INDEX
Abramovay, R., 105
acahual, 204
acampadas/os, 85–6, 98, 99, 100, 127, 172, 254
acampamentos see encampments
access to land, as political strategy, 66 see also land, access to
accumulation logic, 79
Acteal massacre (Chiapas), 119
Acuerdo nacional para el campo, 281
Acuerdos Agrarios, 180
agrarian reform, 4, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59, 70, 238, 254; approaches to, 32–3; stalled by ethanol boom, 256
agrarian studies, debates in, 17
agrarian transition, 30–43, 49–51
agriculture: commercialization of, 88; commodification of see commodification, of agriculture; modernization of, 22, 54–5, 59, 67, 70; practices and objectives of, 11; restructuring of, 25, 65–72 (neoliberal, 62) see also mechanization of agriculture
agro-ecology, 191–200, 213; of the poor, 195, 214, 294 (in Zapatista practice, 200–15)
agro-villas, 104
Akram-Lodhi, Haroon, 32, 35, 40, 61
alcohol, consumption of, 110, 113
Alianza Democrática, 56, 226, 234
alienation, 64; of labour, concept of, 18, 19, 85, 90, 91, 166, 290; process of, 39
alliances, 233, 261, 272, 273; creation of, 88, 225, 274, 283, 286, 288; politics of, 3, 215
Almeida, Lucio Flavio de, 230
alternative development, 12–19, 158–215, 291; approach, 293–5 (limitations of, 16); non-capitalist, 159
alternatives: building of, 295–302; developmental, 12–19 (offered by MST and EZLN, 11); to neoliberalism, 3, 6–12, 25, 26, 158, 289, 295–302
Amazon, land legalization, 253–4
Ana Maria, Comandante, 141
another way of doing politics, 257–84
anti-capitalist impulses, 84–91
anti-globalization movement, 5, 12
anti-power, concept of, 298
army, confrontation with, 145
Articulação, 223
Asamblea de Barrios (Mexico City), 222
Asamblea Estatal del Pueblo Chiapaneco (AEDPCH), 274
Asamblea Popular de los Pueblos de Oaxaca (APPO), 283
Asociación Rural de Interés Colectivo–Unión de Uniones (ARIC–UU), 116
assemblies: of communities, 120, 143; of schools, 148
assembly-type decision-making, 8
assentamento settlement, 8, 183, 184
Atenco massacre, 283
autonomization of civil society, 156
autonomous communities, 95, 115–22, 156; dismantling of in Zapatista territory, 136
autonomous rural communities, 11, 26, 72, 82–3, 92–157, 214, 216, 288
autonomy, 9, 62, 73, 90, 142, 168, 257, 258, 259, 267, 276, 291, 295, 297, 298, 299; construction of, 158; definition of, 150; different forms of, 84–91; differentiation of concept of, 300; extending experience of, 282; form of people’s power, 146–57; from market and state, 181–2, 192; from political parties, 242, 261; from the state, 90, 298; in Chiapas, 271; in Zapatista movement, 147, 155 (levels of, 118); meaning of, 146; of civil society, 13; of communities, 240; of MST settlements, 147; of peasantry, 12; of structures of popular power, 301; of working life, 87; political, 11, 14, 214; within organizations, 101 see also autonomous rural communities and village autonomy
avencidados, 114
‘Banco da terra’ reform, 231
Bartra, Armando, 39, 160, 167–9, 189, 190
bases de apoyo, 117, 118, 130, 141, 150, 155
beans, production of, 197, 204, 206
Bernstein, Henry, 6, 11, 36, 164–5, 190
biodiesel, production of, 252
Bobrow-Strain, Aaron, 84
Bolsa Família programme, 29, 254–5
Brazil: as New Agricultural Country, 54; crisis of peasant agriculture in, 65–72; development of capitalism in agriculture of, 49–51; ruling class (sponsor military coup, 52–3; strategy of, 51–6)
Brenner, Robert, 34, 38, 41, 43, 162
Burguete Cal y Mayor, Araceli, 118, 149
caciques, 149
Calderón, Felipe, 283
Canudos millenarian community, 46
capitalism: development of, 11, 30–43 (in agriculture, 49–51); impulse to accumulate, 37; political and coercive nature of, 42; social relations of, generalization of, 40
capitalist commodity production, 165
capitalist market relations, encroachment of, 65–6
Cárdenas, Cuauhtémoc, 222, 263–4, 267
Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 199, 223, 228–32, 234, 237, 239, 240, 242, 250, 251, 254, 256
cash transfer programmes, 28–9, 250
Catholic church, 52, 56, 232; expropriation of land of, 46–7; preferential option for the poor, 87; privatization of land of, 48
cattle: as insurance policy, 212; production of, 195, 204, 208, 210–11 (crisis in, 211; loses importance, 212–13); ranching, growth of, 54
Central dos Movimentos Populares (CMP), 238–9, 284
Central Única de Trabalhadores (CUT), 222, 234, 284
changing the world without taking power, 298
Chayanov, A. V., 191
Chiapas, 3, 8, 9, 57, 66, 83, 257; crisis in, 68–9, 205, 210, 213; land occupations in, 177, 180; maize production in, 205–6; militarization of, 277; peasant community of, 79; peasant unity in, fall of, 274–5; remittances received by, 71–2; tendency towards subsistence agriculture, 79
childcare: collective, 138; done by children, 196, 202; done by women, 137; services for mothers, 138
children: as family agriculture workers, 79; work of, 196, 201–2, 207
chilli: marketing of, 208–9; production of, 191, 204
Citizen Caravan, 238
citizenship, new, 90
