Chapter 8

Vocabulary Basics

This chapter is all about vocabulary. While vocabulary is not directly tested on the GRE, recognizing words, or being able to parse out the meaning of unfamiliar words, can sometimes be the difference between a correct and incorrect answer. So let’s go back to basics.

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?

This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section contains some basic information on the English language including its history and origins. The evolution of the English language is a fascinating tale and knowing some of its history helps lend context to the second section of the chapter.

The second section lists common roots, prefixes, and suffixes from the most prominent languages that influence English. These lists are broken down by language of origin and separated into two groups: roots and prefixes, and suffixes.

Why Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes?

As of January 1, 2019, there were 1,052,010 words in the English language.

Estimates of the average person’s vocabulary vary between 20,000 to 35,000 words. There is a distinction between words people use in everyday conversation and words people just simply know and/or recognize. In any event, your vocabulary can never be too extensive.

Your Vocabulary Can Never Been Too Extensive

This is especially true of the GRE. You can use all the strategies you want, but there is just no substitute for a killer vocabulary.

In other words, if you were to memorize a list of 10,000 brand-new words you’ve never seen before, you’d still only have a 0.9% chance of seeing one of those words on test day.

There are ample resources available to you to find a list of new words to memorize. Instead of adding to that list of resources, we’ve provided you with something we consider more valuable. By providing you with a list of common roots, prefixes, and suffixes, we’ve given you the ability to determine an approximate definition for many different words. For example, suppose the word “prescient” was one of the answer choices in a fill-in-the-blank question. The Latin prefix pre- means “earlier, in front of” and the Latin root sci means “know.” So “prescient” is “having knowledge of events before they take place.” Because you know the prefix pre- you know that any word that contains that prefix has something to do with an earlier time. Similarly, because you know the root sci you know that any words that contains that root has something to do with knowing something.

For additional information about vocabulary, English, and words check out www.languagemonitor.com, www.economist.com, or www.sohopress.com.

Why is English So Complex and Difficult to Learn?

English is arguably one of the most complex languages in the world. Why is it you caught a cold, but you thought of a good idea? Why does the vowel i precede the vowel e in the words siege and sieve, but i follows e in the word seize? While it may be unrealistic to expect to know everything about the English language, learning some of the basic roots and affixes of words can significantly improve your understanding of some of the more obscure words found on the GRE.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH

Up until the 5th century, Celtic was spoken in what is now the British Isles. The Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes were three Germanic tribes that invaded England in the 5th century. Accordingly, England became known as Anglo-Saxon England.

Towards the end of the 9th century, the Viking raiders (“Norsemen”) invaded northern France. In 1066, William the Conqueror invaded England and brought along Norman French. Hence, many words in the English lexicon are derived from Germanic (from the Anglos and the Saxons), French (derived from Latin), Latin, and Greek (which found its way into Latin).

Where Did All the English Words Come From?

The origins of English are numerous and exploring them in depth is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, approximately 29% of English words are derived from Latin, another 29% from French, 26% from Germanic, and 6% from Greek.

Virtually all English can ultimately be traced back to a hypothetical language, Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken. Proto-Indo-European begat Germanic, Balto-Slavic, Italic, Celtic, Hellenic, and Indo-Iranian. English gets most of its words from the Italic (Latin), French (derived from Latin), Germanic, and Greek languages.

The English language is primarily comprised of two main groups of words: 1) Anglo-Saxon words are the oldest and form many of basic English words, and 2) Greek and Latin, which also largely contributed to the literature and speech of cultured people. In addition, the English language is comprised of many words borrowed from other languages. For example, cot and loot are derived from Hindu, cotton from Arabic, candy and lilac from Persian, tea from Chinese, and paprika from Hungarian.

Words About Words

Any study of words will inevitably involve the use of words that directly relate to said study. Here are a few key words you might run across:

For more information, see https://www.etymonline.com

Cognate–1640s, connected or descended from a common ancestor, from Latin cognatus “of common descent.” In other words, cognates are words that came from the same root. Many words in the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and Italian) have cognates in Latin. Similarly, words in North German, Old Norse, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic have cognates in Germanic.

Many English words have cognates in Germanic, Greek, Latin, and French (and some others), and can, in most cases, be traced back to their origins. For example, the English word “cold” is a cognate of the German word “kalt,” and the English words “fragile” and “frail” are cognates of the Latin word “fragilis.”

