jubilees 1:19, http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/jubilees/1.htm.

22. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 240–241.

23. Michael E. Stone, A History of the Literature of Adam and Eve (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992); Michael E. Stone, Apocryphal Adam Books (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1996); Gary A. Anderson, Michael Stone, and Johannes Tromp, Literature on Adam and Eve (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2000); Gary A. Anderson and Michael E. Stone, A Synopsis of the Books of Adam and Eve, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001); Philip Jenkins, The Many Faces of Christ (New York: Basic Books, 2015). “The Watchers, who with” is from 2 Enoch 18:3, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/fbe/fbe125.htm. F. I. Andersen, “2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 1:91–222; Kenneth Atkinson, “Testament of Moses?,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1856–1868.

24. M. A. Knibb, “Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 2:143–176; J. N. Bremmer, T. R. Karmann, and T. Nicklas, eds., The Ascension of Isaiah (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2016). “The angel of lawlessness” is from Martyrdom and Ascension 2:4–5, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ascension.html; Harold W. Attridge, “Testament of Job,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1872–1899.

25. Jubilees 17 for Abraham and Isaac; chap. 48 for Pharaoh and Egypt, http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-jubilees/.

26. “And I heard the fourth voice,” 1 Enoch 40:7, http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe043.htm; James L. Kugel, “Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1707.

27. “The demons are the spirits” is from R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1913), introduction, http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-jubilees/.

28. Gideon Bohak, Ancient Jewish Magic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Shaul Shaked, James Nathan Ford, and Siam Bhayro, Aramaic Bowl Spells (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013–); Yuval Harari, Jewish Magic Before the Rise of Kabbalah (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2017).

29. The Qumran text cited is the Song of the Sage, 4Q510–11: see Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 415. The prayer is from Michael E. Stone and Esther Eshel, “Aramaic Levi Document,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1495.

30. For the blurry lines separating “high” and “low” traditions, see April D. DeConick, Gregory Shaw, and John D. Turner, eds., Practicing Gnosis (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013).

31. Bohak, Ancient Jewish Magic.

32. “And we explained to Noah,” Jubilees 10:12–13, http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-jubilees/.

33. Stanley E. Porter, ed., The Messiah in the Old and New Testaments (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007).

34. Sigmund Mowinckel, He That Cometh (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005); Shirley Lucass, The Concept of the Messiah in the Scriptures of Judaism and Christianity (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2011). The Encyclopedia Judaica reference is quoted in Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian Origins (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), 81.

35. Gerbern S. Oegema, The Anointed and His People (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998).

36. Gabriele Boccaccini and Jason von Ehrenkrook, eds., Enoch and the Messiah Son of Man (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007).

37. Craig A. Evans, “Messiahs,” in Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, edited by Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. Vanderkam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 537–542.

38. John J. Collins, The Scepter and the Star, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2010).

39. “Until the Messiah of Righteousness comes”: Genesis Pesher, 4Q252; cf. Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 277. “The messiahs of Aaron” is from ibid., 139. Jesper Høgenhaven, “The Book of Zechariah at Qumran,” Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 27 (2013): 107–117.

40. “He will be called” is from 4Q246, in Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 268–270; “First Born Son” text is 4Q369 in ibid., 328–330; John J. Collins, “Son of God,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:620–622.

41. 4Q521 is in Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 420–422; “War of the Messiah,” 4Q285, is in ibid., 291–294.

CHAPTER 9

1. Benjamin G. Wright and Lawrence M. Wills, eds., Conflicted Boundaries in Wisdom and Apocalypticism (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005); Matthew J. Goff, Discerning Wisdom (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Samuel L. Adams, Wisdom in Transition (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008).

2. Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974); Martin Hengel, Jews, Greeks, and Barbarians (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980).

3. Lloyd P. Gerson, From Plato to Platonism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013).

4. Peter Adamson, Philosophy in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).

5. Martin Hengel, “The Interpenetration of Judaism and Hellenism in the Pre-Maccabean Period,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 2:167–228.

6. Hartmut Gese, “Wisdom Literature in the Persian Period,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 1, Introduction: The Persian Period, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1:189–218; John Day, Robert P. Gordon, and H. G. M. Williamson, eds., Wisdom in Ancient Israel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Alice M. Sinnott, The Personification of Wisdom (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005); John Jarick, ed., Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom (New York: Bloomsbury T. & T. Clark, 2016).