civil society, 272–84; mobilization of, 218, 264–7; MST strategy towards, 232–41; relations with, 12
class, as fundamental social category, 78
class, political construction of, 170
class composition, 7
class consciousness, 75, 94, 245; construction of, 93
class forces, agrarian question of, 32, 34
class in itself, 75
class position of rural producers, 163
class struggle, 35, 43–56; analysis of, 42; between landlords and peasants, 35
clientelism, 221
coalitions, creation of, 9, 216, 220, 285, 287
coffee: crisis of, 71; marketing of, 208–9; prices of, 68–9; production of, 191, 203, 204
collective agency, 301
collective forms of production, new, 4
collective intellectual, political party as, 94
collective production, 178, 203
collective property rights, 47
Collor de Mello, Fernando, 223, 226, 254
colonato system, 50
colonization, politics of, 43
comandante, position of, 141
Comisão Pastoral da Terra (CPT), 232
comisario ejidal, 115
Comisión para la Concordia y la Pacificación en Chiapas (COCOPA), 268, 270, 271
comité, role of, 118
Comité Clandestino Revolucionario Indigena–Comandancia General (CCRI-CG), 117–18, 120–1, 122, 129, 141
commercial relations, retreat from, 80
commodification: of agricultural social relations, 190–1; of agriculture, 66, 195, 215, 294; of collective resources, 36; of household, 196; of land, 40, 61, 62, 188, 289–90; of social relations, 294; resistance to, 189, 190
commodities, importance of, in peasants’ lives, 190
commodity fetishism, 18, 38, 160, 170–1
commodity production, 160
communal rights, protection and reinforcement of, 294
Communist Party of Brazil (PCB), 52
community self-reliance, 158
comparison: four types of, 23; incorporating, 24 (singular form of, 25)
comparison between MST and EZLN, 5–6, 10, 11, 22–5, 125, 145–6, 147, 294, 295–302; regarding questions of alliance, 216; regarding questions of property and tenure, 171–89
competition, 160; imperative of, 34, 38, 40–3, 54, 62, 199, 215; in capitalist production, 166
compromiso, 109
conciliation in Chiapas, 268
conditional cash transfers, effect of, on MST membership, 254 see also cash transfer programmes
Confederação Nacional dos Trabalha-dores na Agricultura (CONTAG), 52, 55, 56, 227, 284; relations with MST, 233–4
Confederación Nacional Campesina (CNC), 57, 60, 281
Congreso Agrario Permanente (CAP), 281
Congreso Nacional Indígena (CNI), 274, 276–7, 280
conquistar a terra, 301
consciousness: formation of, 98; of women, 139; raising of, 104, 157
Consejo Estatal de Organizaciones Indígenas y Campesinas (CEOIC), 274
conselhos de desenvolvimento rural, 236
Constituent Assembly, proposed by EZLN, 262, 264–6, 267–8, 299
Constitution: of Brazil, 51–2, 61, 236 (agrarian clauses in, 226; negotiations over, 56); of Mexico, 264 (Article 27, 59, 60, 62, 113, 281; proposed rewriting of, 262, 266)
Consulta Popular, 239
consumption goods, need for, 206, 294
controlling pace of work in the field, 85
Convención Nacional Democrática (CND), 264–5, 276
convivencia, 104
cooperatives, 8, 196; establishment of, 132, 184, 192; of women, 141
coordinating committees, 100
COPANOSSA cooperative, 196
COPAVI cooperative, 131, 196, 244
corporate food regime, agrarian question of, 33
corporatist legacy, in Brazil and Mexico, 219–24
corruption, 122
Corumbiará, massacre at, 228
counter-power, creation of, 15
Craske, Nikki, 136
credit, 231; access to, 67, 68, 88, 192, 197, 199, 215, 252; for agriculture, 53–4; for start-ups, 105; made available before harvest, 199; problems of, 173, 176; received from state, 294; state programmes for, 197
criminal offences, handling of, 123
criminalization, fighting against, 230–2
culture, as located in social relations, 293
David, Comandante, 260
debt, 68, 231; cancellation of, 199; crisis of, 58; repayment of, 215 (renegotiation of, 200, 252)
decision-making, 95, 96, 101, 115, 125, 146; communal, 116; forms and practices of, 107–8, 129, 147; gender dynamics of, 116; imposition of, by leadership, 128; in Sumaré 1 settlement, 132; of the poor and indigenous, 156; participatory forms of, 297
demobilization of social movements, 103
democracy, 124, 125, 126, 203, 291; grassroots, 297; in MST, 233; liberal, 157 (crisis of, 302; restrictive character of, 223; transition to, 222); of power relations, 298; participatory, 300
democratic centralism see Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra, democratic centralism of
democratization, 17; indigenous demand for, 149
demographic pressure on land, 198
Department of Agrarian Conflicts (Brazil), 230
dependence, freedom from, 85
development: critique of, 14; definition of, 12; endogenous, 15; from below, 15; in terms of universal potential, 12; statist model of, 12, 17 see also people’s self-development
dictatorships, military, 219, 222, 234
dignity, aspect of Zapatista movement, 114
dispossession of peasantry, resistance to, 35
distribution of land see land, distribution of