Etymology–Late 14th Century, “facts of the origin and development of a word,” from Old French etimlogie, ethimologie (14th Century, Modern French étymologie), from Latin etymologia, from Greek etymologia “analysis of a word to find its true origin,” properly “study of the true sense (of a word),” with logia study of, a speaking of + etymon “true sense, original meaning.”

Lexicon–c. 1600, “a dictionary, a word-book,” from Middle French lexicon, from Greek lexicon (biblion) “word (book),” from neuter of lexikos “pertaining to words,” from lexis “a word, a phrase; reason; way of speech, diction, style,” from legein “to say.” A lexicon is basically a dictionary of the words of a language.

Lexicography–“the writing of dictionaries,” 1670s, from lexico- + -graphy.

Prefixes and Suffixes–Prefixes and suffixes are both affixes. Prefixes are the common beginning and ending of words. Since so many English words have Greek or Latin roots and affixes, it makes sense to know as many as you can.

Affix (noun)–

“that which is joined or attached,” 1610s, from affix or from French affixe, noun used in French.

Affix (verb)–

“fasten, join, attach,” 1530s from Medieval Latin affixare, from ad “to” + figere “to fasten” (from Proto-Indo-European root dheigw-“to stick, fix”)

GREEK AND LATIN ORIGINS

The Greek and Latin languages are the oldest languages that influenced English. Let’s explore these in more detail.

What Came First, Greek, or Latin?

It’s not quite that simple. Latin and Greek both developed from Proto-Indo-European. While written Greek pre-dates written Latin, the same is not true of spoken Greek and spoken Latin. As spoken languages go, they are both about the same age. However, there are over 5,100 Latin words that were derived from Ancient Greek.

Is All Latin the Same?

Actually, no. Classical Latin was essentially the language of literature and politics, whereas Vulgar Latin, also known as Late Latin (Sermo Vulgaris “common speech”) was the non-classical Latin spoken by ordinary Roman citizens and soldiers during the late Roman Empire. The Romance languages–French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) developed from Vulgar Latin.

Let’s Take a Closer Look at Seize, Siege, and Sieve

Seize–mid 13c., from Old French seisir to take possession by force; from Late Latin sacire.

Siege–early 13c., from Old French sege “seat, throne”; from Vulgar Latin sedicum.

Sieve–from Old English sife, from Proto-Germanic sib.

In short, the spellings of words are dependent on their origins, which is another reason English can be confusing.

ROOTS, PREFIXES, AND SUFFIXES

Greek

Only about 6% of English words are directly of Greek origin. However, one estimate puts the number of English words derived, directly or indirectly, from Greek at more than 150,000.

The Greek language is derived from Indo-European, spoken primarily in Greece. In addition, Greek words have cognates in Sanskrit, Latin, Armenian, and others. The Romans used Greek scribes, and this ultimately contributed to the number of English and Greek cognates.

The following is a list of common Greek roots and prefixes, followed by a list of common Greek suffixes. While both lists are not comprehensive, they provide a solid basis for getting at the meanings of some of the words found on the GRE.

