This chapter presents summaries of remote sensing activities and data sharing policies for Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—the BRICS nations—to complement the full case studies on agencies in the United States, Europe, and Japan. These nations differ in size, history, and structure, providing a broader sense of satellite data sharing around the world. The appendix includes short summaries of satellite remote sensing activities and data sharing efforts for all other nations that have operated a remote sensing satellite from 1957 to the beginning of 2016.
Brazil has been involved in just four remote sensing satellites, all in collaboration with China, but it has had a major impact on international satellite data sharing discussions. Brazil was one of the first nations to sign a cooperative agreement with NASA to access Landsat data via a dedicated ground station, in 1973.1 The US decision to commercialize the system in the 1980s, as well as delays in follow-on Landsat system development, caused concerns in Brazil about potential interruptions in service. Alternative imagery, such as that available from France's SPOT satellite, was prohibitively expensive. Facing these concerns, Brazil decided to develop its own satellite, and signed an intergovernmental agreement with China to begin the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) program in 1988.2 The first CBERS satellite was launched in 1999, followed by CBERS-2 in 2003, CBERS-2B in 2007, and CBERS-4 in 2014.
The Brazilian space agency—the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)—and the Chinese Center for Resources Satellite Data and Applications (CRESDA) were responsible for developing applications for CBERS data. Original plans called for sales of CBERS imagery on a commercial basis; however, demand was quite low. Brazil sold fewer than 1,000 CBERS-1 images a year, and changes in price were not effective in increasing sales. Given the low return on investment, in 2004, INPE adopted a free and open access policy, providing full-resolution images online for Brazilian users. Data distribution jumped to 10,000 images per month.3 It was the first nation to implement this type of open data policy for land remote sensing satellite data, and the change had a major impact on agency officials and politicians in other nations, particularly the United States.
While domestic data access was free, Brazil and China still hoped to generate revenue from international sales. A policy released in 2004 allowed for the licensing of international ground stations capable of receiving CBERS data. These ground stations would pay an annual fee as well as a per-minute fee for downlinks of raw data within the footprint of that station. The raw data could then be processed into image products and sold to users within their respective national market. Ground stations operated by INPE and CRESDA would have unlimited access to data collected within their footprint, and could each determine their own policies for distribution of that data. Any distribution to third parties would be done solely on the basis of an international price list, to be jointly developed by INPE and CRESDA.4
Despite these initial plans, commercial international CBERS ground stations did not proliferate, and instead China and Brazil increased the amount of data made freely available internationally. In 2008, China and Brazil agreed to provide free CBERS images to all Latin American and African countries, and agreements were signed for the operation of ground stations that would improve data collection over Africa. Shortly after, INPE began to provide data from its Landsat ground station for free as well. By the end of 2009, INPE had distributed more than a million free satellite images.5 In 2010, Brazil and China decided to extend free access to CBERS data to users in all countries, with plans for additional international ground stations that would cover the majority of the Earth's land mass outside of the polar regions.6 As of June 2016, CBERS-1 products are no longer being provided by INPE, but all CBERS-2, -2B, and -4 data can be accessed for free via the INPE online portal after registration.7
Russia, along with the United States, has one of the longest-running space programs. Remote sensing activities are coordinated among the Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the Planeta Research Center within the Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet). Neither organization released official data sharing policies over the course of their programs, and while meteorological data was generally made available in line with WMO principles, other Earth observation data was not readily available to the international community. However, Russia also does not systematically restrict access to its data and has shown a willingness to provide data to a variety of types of users upon request. In recent years, both the meteorological and space agencies have begun developing data portals that aspire to make data more readily accessible to the international community, but none of these was fully operational as of the beginning of 2017.
