Notes

1. Milk Moves

1.    In a meditation on his own field books Michael Taussig (2011, 13) explores how “drawings come across as fragments that are suggestive of a world beyond, a world that does not have to be explicitly recorded and is in fact all the more ‘complete’ because it cannot be completed.”

2.    See excellent contemporary artwork by Lynn Randolph, Jess Dobkin, and Miriam Simun.

3.    Artistic renderings of the Lactation of Saint Bernard may be found at the website wtf Art History, accessed November 20, 2015, http://wtfarthistory .com/.

4.    “Founded in 1949 at Yale University, the Human Relations Area Files, Inc. (hraf) is an internationally recognized organization in the field of cultural anthropology. hraf’s mission is to encourage and facilitate the cross-cultural study of human culture, society, and behavior in the past and present. hraf produces two online databases: eHRAF World Cultures and eHRAF Archaeology, and other resources for teaching and research.” hraf website, accessed November 20, 2016, http://hraf.yale.edu/.

5.    All figures in this paragraph and the next are from the American Academy of Pediatrics 2011 policy statement, “Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk,” accessed July 12, 2015, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org /content/129/3/e827.full#sec-30.

6.    See the entry by Kimberly Seals Allers (2013) in the Motherlode blog of NYTimes.com, where issues such as whether or not the aap logo belongs on formula gift bags are debated.

7.    La Leche League International, “History,” accessed May 10, 2016, http:// www.llli.org/lllihistory.html.

8.    Regardless of studies on contaminants, work policy, or gender politics, the idea that “breast milk is best” was well established by 2005 thanks to the combined efforts of aap, lll, the who, the cdc, and the fda. According to the 2013 cdc Breastfeeding Report Card, rates of breastfeeding continue to increase across the United States, with about 70 percent of all American mothers initiating breastfeeding and about 35 percent of infants receiving breast milk at six months (Centers for Disease Control 2013). There are regional variations: only 68.2 percent of women in Georgia ever breastfeed their babies, with 31.8 percent still breastfeeding at six months (6.2 percent exclusively). Only 12.9 percent still breastfeed at one year.

9. Providing a detailed account of the history of wet-nursing is outside the scope of this project, but see works by Apple (1987), Golden (1996), and Fildes (1987).

10.    Elia Chepaitis (1985) writes in her doctoral dissertation that early and mid-Victorian adults consumed staggering amounts of opium and that administering opium to children was commonplace. In some areas opium feeding was nearly ubiquitous, although it was controversial in some circles. Engels and Marx mentioned child doping, and parliamentarians and medical men publicized the recklessness with which opiates were dispensed to infants. An Addiction Research Unit report (2001) from the University at Buffalo states, “Mrs. Winslow’s Soothing Syrup was an indispensable aid to mothers and child-care workers. Containing one grain (65 mg) of morphine per fluid ounce, it effectively quieted restless infants and small children. It probably also helped mothers relax after a hard day’s work. The company used various media to promote their product, including recipe books, calendars, and trade cards such as the one shown here from 1887 (A calendar is on the reverse side).”

11.    That artificial feeding was used in ancient times is evidenced by the discovery of vessels in all shapes and sizes made from wood, ceramics, and cow horns and dating back thousands of years (Stevens, Patrick, and Pickler 2009). Stevens, Patrick, and Pickler show that between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries mothers used Hugh Smith’s “bubby pot” and pap boats (a milk and bread mixture) to supplement feedings. But these instruments were hard to clean, and so, combined with poor milk storage and sterilization, artificial feeding led to many deaths. A refined, more hygienic feeding bottle became available during the Industrial Revolution; by 1896 an open-ended, boat-shaped bottle had been developed in England. The development of better feeding technologies and a decline in society’s acceptance of wet-nursing led to an increased use of alternative milk sources.

12.    For details see the hmbana website, accessed March 23, 2015, https:// www.hmbana.org/.

13.    The hmbana website, https://www.hmbana.org/, explains each step of milk processing and provides a series of photos connoting scientific methodology, hygiene, and exactitude. Donated milks are pasteurized

according to the Holder technique (heating milk to 144.5 degrees Fahrenheit and holding there for thirty minutes, which decreases bacterial load but can also negatively impact nutritional value) and then mixed together.

14.    The HM4HB website, accessed March 25, 2015, is https://www.facebook .com/hm4hb/info?tab=page_info.

15.    The MilkShare website, accessed May 20, 2016, is http://milkshare .birthingforlife.com/.

16.    The Only the Breast website, accessed May 20, 2016, is http://www .onlythebreast.com/.

17.    The otb website, http://www.onlythebreast.com/, explains the home pasteurization process: “Slowly heat the milk to 145 degrees Fahrenheit, stirring occasionally. If you are not using a double boiler, stir frequently to avoid scalding the milk. Hold the temperature at 145 F for exactly thirty minutes. You may need to increase and decrease the heat to keep the temperature constant. Remove the pot of milk from the heat and place it in a sink or large bowl filled with ice water. Stir constantly until the temperature drops to 40 F. Store pasteurized milk in the refrigerator.”