Root/prefix	Meaning	Examples
a-	not, without	abyss - without bottom; achromatic - without color
acro-	top, height, tip	acrobat - “high” walker; acrophobia - fear of heights
an-	not, without	anhydrous - without water
aer-	air	aerate - to let air reach something; aerial - relating to the air
aero-	air	aerospace - the air space
agr-	farming	agrarian - relating to the management of land
agri-	farming	agriculture - management of the land
ana-	up, back, against	analysis - a close examination of something
andr	man, male	misandry - hatred toward men
andro-	man, male	androgynous - being both male and female; android - resembling a human
anthro	human	philanthropy -the love to mankind (through good deeds)
anthro-	human	anthropomorphism - giving human form to non-living things
anti-	against, opposite of	antiseptic - preventing infection; antisocial - against social norms
apo-	away, off, separate	apology - an explicit expression of regret
arch	chief, most important	matriarch - a female who rules a group; monarch - king or queen
arch-	chief, most important	archbishop - highest ranking bishop; archenemy - worst enemy
arch-	primitive, ancient	archaeology - the study of ancient cultures; archaic - belonging to an earlier period
aster-	space	asterisk - a star shaped sign used as a reference tool
arthri-	joint, jointed	arthritis - inflammation of a joint; arthroscope - a tool to see inside
astro-	star, stars, outer space	astronomer - someone who studies the stars; astronaut - someone who travels to the stars
auto-	self	autocrat - a person who governs with absolute power; automatic - moving by itself
bar-	pressure, weight	baric - pertaining to pressure; baryon - heavy elementary particle
biblio-	book	bibliophile - a person who loves books; bibliography - a list of books used as sources
bio-	life, living, matter	biology - science of life; biography - a life story written by another person
blast	cell, primitive, immature cell	fibroblast - a cell that forms connective tissue
blast-	cell, primitive, immature cell	blastula - an early stage of embryonic development
cardi-	heart	cardiac - relating to the heart; cardiologist - heart doctor
cata-	completely, intensive, according to	cataclysm - a flood or other disaster; catalog - complete listing; catastrophe - disaster
caut	to burn	holocaust - total devastation, especially by fire
caut-	to burn	cauterize - to burn with a hot instrument; caustic - capable of burning or eating away
centr	center	egocentric - self-centered; eccentric - not having a common center
centr-	center	centrifugal - moving outward from a center
cephal	head	encephalitis - inflammation of the brain
cephal-	head	cephalopod - marine mollusks with tentacles growing from their head; cephalic - pertaining to the head
chrom	color, pigment	achromatic - without color
chrom-	color, pigment	chromium - a blue-white element; chromatics - the study of color
chrono	time	synchronize - happening at the same time
chrono-	time	chronic - lasting for a long time; chronological - arranging events in time order
chrys-	gold, yellow	chrysanthemum - golden/yellow flowers
cosm	universe	microcosm - a miniature universe
cosm-	universe	cosmonaut - a Russian astronaut; cosmos - the universe
crani-	skull	cranium - skull of vertebrates; cranial - pertaining to the skull; craniology - the study of skull characteristics
crypto-	hidden, secret	cryptography - science of secret codes; cryptic - of hidden meaning
cycl	circle, ring	bicycle - a vehicle with two wheels
cycl-	circle, ring	cycle - a sequence that is repeated; cyclone - a storm with whirling winds
dec-	ten	decade - 10 years; December - formerly the 10th month of the Roman calendar
dem	people	spreading among people in a region
demo-	people	democracy - government of the people; demographic - the study of people
dendr	tree	philodendron - a climbing plant that grows on trees
dendr-	tree	dendrochronology - dating events by studying growth in tree rings
derm	skin	pachyderm - a class of animals with very thick skin
derm-	skin	dermatologist - a doctor for the skin; dermatitis - inflammation of the skin
di-	two, twice	dichromatic - displaying two colors; dilemma - a situation that requires a choice between two alternatives
dia-	through, between, apart, across	diagnosis - understanding a condition by going through a detailed review; dialog - conversation between two people
dyn-	power, energy, strength	dynamo - generator of energy; dynamite - powerful explosive; dynamic - having great physical energy/power
dys-	abnormal, bad	dyspepsia - abnormal digestion; dystopia - an imaginary place of misery
ego	self	alter ego - a higher aspect of oneself
ego-	self	egoistic - self-centered; egomania - excessive preoccupation with oneself
endo-	within, inside	endotherm - a creature that can keep its inside temperature fairly constant; endogamy - the custom to marry within one’s clan, tribe, etc.
epi-	on, upon, over, among, at, after, to, outside	epidemic - the rapid spread of something negative; epilogue - a short speech delivered after a play
erg	work	energy - the power to accomplish work; energetics - the science that looks at energy and its transformation
erg-	work	ergonomics - the study of a working environment