The early Soviet space program focused much of its effort on dramatic space “firsts” and the development of capabilities needed for human space flight, and didn't launch its first unclassified remote sensing satellite until 1964. However, the Soviet Union was engaged in international remote sensing data sharing discussions from the beginning of the space age. In 1958, before weather satellite development had begun in the Soviet Union, the head of the Soviet Central Institute of Forecasts was appointed to the newly formed Panel of Experts on Meteorological Satellites along with a colleague from the United States and others. In 1961, the panel released a report on the value of satellites for meteorology that laid the foundations for the World Weather Watch (WWW) program. As part of the plan, one of three World Meteorological Centers was set up in Moscow as a hub for archiving and sharing weather data.8
Moscow also developed a bilateral agreement with the United States during this period, agreeing in 1962 to coordinate its meteorological satellite launches with the United States and engage in data sharing. A direct link for sharing meteorological data, the “cold line” was established in 1964.9 In 1966, the Soviet Union announced that it had launched its first experimental meteorological satellite, and satellite data sharing over the link began. In 1969, the first operational Soviet weather satellite, Meteor-1, was launched. Twenty-five Meteor-1 satellites, each carrying a TV camera and an infrared imager, were launched between 1969 and 1977. Beginning in 1971, with the launch of Meteor-1 through Meteor-10, the Soviet Union used Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) to allow Soviet and Western ground stations to downlink pictures from the satellite in real time.10
The second generation of Russian meteorological satellites, Meteor-2, included 21 satellites flown between 1975 and 1993. The Meteor-2 series incorporated a number of improvements that increased the volume and quality of the data collected and increased the satellite life-span. This was followed by the Meteor-3 series, which incorporated additional improvements and included six satellites launched between 1985 and 1994. The last two of these satellites carried foreign payloads: the fifth Meteor-3 was equipped with NASA's Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and the sixth Meteor-3 carried a French Scanner for Radiation Budget (ScaRaB) and a German navigation instrument.11
Russia launched its first geostationary weather satellite in the mid-1990s, but planning for the satellite began more than 20 years prior. In 1972, Russia joined WMO's Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) and announced plans to provide a geostationary satellite for the Global Weather Experiment. Many nations were hoping that Russia would help to fill the gap in geostationary data over the Indian Ocean. However, with a large portion of its land mass at high latitudes, geostationary satellites were not as useful for Russia as for some other nations, and hence not a high priority internally. Programmatic issues and complex military requirements for the system also contributed to delays. In the end, Russia's first Geostationary Operational Meteorological Satellite (GOMS), also known as Elektro, did not launch until 1994, and problems with the orientation and imaging systems meant that it was not able to provide high-resolution images. Russia had not yet launched another geostationary satellite when GOMS failed in 1998, and through coordination with the other members of CGMS, Europe agreed to move its Meteosat-5 satellite to cover the region.12
The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a lack of funds that essentially halted work on the meteorological satellite program. Russia experienced a seven-year gap between low-Earth-orbit system launches, during which time Russian scientists relied heavily on data from foreign satellites.
In 2001, Russia launched a new generation of low-Earth-orbit weather satellites. The Meteor-3M satellite incorporated a number of important upgrades: it was the first to be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit, the standard for global weather satellites because this special orbit allowed the satellite to view areas of the Earth under the same lighting conditions day after day, and it had a much longer life-span than previous meteorological satellites. The satellite carried not only meteorological instruments, but also remote sensing instruments, including NASA's Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III (SAGE III) sensor, which provided data useful to both weather and climate. Unfortunately, there were technical issues with the satellite, and by 2003, the head of the Russian program said that the meteorological instruments had failed completely.13
Russia next moved on to the Meteor-M series, with the first two satellites launched in 2009 and 2014. These satellites carried a suite of meteorological instruments. Russia noted that these instruments would also produce data useful for climate studies. The satellites were unique among global weather satellites because they also each included a synthetic aperture radar.14 However, no images from the radar were ever released, and unofficial reports suggested that the instrument had failed. Russia also restarted its geostationary program at this time, launching Elektro-L1 in 2011 and Elektro-L2 in 2015.
Throughout this time, Roshydromet has not placed any official policy restrictions on access to archived or real-time meteorological data, and it has generally made data available in accordance with WMO guidelines. A 2014 publication by Roshydromet officials notes that the center maintains an online catalog, but in practice this catalog is not maintained. Instead, the agency has generally opted to provide real-time data via dedicated lines.15 For example, in 2015, the organization developed a bilateral agreement with EUMETSAT to exchange near-real-time satellite data.16 Requests for archived data are also accepted, but data is not readily available online.