7. Ian S. Moyer, Egypt and the Limits of Hellenism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

8. Benjamin G. Wright III, “Wisdom of Ben Sira,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 3:2208–2353; Adams, Wisdom in Transition; Othmar Keel and Silvia Schroer, Creation (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015); Mark R. Sneed, The Social World of the Sages (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015).

9. Peter Enns, “Wisdom of Solomon,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2155–2208.

10. David Winston, “Philo and the Wisdom of Solomon on Creation, Revelation and Providence,” in Shem in the Tents of Japhet, edited by James L. Kugel (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2002), 109–130.

11. Rebecca Lesses, “Divine Beings,” in The Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

12. Adam Kamesar, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Philo (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Mireille Hadas-Lebel, Philo of Alexandria (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

13. David T. Runia, “On the Creation of the World,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 1:882–901. “According to the image of God” Gen. 1:27, Septuagint, http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/physis/septuagint-genesis/1.asp?pg=3;. Psalm 82, Septuagint, http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/septuagint/chapter.asp?book=24&page=82; Thomas H. Tobin, The Creation of Man (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1983).

14. Hadas-Lebel, Philo of Alexandria; Carl Séan O’Brien, The Demiurge in Ancient Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

15. James H. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and the New Testament (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 66; Daniel Boyarin, “Logos, a Jewish Word,” in Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Levine and Brettler.

16. Alan F. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1977); Peter Schäfer, The Jewish Jesus (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Daniel Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels (New York: New Press, 2012).

17. Peter Thacher Lanfer, Remembering Eden (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). Several biblical books, including Ezekiel, might well have allusions to Eden, although they are not explicit: Martha Himmelfarb, Between Temple and Torah (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2013), 11–23.

18. Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 53.

19. Michael E. Stone, A History of the Literature of Adam and Eve (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1992); Michael E. Stone, Apocryphal Adam Books (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1996); Gary A. Anderson, Michael Stone, and Johannes Tromp, eds., Literature on Adam and Eve (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2000); Gary A. Anderson and Michael E. Stone, A Synopsis of the Books of Adam and Eve, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2001); Gary A. Anderson, The Genesis of Perfection (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2001); Philip Jenkins, The Many Faces of Christ (New York: Basic Books, 2015).

20. John R. Levison, Portraits of Adam in Early Judaism (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1988).

21. Jubilees 3–4, http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-jubilees/.

22. “In the image of your glory,” Wise, Abegg, and Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls, 414. The eschatological text is 4QFlorilegium, and it is variously translated. See ibid., 225–228.

23. M. D. Johnson, “Life of Adam and Eve,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 2:249–296.

CHAPTER 10

1. This account is drawn from Josephus, Jewish War, 2.1–6. “It was a glorious thing” is from ibid., 1.33.2. Mladen Popović, ed., The Jewish Revolt Against Rome (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Honora Howell Chapman and Zuleika Rodgers, eds., A Companion to Josephus in His World (Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2016).

2. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.3.1, for the Galileans and Idumeans; 2.4.1 for the spreading disorder.

3. This account is drawn from Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, bk. 14; Emilio Gabba, “The Social, Economic and Political History of Palestine, 63 BCE–CE 70,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 94–167; Anthony J. Tomasino, Judaism Before Jesus (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003).

4. Bieke Mahieu, Between Rome and Jerusalem (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2012).

5. Adam K. Marshak, The Many Faces of Herod the Great (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2015).

6. E. Mary Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule (Boston: Brill Academic, 2001).

7. Samuel Rocca, Herod’s Judaea (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2008); Joseph Patrich, Studies in the Archaeology and History of Caesarea Maritima (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Norman Gelb, Herod the Great (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013).

8. James H. Charlesworth, Jesus and Archaeology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2006).

9. The Assumption of Moses, 6, http://wesley.nnu.edu/index.php?id=2124; Kenneth Atkinson, “Testament of Moses,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 2:1856–1868.

10. Benedikt Eckhardt, ed., Jewish Identity and Politics Between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2012).

11. Douglas R. Edwards, Religion and Society in Roman Palestine (New York: Routledge, 2004); Zeev Weiss, The Sepphoris Synagogue (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2005).

12. Smallwood, Jews Under Roman Rule.

13. Rocca, Herod’s Judaea; Andreas J. M. Kropp, Images and Monuments of Near Eastern Dynasts, 100 BC–AD 100 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

14. R. B. Wright, “Psalms of Solomon,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by James H. Charlesworth, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983–1985), 2:639–670; David deSilva, The Jewish Teachers of Jesus, James, and Jude (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 144–146.