division of labour, 163; gendered, 21, 27, 133, 139, 152, 157; in agriculture, 201; in household, 142; modified, 138; traditional, 143–4, 196, 292
domestic chores, sharing of, 136, 142
domestic sphere, politicization of, 138
donations, unequal distribution of, 123
Dutra, Olivio, 251
Echeverría, Luis, 69
education, 139, 148, 156, 292; in EZLN, 150–1; right to, 140; women’s participation in, 145
education promoters, 151; assistance offered to, 151; symbolic salary of, 152
Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN), 2, 3, 10, 60, 62; and meanings of land, 185–9; as anti-strategic, 298–9; as defensive or progressive, 81–4; as force for radical change, 275–7; as indigenous peasant movement, 78; as land conflict resolution body, 180; as life-changing experience, 301; as Modern Prince, 94; as semi-clandestine organization, 257–9, 285; blocked from expanding beyond Chiapas, 259; characterized as democratic and pluralist, 124; civil society mobilization of, 264–7; claims on land, 85; commitment to resistance among members of, 109–15; communiqués of, 261, 262 see also Marcos, Subcomandante, communiqués of; control of territorial space, 72; creation of autonomous communities, 93; Declarations of the Lacandona Jungle, 262, 272 (first, 263, 281; second, 264; third, 265; fifth, 270; sixth, 282, 287); emergence of, 65, 69; expansion of, 84; fieldwork with, 19–22; heritage of, 61; indigenous composition of, 89; institutionalization within, 156; issue of land struggle in, 70; land distribution programmes of, 30; land struggles of, 70 (character of, 29); militancy of, making of, 108–24; military structure of, 117; moral discourse of, 89–90; organizational structure of, 8, 108–24; power structures of, 154, 157; pride among members of, 110; process of politicization in, 130–1; radicalism of, 7; recruiting by, 21; reference point for popular movements, 262; refusal of state negotiation, 180; rejection of electoral politics, 220, 269, 286; rejection of institutional politics, 267–72, 297; rejection of relations with state, 217, 221 (re-evaluation of, 297); relations with political parties, 271, 285, 287; relationship with intellectuals, 262; scholarship on, 3–5; sense of territory, 89; shares characteristics of previous rebellions, 63; social composition of, 76–7, 78; strategy towards civil society, 272–84; strategy towards institutional politics, 263–72; structure of, 115–22; view of the role of state power, 220, 263; women’s activism in, 140, 145; women’s rights in, 139–46; working with individual supporters, 273 see also leadership, of EZLN, division of, comparison between MST and EZLN and mandar obedeciendo
EZLN/Civil Society Encounter, 278
ejidatarios, 29, 50, 80, 114, 117, 175, 176, 181, 188, 202, 210–11, 212; males as, 189; rights and duties of, 21
Ejido Bank, 205
ejido land tenure system, 20–2, 30, 44, 49, 57, 58, 84, 113, 115, 117, 177; assembly voting in, 176; diversified production in, 204; model of, 174–6, 179, 181; privatization of land of, 59, 60; women’s exclusion from, 143
El Campo No Aguanta Más campaign, 274, 281
El Mirador community, 179
Eldorado dos Carajás, massacre at, 229
electoral politics, participation in, 243–50
employment squeeze, 28
empowerment, 15, 102, 158, 291
encampments, 7–8, 95, 96, 97, 98–103, 106, 137, 138, 142, 157, 181; assemblies of, 101; experience of, 105; gender roles in, 137; politicization in, 128; way of life in, 104
Encounter between the Peoples of Chiapas with the Peoples of the World, 297
Engels, Friedrich, 32
environmental sustainability of development, 15
Escola Chico Mendes, 148
Estatuto da Terra (Land Statute), (Brazil), 52–3, 56
Estatuto do Trabalhador Rural (Rural Worker Statute) (Brazil), 52
Esteva, Gustavo, 92
ethanol produced from sugar cane, 251–2, 256
exchange-value, 18, 40, 87, 168; land as, 183; predominance of, 38
exit strategies for peasantry, 71
expropriation: of labourers, from means of production, 38; of land, 56
falsification of property titles, 45
family unit, non-commodified, 39
Fazenda Anoni settlement, 148; decision-making structures of, 132
Fazenda Macali settlement, 173
Fazenda Primavera settlement, 173, 182
fazendas, 50
fazenderos, 237, 244; compensation of, 172
female heads of household, 207
Fernandes, B. M., 96–9, 191, 289
fertility of soil, declining, 204, 211
Festival de la Digna Rabia, 283
fetishism, phenomenon of, 171
feudalism see quasi-feudal relationships
fieldwork: experiences of, 19–22; six aspects of study, 25
Figueiredo, João Baptista de Oliveira, 225
fincas recuperadas, 177
fiscal incentives for investment in land, 54
FOBAPROA bank rescue programme, 273
Fondo de Solidaridad para la Producción (FOSOLPRO), 200–1
food baskets, distribution of, 254
food crops, choice of, 193
food self-sufficiency, 3
food sovereignty, 37
forest environment, modification of, 201
Foro Especial sobre la Reforma del Estado, 277
Foucault, Michel, 14
Fox, Vicente, 260, 280; election of, 108, 119
frente de masas of MST, 127
Frente Democrático Revolucionario (FDR), 222