In addition to its meteorological satellites, Russia has launched a series of remote sensing satellites focused on land and ocean observations. Satellite land remote sensing was of particular interest to Russia, which has large, sparsely populated areas within its territory. Russia also highlighted the importance of operational environmental satellite programs for improving understanding of global environmental change. These efforts began during the Soviet era.
The Meteor-Priroda series, which included six satellites launched between 1974 and 1981, built on the success of the Meteor program, extending observations to focus on monitoring of Earth resources. The Resurs-O1 series of satellites, with four launches between 1985 and 1998, continued these observations. The Okean-01 series, with its first launch in 1986, measured the conditions and dynamics of the ocean. In total, eight Okean satellites were launched between 1986 and 1999. The Okean satellites included APT technology, so domestic and foreign users with receiving stations could access real-time data directly from the satellites.17
After a hiatus following the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Resurs series was continued, with three launches occurring between 2006 and 2014. Ukraine took over the Okean program, renaming it the Sich program, and launched three satellites between 1995 and 2011. Russia also began a small satellite program, launching Monitor-E in 2005 and Kanopus-V, developed under contract with SSTL, in 2012.
Russia did not adopt official data sharing policies for these satellites and typically did not make data available outside of the Soviet Union on a regular basis. However, the Russian space agency has recently shown an interest in developing data dissemination technologies. In 2010, Roscosmos launched a geoportal to provide access to information for domestic and foreign users.18 It is possible to view satellite images via the portal, but to order remote sensing data, users are directed to contact the Russian Research Center for Earth Operative Monitoring (NTs OMZ). As of early 2017, there was not yet an automated process in place for ordering images from the data portal, and high-resolution imagery is available only to official registered users.19
As in the United States, military and commercial remote sensing activities in Russia have historically been closely linked. The Soviet Union has been launching reconnaissance satellites since the beginning of the space age, with hundreds launched over six decades. In 1987, officials in the Soviet Union announced that they would sell photographic satellite images collected by some of these satellites to countries outside the Soviet bloc. With a resolution of 5 meters, image quality was high, but because the film had to be returned from orbit and processed, delivery could take days to months.20 In 1992, Russia announced it would allow two Russian firms to sell data with 2-meter resolution, better than any other offering on the global market. Once again, the photographic images were collected by satellites originally designed and used by the Russian intelligence community. As such, some requests for imagery were delayed or denied based on national security. Archived images, from before the satellite was used commercially, were particularly sensitive.21 By 1998, Russia was selling imagery and synthetic aperture radar data from a wide array of civil and military satellites and had declassified imagery from some past military systems.22 In 2000, it announced that 1-meter resolution data would be available for sale.23 As of early 2017, high-resolution imagery from the Resurs-DK and Monitor-E satellites could be ordered from the Russian SOVZOND company.24
Russia has also been making efforts to increase private space activities, opening the Space Technology and Telecommunications Cluster at Moscow's Skolkovo innovation park in 2010. In 2012, Dauria Aerospace, formed in the cluster, was founded as the first private remote sensing satellite company in Russia. With offices in Russia, Germany, and the United States, the company hoped to take advantage of a global talent pool in developing a constellation of eight small Earth observation satellites.25 In 2014, Dauria joined the PanGeo Alliance, planning to coordinate imagery sales with other remote sensing companies around the world.26 However, by 2015, the collapse of the ruble and other economic difficulties in Russia led the company to abandon plans to build its own satellites and focus instead on hardware exports.27
The Indian space program has developed both meteorological, land remote sensing, and Earth science satellites. Unlike most other meteorological agencies, the Indian Meteorological Department significantly restricted access to data from India's geostationary meteorological satellites for decades, mostly due to security concerns. A main focus of its nonmeteorological program was on land observation satellites, with a strong focus on commercial applications. In accordance with this focus, India adopted a restrictive data sharing policy that focused on enabling data sales. It also took a conservative stance with regard to the potential security issues related to satellite data dissemination, putting in place detailed procedures to address these concerns. In recent years both the meteorological and space agencies have begun to increase the amount of data they make available online, and both operate online databases or portals to facilitate free access to a significant amount of data.