15. DeSilva, Jewish Teachers, 165–174; D. R. A. Hare, “The Lives of the Prophets,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 2:379–400.

16. Mark A. Chancey, The Myth of a Gentile Galilee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

17. Martin Hengel, The Zealots (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1997); Mark A. Brighton, The Sicarii in Josephus’s Judean War (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009).

18. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.13.4–5. The term for “divine inspiration” here is proschemati theiasmou (Acts 21:38); David B. Levenson, “Messianic Movements,” in The Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

19. Lester L. Grabbe, Gabriele Boccaccini, and Jason M. Zurawski, eds., The Seleucid and Hasmonean Periods and the Apocalyptic Worldview (London: T. & T. Clark, 2016).

20. Lee I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000); Wayne O. McCready and Adele Reinhartz, eds., Common Judaism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008); Rina Talgam, Mosaics of Faith (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2014).

21. Daniel K. Falk, “Words of the Luminaries,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1960–1984; Arnaldo Momigliano, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987).

22. Anders Runesson, “The Nature and Origins of the 1st Century Synagogue,” http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Runesson-1st-Century_Synagogue_1.shtml.

23. Daniel R. Schwartz and Zeev Weiss, eds., Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History? (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

24. Annette Yoshiko Reed, “Testament of Abraham,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 2:1671–1696; http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1007.htm; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testament_of_Abraham.

25. Lawrence M. Wills, ed., Ancient Jewish Novels (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). C. Burchard, “Joseph and Aseneth,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, edited by Charlesworth, 2:177–248; Ross S. Kraemer, When Aseneth Met Joseph (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Patricia Ahearne-Kroll, “Joseph and Asenath,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2525–2590.

26. Louis H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); E. Mary Smallwood, “The Diaspora in the Roman Period Before CE 70,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Horbury, Davies, and Sturdy, 168–191; Morton Smith, “The Gentiles in Judaism, 125 BCE–CE 66,” in ibid., 192–249; Erich S. Gruen, Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002); Christine E. Hayes, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert, “Judaizers, Jewish Christians, and Others,” in Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Levine and Brettler. For Adiabene, see Eric Maroney, The Other Zions (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010).

27. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue.

28. Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1981).

29. J. B. Lightfoot, “On Some Points Connected with the Essenes,” in Dissertations on the Apostolic Age (London: Macmillan, 1892), 323–407, http://philologos.org/__eb-jbl/essenes.htm; Geza Vermes, Scrolls, Scriptures, and Early Christianity (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2005); Florentino García Martínez, eds., Echoes from the Caves (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009).

30. Jaime Clark-Soles, Death and the Afterlife in the New Testament (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006); Daniel R. Schwartz, “Jewish Movements of the New Testament Period,” in Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Levine and Brettler.

31. F. Segal, The Other Judaisms of Late Antiquity (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987).

32. Geza Vermes, “Jewish Miracle Workers in the Late Second Temple Period,” in Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Levine and Brettler.

33. Geza Vermes, Jesus in His Jewish Context (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003).

34. For the influence of the Psalms of Solomon on messianic ideas, see deSilva, Jewish Teachers.

35. For Caesarea, see Josephus, Jewish War, 2.13.7, 2.14.5; Mladen Popović, ed., The Jewish Revolt Against Rome (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Steve Mason, A History of the Jewish War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016).

36. For the inscription to Titus, see Mason, History of the Jewish War.

37. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.18.

38. Josephus, Jewish War, 2.18.2.

CHAPTER 11

1. Irenaeus Against Heresies, 24.4, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103124.htm.

2. For “inverted Judaism,” see Lester L. Grabbe, An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism (New York: T. & T. Clark, 2010). See also Jaan Lahe, Gnosis und Judentum (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

3. Daniel R. Schwartz and Zeev Weiss, eds., Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History? (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012).

4. Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. “Fiscus Judaicus,” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6157-fiscus-judaicus.

5. Gerbern S. Oegema, The Anointed and His People (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998); Carl B. Smith, No Longer Jews (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004); Miriam Pucci Ben Ze’ev, Diaspora Judaism in Turmoil, 116/117 CE (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2005); Mireille Hadas-Lebel, Jerusalem Against Rome (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters 2006); James J. Bloom, The Jewish Revolts Against Rome, A.D. 66–135 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010); Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of the Holy Land (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

6. James C. VanderKam, The Jewish Apocalyptic Heritage in Early Christianity (The Hague: Van Gorcum, 1996); Marko Jauhiainen, The Use of Zechariah in Revelation (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2005).

