1. Some of Muschamp’s outspoken pieces from the New York Times, New Republic, and Art Forum have been compiled and edited by Muschamp’s successor at the Times, Nicolai Ouroussoff. See Hearts of the City: The Selected Writings of Herbert Muschamp (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2009). “Hearts of the City” was the title of Muschamp’s unfinished autobiographical book, poignant sections of which trail off in Ouroussoff’s edited collection.
2. Herbert Muschamp, “Something Cool,” foreword to Andy Merrifield, Henri Lefebvre: A Critical Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2006), xi.
3. I am referring to Metromarxism’s and Magical Marxism’s respective front covers.
4. Cf. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (London: Faber & Faber, 1966), 42), “The great fact emerges that after that historic date all holographs so far exhumed initialled by Haromphrey bear the sigla HCE and … to his cronies it was equally certainly a pleasant turn of the populace which gave him as sense of those normative letters the nickname Here Comes Everybody. An imposing everybody he always indeed looked, constantly the same as and equal to himself and magnificently well worthy of any and all such universalization.” Recall, too, that HCE—Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker—Joyce’s dreaming protagonist, is himself a city builder. I will be returning periodically to Joyce’s old Earwicker, to HCE, throughout the text.
5. Fredric Jameson, “Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,” New Left Review 146 (July–August): 53–92.
6. Muschamp, “Something Cool,” xii.
7. Ibid., xiii.
8. Cf. Lefebvre, Logique formelle, Logique dialectique (Paris: Anthropos, 1969).
9. This impulse, as we’ll see in a later chapter, defines Louis Althusser’s “philosophy of the encounter,” his “aleatory materialism,” his postbreakdown investigation into the nature of revolutionary determinacy and contingency. Althusser claimed aleatory materialism is Marx’s nonteleological materialism, steering him away from Hegel and bringing him closer to Epicurus and especially Spinoza. Spinoza, Althusser says, rejects all questions of Origin, all questions of End, and posits a transcendental contingency of the world in which everything depends. As for Epicurus (who, remember, was the subject of Marx’s doctoral thesis), he imagined the formation of the world as atoms falling parallel to one another in a prehistoric void—falling as rain. It rains and no drop touches the other until the parallelism is broken, until “an infinitesimal swerve” occurs, until an inexplicable “clinamen” supervenes, without apparent cause, inducing the encounter, the piling up and the consequent birth of the world. The contingent encounter that gave rise to the world—the clinamen inducing this coming together—is likely how a new birth of the world will take hold today or how any new transformation will occur. Hence, so far as “the encounter” goes, Lefebvre and Althusser, apparently polar-opposite Marxists, have more in common than one may have first imagined. (The two men had something else in common: both wrote classic texts of “confessional Marxism,” Le somme et le reste [1959] and The Future Lasts a Long Time [1989].)
10. Henri Lefebvre, Le droit à la ville (Paris: Anthropos, 1968). In this text, either because of author or production carelessness, Asimov’s famous planet is called “Trentor.” Unfortunately, the error/misprint is repeated in Elizabeth Lebas and Eleonore Kofman’s sloppy translation of “The Right to the City” in Writing on Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996). I will, accordingly, cite from both the French and English versions throughout this text, using my own translations of the former. Asimov (1920–1992) himself began his Foundation series as a trilogy, but he ended up writing seven books. For over forty years he continued to build upon what is still the greatest sci-fi epic ever written. Beginning in 1951 with Foundation, Asimov polished off the final Forward the Foundation only days before his death. Asimov was actually born in Russia the year Isaac Babel wrote his civil war Red Cavalry stories. Asimov came to the United States as a young child and was brought up in Brooklyn; he lived all his professional life in Manhattan, where, as an agoraphobic, he seldom ventured off the island. In Trantor, one can feel the claustrophobia that obviously comforted Asimov; everyday life there took place largely underground, beneath a giant ceiling of millions of steel domes. In his career, Asimov penned over 400 books—short stories, novels, scientific treatises, and nonfiction commentaries—making Lefebvre, with his 68, look like a slacker.
11. See Lukasz Stanek, Henri Lefebvre on Space: Architecture, Urban Research, and the Production of Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011), 187.
12. Andy Merrifield, “The Sentimental City: The Lost Urbanism of Pierre MacOrlan and Guy Debord,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 28, no. 4 (2004): 930–940.
1. Isaac Asimov, Foundation (London: Voyager Paperback, 1955), 11.
2. Isaac Asimov, Foundation’s Edge (London: Granada Publishing, 1983), 62.
3. Remember that Lefebvre’s “cavalier style” in The Right to the City is cued with an epigraph from Nietzsche: “With serious things, one needs to be either quiet or speak with grandeur, which is to say, with cynicism and innocence.”