India's space agency, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), was established in 1969. From the beginning, the agency was focused on using space technology to provide practical benefits for the country. By 1971, India was using data from foreign satellites in its Satellite Meteorology Center, and in 1979, India set up a Landsat data receiving station. India's first indigenous remote sensing satellite, Bhaskara 1, was launched the same year. Both Bhaskara 1 and Bhaskara 2, which launched in 1981, collected imaging data that contributed to natural resource monitoring, but both were primarily useful in providing hands-on experience working with satellite technology.28
In 1982, ISRO launched a geostationary meteorological and communications satellite, the Indian National Satellite 1A (INSAT-1A), developed in partnership with the Indian Meteorological Department. The first satellite failed in just a few months, but was quickly replaced by INSAT-1B in 1983. The ability to view developments over the Indian ocean greatly increased India's weather forecasting and early warning capabilities. By 1988, no tropical storm in the area went undetected, and India was able to provide 24–48 hours of warning for cyclones.29
Beginning in 1986, the United States requested that India provide near-real-time access to the half-hourly data from the INSAT satellites, noting that this data is essential for global climate modeling and weather forecasting. The data would provide information about conditions over the Indian ocean not available from other satellites. Indian military authorities objected, due to concerns that the data could be used to monitor ship and aircraft movements. Other government officials felt detailed information on the Indian monsoon could have commercial implications and thus were reticent to make the data widely available. India agreed to share low-resolution, one-day-old data on magnetic tapes.30
INSAT-1C was launched in 1988 and INSAT-1D in 1990. India continued to share only a limited amount of INSAT data with the international community.31 India upgraded its capabilities with the five-satellite INSAT-2 series, which launched between 1992 and 1999. During this time, India agreed to provide increased access to near-real-time INSAT data for some US scientists. Through an agreement with NASA, US scientists could submit a project proposal, and, if approved by India, near-real-time data would be supplied for the duration of the project. Use of the data for other purposes and redistribution of the data to third parties was prohibited. In return, NASA provided data from its Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) satellite as well as its archive of climate and weather data going back to 1978.32
In 1998, India and the United States signed an agreement that allowed NASA and NOAA access to near-real-time INSAT data through a dedicated link between NASA in Washington, DC, and the Indian Meteorological Department in New Delhi. India received a direct link to NASA and NOAA satellite databases in return. The agreement filled what had come to be known as “the Indian gap” among US scientists. Indian officials stated the impetus for change came from the scientific community, which felt there was a need for a joint cooperative effort. Decreasing military tensions in the region and increased availability of data from foreign geostationary satellites were also important.33
In 2002, India launched METSAT, later renamed Kalpana-1, as its first dedicated meteorological satellite. Unlike previous Indian weather satellites, it did not perform a communications satellite mission. INSAT-3A launched in 2003, and INSAT-3D was launched in 2013. (INSAT-3B and -C did not carry meteorological instruments.) As of 2016, data from Kalpana-1, INSAT-3A, and INSAT-3D was made available through the Indian Meteorological and Oceanographic Satellite Data Archival Center (MOSDAC). All users could access satellite image files without registration, but only a selected group of registered users can access digital satellite data.34
In parallel with developments in the meteorological satellite program, ISRO was developing the first India Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites. Building directly on the experience with the experimental Bhaskara satellites, IRS-1A was launched in 1988 and IRS-1B in 1991. The data from these satellites was comparable to that provided by Landsat, but data from IRS satellites wasn't made available outside India until the launch of IRS-1C in 1995. At this time, India signed an agreement with EOSAT to market IRS data internationally. Carrying multiple sensor types, and being capable of collecting images with a resolution of 5.8 meters, IRS-1C was the highest- resolution civilian remote sensing satellite on the global market—outperforming both Landsat and SPOT. Users within India were able to access data from the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) in Hyderabad. The US-based EOSAT company had rights to market IRS-1C data to the international user community. IRS-1D launched in 1997, continuing with the same policy.35