7. Written around the same time as Revelation, the Christian liturgy found in the Didache (Teaching) ends with the apocalyptic words, “Let grace come and let this world pass away”: http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didache-lake.html.

8. Adam H. Becker, “2 Baruch,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Louis H. Feldman, James L. Kugel, and Lawrence H. Schiffman, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2013), 2:1565–1585; Karina Martin Hogan, “4 Ezra,” in ibid., 1607–1668.

9. Kenneth R. Jones, Jewish Reactions to the Destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Matthias Henze and Gabriele Boccaccini, eds., Fourth Ezra and Second Baruch (Boston: Brill, 2013).

10. “What, therefore, will there be,” 2 Baruch 3:5, http://wesley.nnu.edu/sermons-essays-books/noncanonical-literature/noncanonical-literature-ot-pseudepigrapha/the-book-of-the-apocalypse-of-baruch-the-son-of-neriah-or-2-baruch/.

11. Hindy Naiman, Losing the Temple and Recovering the Future (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

12. Hayim Lapin, Rabbis as Romans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

13. “The Holy One,” is quoted in Jacob Neusner, A History of the Jews in Babylonia (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1969), 74; Hayim Lapin, “The Origins and Development of the Rabbinic Movement in the Land of Israel,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, edited by Steven T. Katz (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 206–229; Charlotte Elisheva Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee, eds., The Cambridge Companion to the Talmud and Rabbinic Literature (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Seth Schwartz, The Ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Moulie Vidas, Tradition and the Formation of the Talmud (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

14. Alan F. Segal, Rebecca’s Children (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986); Joshua E. Burns, The Christian Schism in Jewish History and Jewish Memory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016).

15. “Nay, even blasphemies”: Justin Martyr, “Dialogue with Trypho,” 79, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html; Steven T. Katz, “The Rabbinic Response to Christianity,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Katz, 259–298.

16. Annette Yoshiko Reed, “Apocrypha, ‘Outside Books,’ and Pseudepigrapha: Ancient Categories and Modern Perceptions of Parabiblical Literature,” handout from fortieth Philadelphia seminar titled “Christian Origins: Parabiblical Literature,” October 10, 2002, http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/psco/year40/areed2.html; Lorenzo DiTommaso and Christfried Böttrich, eds., The Old Testament Apocrypha in the Slavonic Tradition (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2011); Philip Jenkins, The Many Faces of Christ (New York: Basic Books, 2015); Andrei A. Orlov, Divine Scapegoats (Albany: SUNY Press, 2015).

17. Andrei A. Orlov, The Enoch-Metatron Tradition (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2005); April D. DeConick., ed., Paradise Now (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2006); Andrei Orlov, From Apocalypticism to Merkabah Mysticism (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Martha Himmelfarb, Between Temple and Torah (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2013).

18. I am drawing heavily on the work of David deSilva, in The Jewish Teachers of Jesus, James, and Jude (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012). See also Marc Zvi Brettler, “The New Testament Between the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and Rabbinic Literature,” in The Jewish Annotated New Testament, edited by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

19. Epistle of Barnabas 18:1, translated by J. B. Lightfoot, http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/barnabas-lightfoot.html.

20. David Nirenberg, Anti-Judaism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2013). For the earlier background, see Emilio Gabba, “The Growth of Anti-Judaism; or, The Greek Attitude Towards the Jews,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 2, The Hellenistic Age, edited by W. D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 614–656; Peter Schäfer, Judeophobia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009). Eusebius is quoted from the Ecclesiastical History 4:6, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.ix.vi.html.

21. Robert L. Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Adam H. Becker and Annette Yoshiko Reed, eds., The Ways That Never Parted (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2003); Dan Jaffé, ed., Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2010).

22. A. F. J. Klijn, Jewish-Christian Gospel Tradition (Leiden; New York: Brill, 1992); J. Carleton Paget, “Jewish Christianity,” in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, The Early Roman Period, edited by William Horbury, W. D. Davies, and John Sturdy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 731–775; David Frankfurter, “Beyond Jewish Christianity,” in Ways That Never Parted, edited by Becker and Reed; Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen, eds., A Companion to Second-Century Christian “Heretics” (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008); Sacha Stern, ed., Sects and Sectarianism in Jewish History (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011); Petri Luomanen, Recovering Jewish-Christian Sects and Gospels (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012); Andrew Gregory et al., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Apocrypha (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

23. Han J. W. Drijvers, East of Antioch (London: Variorum Reprints, 1984); Peter M. Edwell, Between Rome and Persia (New York: Routledge, 2008).