Frente Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (FZLN), 278–9
Friedmann, Harriet, 160, 163–4, 166–7
Froncheti, Alceu, 194
ganaderización of agricultural production, 212
García de Léon, A., 81
gender, 14, 16, 17; agrarian question of, 33 see also division of labour, gendered and gender relations
gender complementarity, 140
gender relations, 133–46; transformation of, 3, 15, 26; traditional, 136–7 (transformation of, 145, 292)
general strikes, 235
genetically modified organisms, 231; ban on, lifted, 251
geographic isolation of Zapatista communities, 189
globalization, 43
Gomes da Silva, José Alencar, 250
gossip, as weapon of discipline, 144
Goulart, João, 52
governmentality, 14
Gramsci, Antonio, 3, 93–4, 130, 156–7, 217–18 see also Modern Prince
grassroots politicization, 64
Green Revolution, 66
guaranteed income, 255
guerrilla movements, 70–1, 125, 130, 136, 222, 257, 259; defeat of, 1
Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’, 259 see also Che-inspired radicalism
Halperin, Rhoda, 207
harvests: in Lacandona jungle, 202–3; size of, 204
health programmes, community-based, 153
health promoters, 142, 152; training of, 153
healthcare, 156, 292; building of clinic, 152; right to, 140
Hellman, J. A., 220
herbicides, use of, 213
Hernández Castillo, R., 128, 136, 156
Holloway, John, 298
household estate: commodification of, 170; use of term, 169
household production, specificity of, 164
human development approach, 16
humiliation, of landless people, 146
identity, as fundamental social category, 78
immigration policies, of Brazil, 44, 50
independent household production, 189
Indians, domination of, by Ladinos, 88–9
indigenous approach to production, 165
indigenous communities, 48; collective property rights of, 47; expropriation of land of, 46–7, 48
indigenous movements, lessons of, 296
indigenous peoples: cultural values of, 292 (survival of, 188); extermination of, 47; relationship with land, 187; self-determination of, 156
indigenous rights, referendum on, 279
Indigenous Rights and Culture talks, 274
industrialization, 51; peasant resistance to, 88
inheritance: of right to land, 169–70; practices of, privileging sons, 115
INMECAFÉ coffee agency, 57, 68
institutional politics, strategies towards, 95
institutionalization, 240, 241–3, 263–72, 285, 300
Instituto de Terras do Estado de São Paulo (ITESP), 237
Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária (INCRA), 173–4, 198–9, 227, 237; occupation of offices of, 231; prohibited from doing land audits, 230
Instituto Técnica de Capacitação e Pesquisa da Reforma Agrária (ITERRA), 102, 139
interpersonal relations, transformation of, 17
interviews, methodology of, 19–20, 101
Jara, Victor, ‘Herminda de la Victoria’, 301
Juárez, Benito, 273
Juntas de Buen Gobierno, 20, 95, 120, 122–4, 129, 154–5, 156, 180; creation of, 282
justice, regarding land rights, 82
Kay, Cristóbal, 32, 35, 40, 61, 76
kinship reciprocity, 11
kinship relations, 176, 201, 209
La Jornada newspaper, 261, 278
La Marcha del Color de la Tierra, 280
Lacandona jungle, 1, 8, 20, 70, 71, 69, 83, 84, 116, 152, 181, 206, 221, 259, 289; cattle ranching in, 210–11; diversified production in, 204; harvests in, 202–3
Ladinos, domination over Indians, 88–9
land: access to, 90, 97, 114, 153, 168, 173, 301; as exchange-value, 183; as human right, 98; as private property, 172; as something that is battled over, 301; as use-value, 183; associated with labour, 185; commodification of, 83, 166, 170, 172; concentration of, 173; distribution of, 56; for business, 87; for Mayan Indians, 186; for production, 87; indigenous conception of, 96; meanings of, 170–1, 185–9, 290; not a commodity, 183, 184, 289, 294, 300; related to personal achievement, 183–5; rights to, 82; scarcity of, 58; viewed as result of struggle, 189; viewed in terms of exchange-value, 171; viewed in terms of use-value, 171 see also commodification, of land and land rights
land conflicts, resolution of, 48, 180
land grabbing, 45
land laws, enactment of, 43
land occupations, 61, 84, 89, 97, 98–103, 105, 106, 178, 181, 198, 227, 228, 230, 234, 236, 252, 275; decrease of, 226, 241, 255, 287; in Chiapas, 177, 180; in Pontal do Paranapanema, 228; increase of, 230–2; legalization of, 180; period of unity, 130–1; police repression of, 135
land registration, locally controlled, 48
land rights, 29, 91; privatization of see privatization, of land and land rights
land squeeze, 28
land struggles, 221, 290, 293–4; accounting for emergence of, 10; against neoliberal restructuring, 28–9; development of, 70; first wave of, 77–8; historical context of, 26; spatialization of, 96
land tenure, 26–7; movements’ position on, 171–89; new practices of, 177
land titles, registering of both spouses, 189
‘land to the tiller’ slogan, 181, 185, 188
landless people, 98, 100, 172, 178, 229, 241, 250; humiliation of, 146; registering demands for land, 231; struggles of, 85–6; youth, 113
landless rural workers, 77; class position of, 73; radicalization of, 75