Concurrent with IRS satellite development, India also launched a series of smaller, less expensive, experimental remote sensing satellites, called the IRS-P series. IRS-P2 launched in 1994 and IRS-P3 in 1996. These two satellites were primarily focused on natural resource monitoring. IRS-P4, also known as Oceansat, was launched in 1999. A follow-up mission, Oceansat-2, was launched in 2009. The Oceansat satellites carried instruments for monitoring ocean color and atmospheric conditions.36
In 2001, India released a national Remote Sensing Data Policy. The policy stated that due to national security concerns, data with a resolution of better than 5.8 meters would be subject to government screening before distribution to ensure that sensitive areas were excluded. Government agencies, or private organizations recommended by a government agency, could access imagery with a resolution of 1 meter or better through the same screening process used for 5.8-meter-resolution data. Other users—including private users without a recommendation and foreign users—wishing to access data with 1-meter resolution or better would require clearance from an interagency High Resolution Image Clearance Committee.37
India continued to launch remote sensing satellites at a rapid pace. ISRO launched IRS-P6, also called ResourceSat-1, in 2003, improving on the capabilities of IRS-1C and -1D and ensuring continuity for the system.38 ResourceSat-2 followed in 2013. IRS-P5, also known as CartoSat-1, was launched in 2005, featuring cameras with 2.5-meter resolution.39 Additional CartoSat satellites were launched in 2007, 2008, and 2010. In 2009, India launched its first radar reconnaissance satellite, the Radar Imaging Satellite 2 (RISAT-2), built by Israel Aerospace Industries. An indigenously built radar system, RISAT-1, launched in 2013. The high-resolution imagery and all-weather radar products are useful for civil, commercial, and intelligence purposes.
ISRO also developed experimental and scientific satellites during this period, including the Technology Experiment Satellites (TES) in 2001 and the Indian Mini Satellite (IMS-1) in 2008, both with basic imaging capabilities. Megha-Tropiques, launched in 2011, was a joint project with France to study the water cycle and energy exchanges in the tropics and their impact on climate and weather. It was followed in 2013 by another Indo-French satellite, SARAL, focused on ocean circulation and sea surface elevation.
In 2009, ISRO created a geo-portal called Bhuvan. Originally populated with basic maps, it grew to include a large number of datasets. Selected data from IMS-1, Oceansat-2, ResourceSat-1, and CartoSat-1 was available as of early 2017. Other data, particularly from selected instruments on CartoSat-1 and -2, ResourceSat-1 and -2, RISAT-1, and Oceansat-2 missions, was sold by the National Remote Sensing Center.40
In 2011, India released a new Remote Sensing Data Policy. Like the 2001 policy it replaced, the new policy emphasized the need to balance national security concerns with the many benefits of remote sensing data use. It adjusted the resolution limits to allow sharing and sales of data with a resolution of up to 1 meter without requiring special clearance. Under the policy, government users, including government educational and academic institutions, could also access data with better than 1-meter resolution without the need for special permission, as could private-sector agencies supporting development activities, if recommended by at least one government agency. Other users were required to get permission from the interagency High Resolution Image Clearance Committee. Alternatively, these users could access data with a resolution better than 1 meter by negotiating a sale and nondisclosure agreement between the user and NRSC.41
In 2012, the Indian Department of Science and Technology released the National Data Sharing and Accessibility Policy. The policy encouraged data sharing to maximize use, avoid duplication, and improve decision-making. It requires all departments to review their datasets to determine which can be shared openly and which require some restrictions, and required that metadata be shared on data.gov.in. It also expressed support for budget provisions necessary to support efforts to make data accessible.42
The 2016 Indian National Geospatial Policy expanded on this, emphasizing the increasing importance of geospatial information in particular. It stated that all geospatial data, of any resolution, disseminated through agencies and service providers, should be treated as unclassified and made accessible. According to the policy, this access may be open or restricted, and subject to registration or authorization as appropriate. The policy mandates that all government institutions make data available to all other government institutions at no cost. Pricing for access for other users is at the discretion of the data owner.43
China began launching meteorological satellites in 1988, building a constellation that included both polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites. From the beginning the program has embraced international meteorological data sharing norms, making data freely available to international users via direct broadcast. The China Meteorological Administration has also developed a data portal that freely provides data online for noncommercial purposes.