24. Joseph Amar, “A Shared Voice,” Times Literary Supplement, October 3, 2014. For continuing Jewish-Christian contacts, see Michal Bar-Asher Siegal, Early Christian Monastic Literature and the Babylonian Talmud (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

25. Philo, “On the Contemplative Life,” http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book34.html; Ross S. Kraemer, Unreliable Witnesses (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); David M. Hay, “On the Contemplative Life,” in Outside the Bible, edited by Feldman, Kugel, and Schiffman, 3:2481–2501.

26. Michael Allen Williams, Rethinking “Gnosticism” (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999); Karen King, What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003); Jenkins, Many Faces of Christ.

27. Lahe, Gnosis und Judentum; Carl Séan O’Brien, The Demiurge in Ancient Thought (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

28. John D. Turner and Ruth Majercik, eds., Gnosticism and Later Platonism (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000); Kevin Corrigan and Tuomas Rasimus, eds., Gnosticism, Platonism and the Late Ancient World (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013).

29. Birger A. Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007).

30. For Menander, see Irenaeus, “Against Heresies,” http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103123.htm.

31. “The first to affirm”: ibid., 24:2, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103124.htm.

32. Nicola Denzey Lewis, Cosmology and Fate in Gnosticism and Graeco-Roman Antiquity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013).

33. Isabella Sandwell, Religious Identity In Late Antiquity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

34. Stanley Jerome Isser, The Dositheans (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1976).

35. Gary N. Knoppers, Jews and Samaritans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 220–225.

36. Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen, eds., A Companion to Second-Century Christian “Heretics” (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2008); Sebastian Moll, The Arch-Heretic Marcion (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2010); Nirenberg, Anti-Judaism; Judith M. Lieu, Marcion and the Making of a Heretic (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

37. John C. Reeves, Heralds of That Good Realm (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1996); Kurt Rudolf, “The Baptist Sects,” in Cambridge History of Judaism, edited by Horbury, Davies, and Sturdy, 3:471–500.

38. Jorunn J. Buckley, The Mandaeans (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Birger A. Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007); Gerard Russell, Heirs to Forgotten Kingdoms (New York: Basic Books, 2014).

39. Gerard P. Luttikhuizen, The Revelation of Elchasai (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1985), 111–117; F. Stanley Jones, Pseudoclementina Elchasaiticaque inter judaeochristiana (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2012).

40. This account of the Manichaeans is drawn from Samuel N. C. Lieu, Manichaeism in Mesopotamia and the Roman East (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1994); Reeves, Heralds of That Good Realm; Andrew Welburn, ed., Mani, the Angel and the Column of Glory (Edinburgh: Floris Books 1998); J. Kevin Coyle, Manichaeism and Its Legacy (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2009); and Nicholas J. Baker-Brian, An Ancient Faith Rediscovered (London: T. & T. Clark, 2011). For the tradition in central and East Asia, see Zsuzsanna Gulácsi, Mani’s Pictures (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015).

41. Iain Gardner, Jason BeDuhn, and Paul Dilley, Mani at the Court of the Persian Kings (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015).

42. John C. Reeves, “Jewish Pseudepigrapha in Manichaean Literature,” in Tracing the Threads, edited by John C. Reeves (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1994), 173–203; April D. DeConick, Gregory Shaw, and John D. Turner, eds., Practicing Gnosis (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2013).

43. Dylan M. Burns, Apocalypse of the Alien God (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014). For “The holy baptism and the living water,” see the Apocalypse of Adam, http://gnosis.org/naghamm/adam.html. John D. Turner, Sethian Gnosticism and the Platonic Tradition (Quebec: Presses Université Laval, 2001).

44. Christian Lange, ed., Locating Hell in Islamic Traditions (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2015); S. R. Burge, Angels in Islam (New York: Routledge, 2012).

45. Brian A. Brown, Noah’s Other Son (New York: Continuum, 2007); Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qur’an and Its Biblical Subtext (New York: Routledge, 2010). For possible links with Jewish Christianity, see John G. Gager, “Did Jewish Christians See the Rise of Islam?,” in Ways That Never Parted, edited by Becker and Reed, 361–372; Jenkins, Many Faces of Christ.

46. Zeki Saritoprak, Islam’s Jesus (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014).