ethn-	race, people	ethnic - pertaining to a defined group of people; ethnocentric - focusing on the ethnicity of people
eu-	good, well	euphemism - replacing an offensive word with an inoffensive one; euphoria - feeling of well-being
gastr-	stomach	gastric - pertaining to the stomach; gastritis - inflammation of the stomach
gen-	birth, production	genealogy - the study of the history of a family; generation - all the people born at approximately the same time
geo-	earth, soil, global	geography - study of the earth’s surface; geology - study of the structure of the earth
ger-	old age	geriatrics - medicine pertaining to the elderly; gerontology - the study of aging
giga-	a billion	gigabyte -unit of computer storage space; gigawatt - a billion watts
gon	angle	decagon - a polygon with 10 angles; octagon - a geometrical figure with 8 angles
gram	letter, written	diagram - a simple drawing; telegram - a message sent by telegraph
gram-	letter, written	grammar - rules of how to write words in sentences
graph	writing, recording, written	autograph - written by one’s own hand; seismograph - a machine noting strength and duration of earthquakes
graph-	writing, recording, written	graphology - the study of handwriting
gyn-	woman, female	gynecology - the science of female reproductive health; gynecoid - resembling a woman
hect-	hundred	hectoliter - 100 meters; hectare - 100 acres
helic-	spiral, circular	helicopter - an aircraft with horizontal rotating wings; helix - a spiral form
helio-	sun	heliograph - apparatus used to send message with help of sunlight;
hemi-	half, partial	hemicycle - a semicircular structure; hemisphere - one half of the earth
hem-	blood	hemorrhage - clotting of the blood; hemoglobin - red blood particle
hept-	seven	heptagon - a shape with 7 angles; heptameter - a line of verse containing 7 metrical feet
hetero-	different, other	heterogeneous - made up of unrelated parts; heteronyms - words with same spelling but different meanings
hex-	six	hexagon - shape with 6 angles; hexapod - having 6 legs
histo-	tissue	histology - study of the microscopic structure of tissues
homo-	like, alike, same	homogeneous - of the same nature or kind; homonym - something alike
hydr-	water, liquid	hydrate - to add water to; hydrophobia - intense fear of water; hydraulic - operated by force of a liquid
hygr-	moisture, humidity	hygrometer - tool used to measure humidity
hyper-	too much, over, excessive	hyperactive - very restless; hypercritical - too critical; hypertension - above normal pressure
hyp-	under	hypothermia - abnormally low body temperature
iatr	medical care	geriatrics - medical care of the elderly; pediatrician - doctor who treats children
icon-	image	icon - an (often religious) image; iconoclast - someone who destroys religious images and religious beliefs
idio-	peculiar, personal, distinct	idiomatic - peculiar to a particular language, idiosyncrasy - a physical or mental characteristic
kilo-	thousand	kilobyte - 1,000 bytes; kilometer - 1,000 meters
kine	motion	telekinesis - the ability to move object with your mind
leuk-	white, colorless	leukemia - abnormal increase in white blood cells; leukocyte - a mature white blood cell
lex	word, law, reading	alexia - loss of the ability to read
lex-	word, law, reading	lexicology - the study and history of words
lip-	fat	liposuction - the mechanical removal of fat; lipoid - resembling fat
lite	mineral, rock, fossil	apatite - a group of common minerals
lith	mineral, rock, fossil	monolith - a single great stone often in the form of an obelisk or column
log	word, doctrine, discourse	monologue - a long speech; analogy - similarity, especially between things otherwise dissimilar
log-	word, doctrine, discourse	logic - correct reasoning
macro-	large, great	macroevolution - large scale evolution; macroeconomics - study of overall forces of economy
mania	madness, insanity, excessive desire	maniac - an insane person
mania-	madness, insanity, excessive desire	bibliomania - a crazy love of books; egomania - a mad love of oneself
mega-	great, large, million	megalopolis - an area with many, nearby cities; melanoma - malignant, dark tumor of the skin
meso-	middle	Mesoamerica - Middle America; meson - elementary particle with a mass between an electron and a proton
meta-	change, after, beyond, between	metaphysics - study of nature and reality; metastasis - the transmission of disease to other parts of the body
meter	measure	audiometer - an instrument that measures hearing acuteness; chronometer - an instrument that measures time
micro-	very small, short, minute	microbe - a very small living thing; microscope - a device to see very small things
mid-	middle	midriff - that area between the chest and the waist; midterm = middle of a term in school
mis-	bad, badly, wrong, wrongly, to hate	misbehave - to behave badly; misprint - an error in printing
mon-	one, single, alone	monochromat - having one color; monologue - a speech given by one person
morph	form	metamorphosis - complete change in form; amorphous - without distinct shape or form
necr-	dead, death	necrophile - loving death; necrosis - the death of tissue due to disease or injury
nephro-	kidney	nephritis - inflammation of the kidneys; nephrostomy - surgical incision of the kidney