Sharing outside of the meteorological areas is more mixed. Most data from China's ocean observing satellites is made available online for nonmilitary, noncommercial uses, but redistribution is restricted. Data from the CBERS satellite series was made freely available online as of 2010, but data from the majority of China's land remote sensing satellites is not made readily available outside of China or is subject to a data policy that emphasizes commercial efforts and market pricing.
Since the 1960s, China had been receiving cloud images from foreign satellites, and officials recognized their value to operational meteorological forecasting. In 1977, China initiated its own weather satellite program, the Fengyun (FY) series, jointly coordinated by the Ministry of Aerospace and the China Meteorological Administration (CMA). Polar-orbiting weather satellites, FY-1A and -1B, were launched in 1988 and 1990, respectively. Each satellite was equipped with an imager similar to that carried by US meteorological satellites, and data collected by the satellites was distributed to ground stations within China using data formats compatible with US systems. Unfortunately, FY-1A failed after only 39 days and FY-1B after six months.44
In 1997, China launched FY-2A, its first geostationary meteorological satellite, adopting the convention of designating polar-orbiting Fengyun meteorological satellites with odd numbers and geostationary weather satellites with even numbers. The satellite carried a sensor that collected data useful for a range of meteorological purposes. China made data from the FY-2 satellites openly available to international users via direct broadcasting of high-resolution digital data and low-resolution analog data in formats compatible with those used by other geostationary weather satellites.45 Five additional FY-2 satellites were launched between 2004 and 2014, with improved imaging and data transmission capabilities.46
In 1999, China launched a new polar-orbiting weather satellite, FY-1C. The satellite featured improved sensors as well as an improved overall spacecraft design. FY-1D followed, using the same design, in 2002. Both satellites operated smoothly. Data transmissions from the satellites used a format compatible with US weather satellites, making it possible for international ground stations to receive the data with minimal modifications.47
The second generation of polar-orbiting Fengyun satellites incorporated a number of more advanced instruments for broad environmental monitoring. Each satellite included three imaging instruments capable of making useful observations of the oceans, atmosphere, and land. Satellites in the series also include three sounding instruments to collect information about the atmosphere at multiple altitudes. Instruments were added for measuring climate-relevant data, as well, including ozone concentrations and the Earth's radiation budget. FY-3A was launched in 2008, followed by FY-3B and -3C in 2010 and 2013, respectively.48 The capabilities and orbits of the FY-3 series were similar to that of planned US next-generation Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) meteorological satellites. In fact, a report prepared for NOAA stated that use of China's FY-3C and -3D satellites could be “a silver bullet” in addressing expected gaps in US weather data caused by delays in the JPSS program, a recommendation that was rejected by the US Congress.49
FY-3 satellites transmitted data according to WMO data formats and were compatible with US and European satellite data transmission characteristics, allowing direct access to satellite data in near real time. The CMACAST and GEONETCAST systems also provided data via telecommunications satellite to users with properly equipped receiving stations. China has emphasized the importance of its meteorological satellite system to the Global Observing System of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), noting that its satellites not only benefit China, but also provide a valuable contribution to the international community.50
Archived data from Chinese meteorological satellites can be accessed online through the China National Satellite Meteorological Center (NSMC) website. The website includes data from all currently operational Chinese meteorological satellites, with both minimally processed data and more highly processed datasets available for free to users. Access requires registration, and users must sign terms of use that require the data only be used for noncommercial purposes.51
China also pursued a number of other Earth observation projects outside of meteorology. In 2002, China launched the first satellite in its Haiyang (HY) series, focused on ocean observations. HY-1A carried an instrument to measure ocean color. HY-1B, which followed in 2007, had similar capabilities. In 2011, China launched the HY-2 satellite, which carried four sensing instruments able to provide a wide array of ocean-relevant data.52 Data from the HY-1B and -2 satellites, both of which were operating as of early 2017, was made available to international users through the China National Satellite Ocean Application Service (NSOAS). The data was available at no charge, but use was restricted to nonmilitary, noncommercial use only and redistribution to third parties was forbidden. Only processed data products (level 2 and above) were available and data from China's exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and other sensitive ocean regions was excluded.53