landlords, 34, 185; traditional, 83 (disappearance of, 64; expulsion of, 84) see also fazenderos
latifundios, 52, 135, 234, 254; occupation of, 97
Latin American Cry of the Excluded, 238
Law on Indigenous Rights, 271
leadership: collective and rotating, 8, 131; election of, 126, 128; of EZLN, division of, 119–20; of women, 140 (in MST, 137; in Zapatista movement, 143–4); positions not sought after, 131; specialization of, 130–3
left, crisis of, 2
left-wing parties in Brazil and Mexico, 221–4
Lei de Terras (Land Law) (Brazil), 43, 44, 45, 46, 60
Lenkersdorf, Carlos, 186
Ley Lerdo (Lerdo Law) (Mexico), 44, 60
liberal democratic regimes, establishment of, 71
liberalization of trade, 67
Ligas Camponesas, 52
Llambí, Luis, 6
López Obrador, Andrés Manuel, 10, 272, 282
machinery, renting of, 195
maize: central to reciprocity practices, 210; determination of prices of, 207–8; genetically modified, 231; prices of, 68–9; production of, 193, 194, 197, 203, 204 (in Chiapas, 205–6); storage of, 202
mandar obedeciendo, 124, 129–30, 257
March of the Hundred Thousands, 231
March on Mexico City, of EZLN, 280–4
March to Brasilia, 228–30, 232, 252
Marcos, Subcomandante, 12, 123, 156, 203, 259–61, 267, 288; communiqués of, 257, 270, 273, 278; criticism of institutional politics, 271; goes to Mexico City, 280; importance of, 121; relationship with intellectuals, 260; relationship with leaders of popular movement, 261; writings of, 121
Marcos-like movements, 124
marginalization, alternatives to, 76–81
marginalization of peasantry, resistance to, 35
market: bypassing of, 9; integration into, 205, 206; moral limits on logic of, 181; partial delinking from, 295, 299; re-embedded in society, 296; withdrawal from, 300 see also market orientation of peasantry
market dependence, types of, 39
market orientation of peasantry, 159, 161, 167, 214, 293
market-led model of agricultural production, 66–7
markets for agricultural produce, local, 208–9, 300
marriage, 144, 152; forced, 140
Martínez Veloz, Jaime, 268
Marx, Karl, 30, 32, 38, 40, 42, 43, 54, 85, 87, 91, 168, 170–1; ‘Economic and philosophic manuscripts’, 18; Capital, 18, 41, 42, 166; Preface to the Critique of Political Economy, 37; with Friedrich Engels, Communist Manifesto, 37
Marxism, 3, 13, 14, 16, 17–19, 75, 162; orthodox, 163; political, 37; structural, crisis of, 289 see also Political Marxism school
Mayan Indians, view of land, 186
means of production: control of, 37–40, 299; private ownership of, 18
mechanization of agriculture, 53, 54
Mendes, Chico, 251
Mereilles, Henrique, 251
Mexican Communist Party, 223–4
Mexican revolution, 49, 50, 56, 260
Mexico: crisis of peasant agriculture in, 65–72; development of capitalism in agriculture in, 49–51; ruling class, strategy of, 56–62
micro-villa model of settlement, 139
midwives, training of, 119
Migdal, Joel, 72
migration, 29, 65, 72, 77, 79, 153; internal, 207; of ex-slaves, 50; ties of peasants to land, 74; to cities, 51, 55, 71; to United States, 71, 207
milpa system, 201; cultivation of, 151, 153; turned over to pasture, 211
minorat, tradition of, 169
mobilization, 102; period of, 137
mockery, as weapon of discipline, 112–13, 114
Modern Prince, 26, 217–18, 299; new, 92–157
modernizing extensive model of production, 192, 195
modernizing intensive mode of production, 192
Moises, Comandante, 260
monetary income, obtaining of, 206–7
monetary transactions, avoidance of, 214
monetization, 160, 176, 195, 205, 210, 214–15; of social relations, 289–90
money, 209; need for, 190; used as means to steal land, 175
monoculture, 66; shift to, 197
Monsanto, invasion of property of, 231
Montes Azules ecological reserve (Mexico), 69
Montoro, Franco, 241
Moore, Barrington, Jr, 23, 71, 72; Social Origins of Dictatorship, 73
moradores, 50
Morais, Lecio, 256
mortgaging of land, 197
motherist movements, 134
Movimento dos Atingidos par Barragens (MAB), 233
Movimento dos Pequenos Agricultores (MPA), 233
Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST), 2, 3, 56; affected by PT in power, 250, 300; and rural unions, 233–7; as defensive or progressive, 81–4; as imagined community, 102; as life-changing experience, 301; as mass movement, 5; as Modern Prince, 94; as national political actor, 232; as peasant movement, 6; attitude to state power, 220, 297; autonomy in relation to political parties, 224–50; claims on land, 85; class origins of, 6; constant creation of leaders, 246; control of territorial space, 72; creation of autonomous communities, 93; democratic centralism of, 124–33 (adoption of, 126–8); dual strategy towards state, 221; emergence of, 9–10, 52, 61–2, 65; female leadership in, 137; fieldwork with, 19–22; first wave of militants, 77; gendered roles of women in, 135–9; heritage of, 61; land distribution programmes of, 30; land questions in, 70, 181–5; land struggles of, process of, 7–8 (character of, 29); militancy of, making of, 97–108; moral discourse of, 89–90; National