neur-	nerve	neuralgia - pain along a nerve; neurologist - doctor specializing in the nerves
oct-	eight	octagon - a figure with 8 angles; octopus - sea animal with 8 arms
od	path, way	diode - an electron tube having 2 electrodes, a cathode and an anode
od-	path, way	odometer - an instrument attached to a vehicle to measure distance
op-	eye, visual condition, sight	optic - relating to the eyes; optician - a person who fits eyeglasses
ortho-	straight	orthodontist - a dentist that straightens teeth; orthopedic - doctor who is concerned with proper alignment of bones
osteo-	goes beyond, surpasses	osteoarthritis - inflammation caused by degeneration of the joints; osteology - the study of bones
oxi-, oxy-	sharp	oxymoron - combining two ideas that sharply contradict each other; oxidize - corrode a surface
pale-	ancient	paleontology - study of ancient fossils; Paleolithic - period of the Stone Age
pan-	all, any, everyone	panacea - a cure for all diseases or problems; panorama - an all-around view; pandemic - affecting all
para-	beside, beyond, abnormal	parasite - an organism that lives on and off another living being; parallel - alongside and always an equal distance apart
pater-, patr-	father	paternal - relating to fathers; patriarch - a man who rules a group
pent-	five	pentagon - having 5 angles and sides; pentagram - a 5-pointed star, especially in magic
pept, peps	digestion	dyspepsia - abnormal digestion; peptic - aiding digestion
peri-	around, enclosing	periodontal - pertaining to bone and tissue around a tooth; perimeter - the outer boundary of an area
phag	to eat	esophagus - muscular tube that carries food to the stomach
phil-	love, friend	philanthropist - one who loves humanity
phon	sound	cacophony - loud unpleasant sound; microphone - a device that records and amplifies sound
phot-	light	photogenic - caused by light; photograph - image made on light-sensitive film
phyll	leaf	chlorophyll - a group of green pigments found in leaves
phyll-	leaf	phyllite - a rock that forms sheets, similar to slate
phys-	nature, medicine, the body	physical - relating to the body; physician - doctor
phyt	plant, to grow	epiphyte - a plant growing independently on the surface of another; neophyte - a beginner
plas	to form, development	protoplasm - something that is first made or formed
plas-	to form, development	plastic - able to be formed
pneum-	breathing, lung, air, spirit	pneumonia - inflammation of the lungs; pneumatic - using the force of air
pod-	foot	podiatrist - a doctor of the feet; podium - a small platform to stand upon
poli	city	metropolis - a large city
poli-	city	police - people who work for the government in order to enforce laws; politics - actions of a government or political party
poly-	many, more than one	polychrome - with many colors; polyglot - a person fluent in many languages
pro-	before, in front of, for, forward	prognosis - a prediction of what will happen; prologue - a passage before the main part
prot-	primitive, first, chief	prototype - the first of a kind; proton - one of the very basic parts of an atom
pseud-	wrong, false	pseudonym - a fictitious name; pseudoscience - theories presumed without proof of a scientific nature
psych-	mind, mental	psyche - the human spirit or soul; psychic - relating to the human mind or someone who has supernatural mental abilities
pyr-	fire, heat	pyrometer - a thermometer for measuring high temperature; pyrotechnics - the art of making fireworks
rhin-	nose	rhinoceros - a species of animals with a big horn on the snout; rhinoplasty - surgery of the nose
rhod-	red	rhododendron - a flower with red/pink flowers
rrh	flow, discharge	hemorrhage - heavy blood flow
scler-	hard	multiple sclerosis - disease which causes the tissue of the brain and spinal cord to harden
scop	see, examine, observe	microscope - a device used to see tiny places; periscope - a seeing instrument on a submarine
soph	wise	philosopher - a wise person
soph-	wise	sophisticated - wise about the ways of the world; sophism - a clever but misleading argument
sphere	ball	biosphere - the whole round surface of the earth; hemisphere - half the earth spherically shaped like a ball
sym-, syn-	together, with, same	symmetry - similarity in size, form, or arrangement; synergy - the combined effect
tax	arrangement	syntax - the systematic arrangement of words
tax-	arrangement	taxonomy - the science of classification
techno-	technique, skill	technology - the practical application of knowledge
tel-	far, distant, complete	telescope - a device to view distant objects; telephone - a device to talk with a distant person
the-	put	theme - a proposition for discussion or argument
therm-	heat	thermal - relating to heat; thermos - an insulated jar that keeps heat in
tri-	three, once in every three, third	triangle - a figure with 3 sides and 3 angles; tricycle - a 3-wheel vehicle with pedals
xen-	foreign	xenophobic - afraid of foreigners; xenophile - attracted to foreigners
xer-	dry	xerophyte - a plant that grows in a dry climate; xeric - requiring small amounts of moisture
xyl-	wood	xyloid - resembling wood
zo-	animal life	zoology - study of animals; zooid - resembling an animal
zyg	pair	zygomorphic - pertaining to organisms that can be divided into symmetrical halves along one axis only