18.    From the International Milk Bank website, accessed April 29, 2015, http:// www.internationalmilkbank.com/contact/investors/.

19.    There are many approaches to anthropological work on material culture (e.g., Falls 2008, 2014, 2015; Ingold 2013; Gottdeiner 1995; Hicks and Beaudry 2010; Law 2009; Meyers 2002; Prown 2001; Rotenberg 2014; Banerjee and Miller 2008).

20.    Gold is weighed by the troy ounce (31.10 grams), which is the equivalent of 1.09714286 avoirdupois ounces (28.329 grams). Avoirdupois ounces can be used to measure everyday things like milk.

21.    A feeling of discomfort, if not offense, with breastfeeding and the accouterments of milk among onlookers was echoed in a recent article in the New York Times parenting blog Motherlode. A working mother wrote in asking for advice because her office mate complained to the human resources department when she spotted a breast pump peeking out of a bag. The office mate “wants to not have to see the black bag because it grosses her out” (Belkin 2011).

22.    For a fascinating collection of work describing how the meanings of goods are transformed as they pass through various state and/or cultural regimes, see the contributions to Schendel and Abraham’s (2005) edited volume.

3. Breast Milk Is Best

1. See also works by Crumley and Marquardt (1987) and by Bondarenko, Grinin, and Korotayev (2002).

2.    The finding in Obergefell v. Hodges required states to license marriage between two people of the same sex and to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed in another state. See the Supreme Court blog, accessed October 15, 2015, http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/obergefell-v-hodges/.

3.    These figures are based on data from the 2010 census analyzed by the Williams Institute and cited in “State Policy Profile—Georgia,” Movement Advancement Project (map) website, accessed April 21, 2015, http://www . lgbtmap. or g/e qu ality_map s/profile_state/11.

4. Lactivism

1.    A rendering of the nearby galaxy ngc6744 was taken with the Wide Field Imager on the mpg/eso 2.2-meter telescope at La Silla, Chile. The large spiral galaxy is similar to the Milky Way, making this image look like a picture postcard of our own galaxy sent from extragalactic space. The picture was created from exposures taken through four different filters that passed blue, yellow-green, and red light, as well as the glow coming from hydrogen gas. Wikipedia, accessed June 13, 2015, https://commons .wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wide_Field_Imager_view_of_a_Milky_Way _look-alike_NGC_6744.jpg.

2.    For a deeper engagement with the many meanings of milk, see the discussion of Peircian type and tokens in the introduction to this book.

3.    Agency is the ability of a person to act. In anthropological terms agency is often set up in a dialectical relationship with structure, one in which social facts—histories, policies, laws, practices, values, and norms—shape (or even define) the parameters of experience. The structure-agency debate revolves around the extent to which people refract or are determined by (or “written by”) structures versus having the capacity to exert themselves. Work by poststructuralists such as Pierre Bourdieu (1984) attempted to reconcile the terms of the debate by recognizing subjects’ varying abilities to strategically respond to circumstances that precede them in what is known as “practice theory.” Practice theory is useful because it helps to explain the deeply conservative but emergent nature of both society and culture.

4.    This suit was still under litigation at the time of writing (December 2015). aclu, accessed May 11, 2015, https://www.aclu.org/cases/bockoras-v -saint-gobain-verallia-north-america.

5.    See also “Pumped Up,” nbc News, accessed May 11, 2015, http://usnews .nbcnews.com/_news/2014/01/10/22257760-pumped-up-breastfeeding -mothers-fight-for-rights-at-work?lite.

6.    Section 4207 of the Affordable Care Act requires employers with fifty or more employees to provide reasonable break time and a private, nonbathroom space for nursing mothers to express breast milk during working hours for up to one year after the child’s birth. The new requirements became effective when the aca was signed into law on March 23, 2010.

The current law applies only to nonexempt employees in jobs that are covered by the overtime provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (flsa). Twenty-four states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia also have policies supporting breastfeeding in the workplace. As of this writing, advocates are working to extend the reasonable break time allowance to exempt employees (salaried employees) and to expand the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to protect breastfeeding women from being fired or discriminated against in the workplace. For more information see “Break Time for Nursing Mothers,” Wage and Hour Division, U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.dol.gov/whd/nursingmothers/. See also “Federal Support for Breastfeeding,” aap, accessed June 15, 2015, https://www2.aap.org /breastfeeding/files/pdf/FederalSupportforBreastfeedingResource.pdf.