Plan (1989–93, 227; Second, 227, 232–3, 238); organizational structure of, 8, 97–108, 225; parity rule for women, 157, 291; political authority in, 149; politics of alliance, 286; popular power structures in, 157; process of politicization in, 130–1; professionalization of, 227; radicalism of, 7; relations with CONTAG, 233–4; relations with CUT, 235–7; relations with political parties, 285; relations with state, 225; scholarship on, 3–5; second wave of militants, 77–8; Secretariat for International Relations (SRI), 19; seen as a union, 131; self-criticism in, 20; sense of belonging to, 99; settlers of, 191–200; shares characteristics of previous rebellions, 63; social composition of, 76–7; state undermining of, 230–1; strategy towards civil society, 232–41; strategy towards institutional politics, 241–3; women’s political activism in, 145 see also comparison between MST and EZLN
Movimento dos Trabalhadores Sem Teto (MTST), 239–4
Movimiento de Liberación Nacional (MLN), 264
Movimiento Popular Francisco Villa – Independiente, 283
Movimiento Regeneración Nacional (MORENA), 272
multinational corporations, confrontation of, 231
Nash, June, 140
National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), 273; struggles of students in, 279
National Indigenous Congress (CNI), Mexico City, 141
neo-institutionalism, 31
neoclassical economics, 31
neoliberalism, 2, 8; challenges to, 7; effects of and responses to, 26, 30, 63; mobilizing against, 237–41; peasant struggles against, 28–62; policies of, effects of, 293; resistance to, 3, 4, 28–9, 63, 222, 228, 229; restructuring of the countryside, 6, 65, 80, 90; revolution in times of, 216–88 see also alternatives, to neoliberalism
nescafé fertilizer, 213
Neves, Tancredo, 226
new forms of doing politics, 13, 219
‘new public’, 297
new social movements, 125, 219–20
No Genetically Modified Organisms campaign, 238
No Payment of the Foreign Debt campaign, 238
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 16, 109, 124, 213
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 59, 67, 201, 281
núcleos, 100, 116, 126, 127, 131, 149, 248–9
O Petróleo é Nosso campaign, 253
occupations of land see land occupations
official records, destroyed by peasantry, 45
organic intellectuals, 94, 130, 157, 218
ostracism: as form of discipline, 112; of politically active women, 144
Otra Campaña, of EZLN, 280–4; tour across Mexico, 282–3
Palocci, Antonio, 251
Paraná, family farming in, 197
participation, 15, 95, 100, 102, 103, 106–8, 116, 291; decline of, 104, 128; maintaining high levels of, 301–2; of women, 26, 116, 238, 141, 157 (in civil disobedience, 136; in education, 145; in EZLN, 142; lessening of, 137; political, 133–46; relation to domestic sphere, 138; restrictions on, 143; strategic importance of, 137); popular, 14
participatory budgeting, 222–3
Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), 222, 265, 272, 280
Partido de la Revolución Democrática (PRD), 10, 217, 220, 222, 224, 263–4, 266–72, 276, 280, 285–6
Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT), 10, 27, 56, 100, 200, 217, 220, 222–3, 224, 230, 235, 237, 241, 246, 253, 255, 256, 257, 285, 286–7; creation of, 225; effects of, on struggles of MST, 250, 300; in power, 250–7; moves to centre, 223; way of dealing with popular demands, 252
Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 21–2, 57, 154–5, 156, 177, 179, 221, 224, 262, 264, 265, 266, 269, 271, 272, 275, 280
Partido Socialismo e Liberdad (PSOL), 256
Partido Socialista Unificado de México (PSUM), 223–4
Partido Trabhalista Brasileiro (PTB), 221
paternalism, challenges to, 291
path-dependency, agrarian question of, 32
patriarchal organization of space, 133
peasant, use of term, 6–7
peasant agriculture, 37–40, 160–70; commodification of, 165; crisis of, 19, 65–72; dynamics and contradictions of, 17; has no single logic, 198, 293; marginalization of, 52; persistence of, 49; strengthening of, 189–215
peasant communities, as corporate organizations, 112
peasant households, 39
peasant rebellions, 4, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 290; as defensive reactions, 81–2; explanations of, 64; feudal model of, 83; new forms of, 26, 63–91, 291; scholarship on, 64
peasant struggles, against neoliberalism, 28–62
peasant village life, value of, 88
peasant-traditional model of production, 192–3
peasantness, 27; claiming of, 7
peasantry: as micro-capitalists, 162; autonomy of see autonomy, of peasantry; category of, problems of, 163; demobilization of, in Mexico, 56–62; differentiation within, 34–5, 42, 73, 162; disappearance of (debate about, 36; denied, 37); expulsion of, 55, 68, 71, 76, 210; marginalization of, 33; market orientation of see market orientation, of peasantry; middle-income, 73–4, 81; noncapitalist social relations of, 299; resistance to proletarianization, 74–5; suffocation of, 60–1
pedagogy of the oppressed, 148–9
Peña Nieto, Enrique, 22, 272; election of, 180
people’s self-development, 14