NSOAS distinguished between three levels of users: level 1 included individuals or organizations that require small amounts of data with non-real-time delivery. These users can register on the NSOAS website and expect to receive access to the data in two to three business days. Level 2 included organizations that require large amounts of data, but do not need real-time delivery. Level 2 users were required to fill out a more in-depth application that explained their data requirements and the purpose of the project. Level 3 organizations were those that wished to develop operational applications requiring large quantities of data and real-time delivery. These level 3 users were required to provide the same information as level 2 users and also to propose a contract, agreement, or memorandum that would be submitted to the State Oceanic Administration Science and Technology Department for formal approval.54
In addition to its weather and ocean satellite programs, China has a land remote sensing program, managed by the China Center for Resource Satellite Data and Application (CRESDA). The program includes five distinct series of satellites: China-Brazil Earth Resource Satellite (CBERS), HuanJing (HJ) environmental and disaster monitoring satellites, ZiYuan (ZY) resource satellites, experimental ShiJian (SJ) systems, and high-resolution GaoFen (GF) imaging satellites. CBERS-1, launched in 1999, was China's first land remote sensing satellite. It was followed by CBERS-2, -2B, and -4 in 2003, 2007, and 2013, respectively. HJ satellites focused on environmental and disaster monitoring. HJ-1A and -1B were launched in 2008. They carry advanced imagers and can revisit the same area within two days. HJ-1C, launched in 2012, was China's first synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite, capable of acquiring data in all weather conditions. Two ZY resource satellites have been launched, one each in 2011 and 2012. They carry an instrument that allows collection of three-dimensional geographic information. The SJ satellites are experimental systems designed primarily to test new instruments. Two of these satellites launched in 2012. The GF is the newest series, but also the largest, with five satellites launched between 2013 and 2015. They provide high-resolution imaging capabilities as part of the China High-resolution Earth Observing System (CHEOS).55
Distribution of land remote sensing data within China is done through a three-part system. Departments that rely heavily on the data, such as the Ministry of Land Resources or the Ministry of Environmental Protection, have an optical fiber network link to the data. Other government users can access the data through the e-government network. The general public can access data through the Internet. In the early 2000s, China was distributing thousands of images a year. By 2013, it was distributing hundreds of thousands of images a year, and had distributed 4.1 million scenes total.56 A 2015 CRESDA presentation said that nearly all Chinese demand for medium-resolution satellite imagery, up to 2.5 meters, is fulfilled by Chinese satellites, and prices for high-resolution imagery are dropping.57 In 2016, the head of the China State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense announced that Chinese satellites were providing 80 percent of the satellite data used in China.58
China has established partnerships for international distribution of its data, generally on an ad hoc basis. In 2007, it joined the International Charter on Space and Major Disasters, pledging to provide free satellite data to those affected by disasters anywhere in the world. In 2008, China and Brazil built a CBERS station in South Africa to facilitate free CBERS data access for African nations. In 2010, China and Brazil announced that CBERS data would be made freely available to all nations. In 2011, an HJ-1A ground station was constructed in Thailand to allow direct access to real-time data.59 Also in 2011, the China Center for Earth Observation and Digital Earth implemented its Earth Observation Data Sharing Plan, which made 23,000 scenes of medium-resolution satellite remote sensing data freely available online. Interestingly, however, the data included was exclusively from foreign satellites, such as Landsat and ERS.60 China has also expressed an interest in international cooperation related to its new CHEOS system.61
As in many other parts of the world, commercial remote sensing efforts are taking place in China. In 2005, China launched Beijing-1, built by SSTL, as part of the international Disaster Management Constellation. Marketing of the satellite was done by the Beijing Landview Mapping Information Technology Company (BLMIT).62 In July, 2015, the Twenty First Century Aerospace Technology Co. Ltd., a subsidiary of BLMIT, purchased the full capacity of three 1-meter-resolution “Beijing-2” satellites from SSTL, also known as the TripleSat constellation. A few months later, the Chang Guang Satellite Technology Co., a commercial spinoff of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, launched four Jilin-1 satellites. Two of the satellites provided ultrahigh-definition video imagery, one was a technology demonstrator, and the fourth carried a 72-centimeter-resolution imager.63
In addition to its civil and dual-use remote sensing systems, China has launched more than 30 reconnaissance satellites, beginning in 1975. The earliest satellites were based on film that needed to be recovered and processed on Earth; hence the program was referred to as the film recovery photographic series in China.64 The more recent Yaogan (YG) series included more than 20 satellites launched between 2006 and 2013. The three Tianhui (TH) mapping satellites launched between 2010 and 2015 are also controlled by the PLA and used primarily for reconnaissance. As with reconnaissance satellites in other nations, data from these systems has not been made publicly available.