7.    Perhaps our squeamishness about sharing is due to, as Amber suggested, an “oversexualization of the breast combined with invasive formula marketing; we think we can filter it all out but it is the ads and everything else, and [sterile] formula is still a powerful norm.”

8.    See the overview of social movements by Edelman (2001).

9.    The infrastructure has been replicated all across the United States and abroad such that once people have a basic understanding of how milk sharing works, they can access milk elsewhere. Our family took advantage of this replication when we traveled across the country, and we also received milk from donors passing through our home area. When vacationing in northern California, we used the HM4HB Facebook page to find Emily, a donor from Los Angeles who was also there for work. She was pumping while away from her own baby but did not want to throw the milk away; she provided us with fresh (not frozen) milk over a three-day period. Others told me of similar experiences, even in international travel.

10. Affect theory can run though a hip-hop aesthetic: Rich Homie Quan’s “Type of Way” was released on August 22, 2013. It is the second single from his Still Goin In: Reloaded mixtape. Addressing the boyfriend of the girl he’s seeing, Quan uses the phrase “some type of way” to describe a range of complex emotions—from jealousy to sexual attraction. For commentary, full lyrics, and video see “Type of Way,” Genius.com, accessed June 1, 2016, http://genius.com/Rich-homie-quan-type-of-way-lyrics.

11.    In 2014 the United Arab Emirates passed a law requiring mothers to breastfeed children for two years. Critics of the law point out that some mothers may not be able to breastfeed, that the new law could generate court cases by fathers against mothers who do not comply, and that it places an undue burden on mothers who are working or who choose not to breastfeed (Graham-Harrison 2014).

12.    The 2012 declaration was obtained from the World Breastfeeding Conference website, accessed September 19, 2015, http://www.bpni.org /report/declaration-wbc2012.pdf.

5. Economic Matters

1.    See interviews in the work by Jodorowsky (2009). I would also highly recommend Jodorowsky’s many films (e.g., El Topo, Santa sangre or Endless Poetry), comics (e.g., L’Incal, with the French illustrator Moebius), and writings (e.g., his Psychomagic or Way of the Tarot). Frank Pavich’s documentary Jodorowsky’s Dune (2013) is an instructive introduction to the artist and the man.

2.    Extended ethnographic research focused on the way a single commodity is interpreted by a community of consumers is rare, perhaps because of the difficulty of locating and interviewing people. And, although participants in my research for White Gold do not constitute a commodity community per se, they did participate in networked sharing of a single “good” that is increasingly becoming commodified. See the work of Radin (2001).

3.    See Jane Guyer’s new translation of Mauss’s The Gift. Mauss ([1925] 2016, 197), Guyer argues, was writing out of an urgent need to find inspiration from other parts of the world, that Europeans might learn “to confront one another without massacring each other.” Indeed I am detailing how the sharing of milk suggests new ways of being together.

4.    California Health & Safety Code §§1647-48 (2010); N.Y. Comp. Codes Rules & Regs. 10 §§52.9.1-9.8 (2010); N.Y. Public Health Law §2505 (2010); 25 Texas Admin. Code §227.1 (2010); Texas Health & Safety Code Ann. §161.071 (2009).

5.    Advertisement text from Only the Breast, accessed July 12, 2015, http:// www.onlythebreast.com/breast-milk-classifieds/show-ad/44368 /healthy-organic-clean-gluten-free-mostly-vegan/pine-lakedecatur -30072/georgia/usa/wet-nurse-america/.

6.    These same ideas were advanced by the seventeenth-century French obstetrician Jacques Guillemeau (1612).

7.    For an introduction to both the work and the artist Joseph Beuys see the books by Beuys and Harlan (2004) and by Mesch and Michely (2007). I

would also recommend performance documentation. Joseph Beuys - How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare (located online at goo.gl/hCgY6z) is an excellent introduction to Beuys at work.

8.    See Robert Rotenberg’s (2014) extremely useful discussion of agency. He writes that agency is a quality of human beings that refers to the socioculturally mediated capacity to act, ordinarily understood as intentional and based on an agenda (36). Here someone acts, intending a certain result, and expects for others to understand it because they are similarly habituated. Of course both language and material culture are polysemic—they can contain both explicit and implicit meanings that modify, amplify, augment or even contradict one’s intentions—but still, they can operate prosthetically.

9.    Milk does do things, but it does things because of the way people are positioned to put, move, use, and interpret milk in the world. In his commitment to analyze language aside from its referential capabilities Austin (1962) shows how words do things, but nowhere does he say that words have agency. His book title is How to Do Things with Words, not “How Words Do Things,” or “What Words Do”; in How to Do Things with Words someone enunciates words to some interpreter in a context. An agent is doing something by using words. The words do not do anything in and of themselves, or by themselves. In order for words to do anything they have to be noticed; they have to matter.