pesticides, 66; use of, 205, 213, 294
Petras, J., 17
petty commodity production, 164
Piquetero movement (Argentina), 296–7
Plano Brazil Sem Miséria, 255
Plano Nacional de Reforma Agraria (PNRA), 226
Plaza de Mayo, mothers of, 134
police: confrontations with, 100, 134–5, 145; negotiations with, 101; use of female officers, 135
political activism, cooling of, 103–8, 103
Political Marxism school, 42
political parties, 219; dependence on, 302; functions of, 156–7; relations with, 12; role of, 93–4
political strategy, adoption of, 298
politically constituted property, 41
politicization, 130–1, 157, 158, 291; depoliticization of women, 138; ultra-politicization, 103; within MST, 102
politics from below, 283
Pontal do Paranapanema, land occupations in, 228
poor, as undifferentiated category, 16
popular power, building of, 155
Porfirio Díaz, 47
post-development approach, 13, 14
post-modernism, 289
post-structuralism, 289
Post-Washington consensus, 30
poverty, 68, 86, 255; alternatives to, 76–81; demobilizing effect of anti-poverty programmes, 255–6; in Chiapas, 258; reduction of, 198–9, 200–1, 250, 254–5; shared, 111
power: diffusion of, 121; state-like character of, 298
prestige: aspect of commitment to EZLN, 114; mechanism of, 187–8
prices for agricultural produce, 68; falling of, 80; guaranteed, 57; regulation of, 5, 50
Primero de Enero ranch, 178–80
primitive accumulation, 30, 42, 43–56
private and public spheres, boundaries of, 137, 138, 143
private property, 181; absolute, 41, 42, 49, 166 (dominance of, 38); challenges to, 19, 82, 94; establishment of, 38; large-scale, 48, 56; limitation of, 49; rights, establishment of, 43; sanctity of, questioned, 63; titles to, 173; universalization of, 290
privatization, 60; of land and land rights, 3, 25, 36, 45, 47, 48, 174, 176, 190 (of ejido land, 59, 60; opposition to, 44, 47); of electricity services, 279; of state enterprises, 58
Program de Crédito Especial para a Reforma Agrária (PROCERA), 195, 198, 199
Programa de Certificación de Derechos Ejidales (PROCEDE), 175–6
Programa de Subsidio Directo al Campo (PRONASOL), 58, 200
Programa Nacional de Produção e Uso de Biodiesel (PNPB), 252
Programa National de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar (PRONAF), 195, 198, 199
Programme of the Brazilian People, 225
proletarianization, 6, 32, 45, 64, 74–5, 76–7, 92; resistance to, 96; semi-proletarianization, 51
property: movements’ positions on, 171–89; politically constituted, 48, 55
property regimes, in Brazil and Mexico, 43–56
property rights, struggles over, 30–43
quasi-feudal relationships, 64, 91
race, 14
radicalization, in times of neoliberal hegemony, 2, 284
ranchos recuperados, 115, 177, 178
reciprocity, 15, 161, 207, 208, 209
Reforma journal, 261
registration of births and deaths, in Brazil, 46
relations of production and reproduction, 160
René, a former priest, 127
repeasantization, 76
reserve army, global, agrarian question of, 32–3
resistance, 158–215; as issue of honour, 113; politics of, 21
responsables, 117
revolt, right to, 62
revolution, 7, 63, 75, 81–2, 93; failure of, 71; in times of neoliberal hegemony, 216–8; Mexican see Mexican revolution; process of, 1
Revolutionary Agrarian Law of EZLN, 174, 178, 203
Revolutionary Law of Women of EZLN, 291
revolutionary subject, search for, 73–6
Ricardo Flores Magón municipality, 124, 150, 151, 152, 153
right to work, 86
rights, to land see land rights
risk-taking, attitude of peasants to, 161–2
ritual practised in honour of land, 187
river, public space for women, 143
Rossetto, Miguel, 251
rotation: of duties in cooperatives, 196; of land, 213
Rousseff, Dilma, 199, 242, 250, 254, 255; MST support for, 257
rumour, as weapon of discipline, 112
Saad-Filho, Alfredo, 256
salaried rural workers, 45
Salazar Mendiguchía, Pablo, 123
Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 58–60, 69, 222, 258, 263, 266, 282
San Andrés Accords on Indigenous Rights and Culture, 89, 108, 264, 274, 275, 276, 281, 284, 287; second round of, 277; state refusal to recognize, 267–72, 285
Santa María: conflict in, 154; distribution of land in, 175; use of name, 20; women’s position in, 143
São Gabriel, march to, 135
schools, 22; absenteeism of teachers from, 151; locking of, as retaliation, 154; primary schools, 148
Scott, James, 81–2, 82–3, 162, 197; The Moral Economy of the Peasant, 160–1
seasonal work, predominance of, 76
seeds: control of, 36; home-grown, use of, 213
Seguindo o Sonho de Rose settlement, 148
self-consumption, 74–5, 193, 194, 203, 205, 206
self-provisioning, concept of, 213
self-reliance, 300; achievement of, 15; importance of, 292
self-subsistence, 183
self-sufficiency in food, 158, 191, 193, 206
semi-feudalism, concept of, 26
semi-proletarianization, 76, 78, 81
Sen, Amartya, 16
sexual harassment, 143
shock of changes, 81
Silva, Luiz Inacio ‘Lula’ da, 10, 198, 223, 240, 242, 250, 251–2, 253, 254–5, 286; distribution of land, 254; elected president, 28, 199; seen as neo-developmentalist, 256