Through the use of satellite ground stations, South Africa has been utilizing remote sensing data for more than 30 years, and it has launched two Earth observation satellites of its own. The first, SunSat, was built almost entirely by postgraduate students at the University of Stellenbosch. Launched in 1999, the satellite carried an imager, but data was never made widely available. SumbandilaSat, developed by the same group for the South African National Space Agency (SANSA), was launched in 2009. The satellite carried a 6.5-meter-resolution imager and collected more than 1,000 images during its two-year operation.65 The data can be accessed by contacting SANSA.
South Africa has been active in efforts to coordinate remote sensing satellite efforts among African nations, including the African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment (AARSE). In 2014, AARSE called on African governments to support a pan-African space policy. They have also supported data sharing through development of an African Resource Management (ARM) Constellation or through development of a joint data portal, but these actions have not yet been completed.66
All of the BRICS nations share at least some satellite data, and in many cases the level of data availability is quite high. China's meteorological agency has historically embraced open data sharing and continues to provide users with access to free data online. Chinese oceanographic data is also shared fairly extensively. Brazil, in its joint program with China, is a leader in this area, making all of its satellite data freely available online since 2010. After a long history of restricting access to data, particularly related to national security concerns, India has moved to make a significant portion of its data freely available. Russia does not restrict access to its scientific data, but the data is typically not made readily available online. Similarly, South Africa makes its data available upon request. China, India, and Russia have all developed systems to sell remote sensing data, particularly high-resolution imagery, and thus some portion of their data falls under a more restrictive data policy or commercial licensing scheme to enable these efforts.
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11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
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15. Ibid.SRC Planeta Rosgidromet and IKI RAN, “ ‘Sputnik’ Server Satellite Archive Catalogues,” http://sputnik.infospace.ru/catalog_eng.html.
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19. Roscosmos, “Roscosmos Geoportal: Service Space Images,” http://gptl.ru/index.php/welcome.
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21. Vipin Gupta, “New Satellite Images for Sale,” ibid. 20, no. 1 (1995).
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45. Ibid.
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47. Ibid.
48. Chaohua Dong et al., “An Overview of a New Chinese Weather Satellite FY-3a,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 90, no. 10 (2009).
49. SpaceNews Editor, “Report: Chinese Weather Sats Could Fill U.S. Gap,” Space News, 26 August 2013 2013.
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54. Ibid.
55. Wen Xu, Jianya Gong, and Mi Wang, “Development, Application, and Prospects for Chinese Land Observation Satellites,” Geo-spatial Information Science 17, no. 2 (2014).
56. Ibid.
57. Peter B de Selding, “China Launches High-Resolution Commercial Imaging Satellite,” Space News, 7 October 2015.
58. “Domestic Satellites Providing 80 Pct of China's Satellite Data,” China Daily, 10 March 2016.
59. Xu, Gong, and Wang.
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