What words, or a string of words, can have are consequences. They cement or break apart relationships, create obligations or expectations, and mark or manage social hierarchies. Sometimes the consequences exceed the intentions of the speaker, while at other times they fall short. Words can be misunderstood, accidentally or on purpose. But however they come across they are understood by a community of users habituated to an interpretive regime. That is to say, interpretation is contextual and cultural. These interdigitated aspects of language—consequence, congruence, and habituation—help us to examine a semiotic dimension of material culture. As a semiotic vehicle, milk carries meanings, reflects an intention, operates as a prop in a performance of gender or parenthood or capitalism, or indexes a desire or value system, as can the act of giving, selling, or receiving milk. The interpretive regimes of sellers and donors overlap but are not congruent. Are they mutually constitutive?

Will one eventually prevail over all? Clearly these questions are shot through with issues of power, agency, and habituation.

10. Keim et al.’s (2015) study found 10 of 102 anonymously purchased

Internet samples with bovine dna concentrations high enough to rule out minor contamination, suggesting that a cow’s milk product was added. Drinking cow’s milk could cause problems for those with lactose intolerance or an allergy.

11.    Admittedly, very few parents are involved in milk sharing. Nonetheless, casting hidden practices into relief is one of the most important outcomes of the anthropological project.

12.    Keim’s (2013) team purchased breast milk anonymously online, without requesting any information about the donor, without making personal contact, and without discussing the purpose of the milk (all actions that people seeking milk for a baby would likely take). In other words communication by the research team was incongruent with the kinds of requests usually made by real parents (see Stuebe, Gribble, and Palmquist 2014). This may have affected the care with which milk was prepared and shipped. On the other hand the milk that Keim’s team tested from a milk bank did not show contamination. And although to my knowledge no baby has been sickened by donated milk, it is true that donated milk can be adulterated or contaminated, accidentally or on purpose, in ways that might be avoided in milk bank or commercial milk products because of their testing and product controls.

13.    See Only the Breast, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.onlythebreast .com.

14.    Only the Breast, accessed October 20, 2014, http://www.onlythebreast .com/.

15.    A compensation scheme with Brazilian donors in the 1940s was ended when it became clear that mothers’ own infants were not being fed (Keim et al. 2015).

16.    Paying for institutional facilities and staff, donor testing, processing, shipping, marketing, and so forth requires a good deal of money. But compared to the cost of medical or surgical management in a Nicu unit for even one case of necrotizing enterocolitis or short bowel syndrome, these expenses are nominal. One study estimated savings to the California health care system of eleven dollars for every dollar spent on donor milk as a result of reduced medical interventions (HM4HB 2015).

17.    Relevant work on new tissue economies can be found in the work of Waldby and Mitchell (2006).

18.    See details on meals cooked with human milk in the Telegraph (2008).

19.    The 1971 film A Clockwork Orange was Stanley Kubrick’s adaptation from the 1962 novel of the same name by Anthony Burgess.

20.    Against deterroirized, the more familiar anthropological term would be “deterritorialized.”

21. See works by Besky (2013) and DeSoucey (2016) for analyses of the relationship between terroir, global consumer markets, and value.

6. Free Space

1.    See the works by Maharawal (2013), Juris (2012), Berger, Funke, and Wolfson (2011), and Alderman (2015).

2.    See representative works such as those by Benedikt (1987), Papanek (1971), Pallasmaa (2012), and Woods (1989).

3.    For details see the work of Hays (1984), which views architecture as both cultural activity and critique.

4.    From what I can tell, setting up the “program” (an architects’ plan for what users are supposed to do inside of a design) remains an important aspect of training students. Its existence is rarely questioned.

5.    Volume magazine, for example, explores architectural responses to the emerging challenges of new urbanity. For example, Rem Koolhaas, Todd Reisz, Michaal Gergawi, Bimal Mendis, and Tabitha Decker (2010) do this in a profile of six cities of the Persian Gulf region, from the air, from the ground, as design, historically, and architecturally, in the midst of financial crisis. Also see the article by Varughese (2013).

6.    Woods’s (2012) blog entry “goodbye, sort of” and many others have been published in an edited collection, Slow Manifesto (Woods 2015). The blog is a window into Woods’s thought about the relationship between architecture, education, politics, and dissent. The entire blog is archived at https://lebbeuswoods.wordpress.com/.

7.    Obituaries for Lebbeus Woods appeared in major newspapers, as well as in architectural blogs and journals.

8.    For examples, see Woods’s illustrations in works by Clarke (1983) and Bensen (1980).

9.    An interview with Moss about Woods appeared in an article by Yardley (2012). See also the article by Trounson and Ng (2012).

10. “If you believe in the world you precipitate events, however inconspicuous, that elude control, you engender new space-times, however small their surface or volume” (Deleuze 1995, 176). Being, thus, is doing.

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