simple commodity production, 163–4
Sindicato Mexicano de Electricistas (SME), 279
Sindicatos de Empregados Rurais (SERs), 235–6
Sindicatos de Trabalhadores Rurais (STR), 234
Sistema Alimentario Mexicano (SAM), 58
sit-ins in public buildings, 228
Skocpol, Theda, 23
slashing and clearing of land, 202, 213
slavery, 47; abolition of, 43, 46, 50; transition from, 45
Slim, Carlos, 282
social movements, 4, 16, 17, 297, 298
socio-territorial movements, 96
solidarity, 11, 15, 72, 98, 208
Soto, Hernando de, 31
sovereignty, recovery of, 149
sowing techniques, 202
soybeans, production of, 194, 197–8, 215; expansion of, 53–4
space, control of, importance of, 296–7, 296
squatting, 45
Stédile, João Pedro, 242–3, 242
state, 158–215, 237; as alien terrain, 146; as interlocutor of MST, 225; as main class enemy, 221; as mal gobierno, 122; as proprietor of national lands, 69; autonomy from, 90; avoidance of relationship with, 108–9; changing nature of, 24; dependence on, 110, 122, 301, 302; extended, concept of, 93, 217; funding of programmes by, 148; inefficiency of, 31; legalization of land occupations, 180; policy of non-relationship with, 113; relations with, 9, 12 (rejection of, 10, 27, 70); replacement of, 146, 147, 157, 295; resistance to, 91; role of, 17, 34; strategy towards, 217; Zapatista policy of resistance to, 122 see also Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, rejection of relations with state
state formation, in Brazil and Mexico, 11, 29
state power, 219–24; challenging of, 295; views of, 27
state-led model of agricultural production, 66–7
strikes see general strikes
struggles for land see land struggles
subsidies, elimination of, 58
subsistence agriculture, 6, 19, 38, 49, 78–80, 86, 91, 165–7, 191–200, 206, 215, 293, 294; as fallback strategy, 295; marginalization of, 22–3, 22
subsistence ethic, 160, 161, 164, 191, 293
sugar cane, production of, 204
sugar plantations, in Brazil, 50
Sumaré settlement, 104
Suplicy, Eduardo, 230
sustainable livelihood approach, 16
Tacho, Comandante, 260
Tellez, Luis, 59
territorialization of struggles, 289
territory, control of, 26, 295–6
Thompson, E. P., 7, 92, 181; approach to culture, 293
Tilly, Charles, 23
Tojolabal nation, 186
trade unions, 274; new unionism, 222, 234–5; rural, 9 (democratization of, 55)
transnational corporations, 33, 57
Umbelino de Oliveira, Ariovaldo, 254
UN Development Project (UNDP), 16
unemployment, 66, 76, 85, 86, 87, 239, 293; crisis of, 78; rural, 28; urban, 29
unemployment insurance, 255
Unión Nacional de Organizaciones Regionales Campesinas Autónomas (UNORCA), 59, 60
unidad socio-económica campesina, concept of, 167 see also Bartra, Armando
United States of America (USA), 34; dominance of world food regime, 66; land turned into private property, 44
‘unproductive’ land, 56
use concession on land, 173–4, 181
use-value, 19, 40, 87, 168, 186, 189, 190; land as, 183
Vale do Rio Doce company, privatization of, 239
Van der Ploeg, J. D., 190
vanguardism, 94
Veltmeyer, H., 17
Via Campesina, 231
vida digna, 296
village: as arena of reproduction, 167; importance of, 161
village egalitarianism, 161
village life, valorization of, 88
violence: against women, 140; confronted by women, 136; of landowners, 100, 228
voices and demands, hearing of, 114
water, for drinking, access to, 21
wealth equalization, mechanism of, 187–8, 187
wheat, production of, 194; expansion of, 52
Wickham-Crowley, 77
Wolf, Eric, 111–12; Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century, 73–4
Wolford, Wendy, 95, 106, 147–8, 149, 181, 182, 245–50
women: agricultural work of, 207; as comandantes, 141; as family agriculture workers, 79; assume role of protagonists, 292; collective action of, 134; collectives for, 142; in Zapatista military troops, 140; indigenous, achievement of political space, 291; limited mobility of, 143; participation of see participation, of women; rights of, 268; subordination of, 160; talking to police or army, 134–5; tend not to have land titles, 189
women’s commission, 140
women’s house, building of, 108
women’s organizations, 137
Women’s Revolutionay Law, of EZLN, 139–46, 139
women’s sector in MST, 157
Wood, Ellen, 38–9, 41, 42, 43, 48, 162
working class: as hegemonic class, 218; concept of, 235
Yaqui nation, extermination of, 47
Zapata, Emiliano, 174
Zapatista movement, 12, 49, 62, 257–84, 294; as indigenous movement, 4; discussion of nature of, 78; failure to create national organization, 277; focus on food production, 205; global aspects of, 5; leadership position of women in, 143; model of rural development, 5; national strategy of, 261–2; organization of communities, 1, 116; origins of, 4; outmanoeuvred by state, 284–5; policy of resistance to state, 108–9, 113, 122; political project, 4; postmodern interpretations of, 125; rituals and ceremonies of, 188; views on agriculture, 203
Zedillo, Ernesto, 260, 265–6, 266–7, 268; counter-insurgency campaign of, 118, 269, 277