4. Robert Bononno’s translation renders passive Lefebvre’s active understanding of urbanization. “Society has been completed urbanized,” he begins the University of Minnesota Press’s 2003 edition. “We will start from a hypothesis [Nous partirons d’une hypothèse],” Lefebvre says. “The complete urbanization of society [l’urbanisation complète de la société].” The nuance seems to me important. For the purposes of this book, I will use both the French and English versions of Lefebvre’s great urban text. Citations from the French edition, like those from Le droit à la ville, will be my own.
5. Henri Lefebvre, La révolution urbaine (Paris: Gallimard, 1970), 7.
6. See Ricky Burdett and Deyan Sudjic, eds., The Endless City (London: Phaidon, 2007).
7. E. Soja and M. Kanai, “The Urbanization of the World,” in Burdett and Sudjic, The Endless City, 54–69.
8. X. Chen, “Shanghai: The Urban Laboratory,” in Burdett and Sudjic, The Endless City, 118–124.
9. T. Brinkhoff, The Principle Agglomerations of the World, http://www.citypopulation.de (retrieved 1/10/2011).
10. Louis Wirth, “Urbanism as a Way of Life,” American Journal of Sociology 44, no. 1 (July 1938): 2. It’s worth mentioning, alongside Wirth, the French geographer Jean Gottmann, one of the first prophets of planetary urbanization. In his classic Megalopolis (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1961), Gottmann recognized how the United States’ Northeast seaboard region, stretching from Boston all the way down to Washington, D.C., represented a new superurbanized form, no longer a city but a metrozone that was even devouring the standard notion of “region.” According to Gottmann, “the oyster had opened its shell” and would never be the same oyster again. “Megalopolis” was Gottmann’s attempt to name this prototypical form of city life, to understand rather than judge it either good or bad. Gottmann’s book merits a close reread because there are insightful chapters on changing urban employment compositions, shifts within service occupations themselves (not just tertiary activities but “quaternary” sectors), and the strange emergence of “megalopolitan agriculture,” cultivated in a zone neither traditional city nor traditional countryside. Gottmann took the terminology “megalopolis” from the Greek, from an ancient Peloponnesian dream-city that never materialized in its day; though, as Gottmann said in 1961, this immense urban dream has finally come true.
11. Le droit à la ville (Paris: Anthropos, 1968), 83.
12. The Urban Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 57.
13. “It is seeing which establishes our place in the surrounding world,” John Berger says in his groundbreaking text on art criticism, Ways of Seeing (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972), 7; “we explain that world with words, but words can never undo the fact that we are surrounded by the world. The relation between what we see and what we know is never settled. Each evening we see the sun set. We know that the earth is turning away from it. Yet the knowledge, the explanation, never quite fits the sight.”
14. See, especially, chapter 1 of The Urban Revolution and chapter 4 of The Production of Space (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991). Lefebvre also devotes considerable attention to the passage from the feudal (commercial) city to the capitalist (industrial) city in another 1970s book: La pensée marxiste et la ville (Paris: Casterman, 1972) (see chap. 2, 39–41, 45–69). The argument is interestingly bedded down in Marx and Engels’s German Ideology (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1970).
15. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Penguin Deluxe Edition (New York: Penguin, 2011), 67.
16. Karl Marx, Capital III (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 333.
17. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1973), 408.
18. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Manifesto of the Communist Party, Penguin Deluxe Edition (New York: Penguin, 2011), 68.
19. Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value—Part III (Moscow: Progress, 1975), 253.
20. Marx, Capital—Volume One (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976), 140.
21. Spinoza, Ethics, Part I, Proposition X, Everyman Edition (London: Everyman, 1993, 9.
22. C. Cernuschi and A. Herczynski, “Cutting Pollock Down to Size: The Boundaries of the Poured Technique,” in E. Landau and C. Cernuschi, eds., Pollock-Matters (Boston: McMullen Museum of Art, Boston College, 2007), 73–85.
23. Clement Greenberg, “The Crisis of the Easel Painting,” in Greenberg, Art and Culture (Boston: Beacon, 1961), 155.
24. David Harvey, The Limits to Capital (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), 413–430.
25. Jean Gottman, “Introduction: The Opening of the Oyster Shell,” in Jean Gottman and Robert Harper, eds., Since Megalopolis: The Urban Writings of Jean Gottmann (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 3–20.
26. David Harvey, The New Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), especially chapter 4.
27. Marx, Capital I (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976), 875.
28. Eminent domain is compulsory acquisition of land by the state. It is the sequestration of land by the government that often displaces low-income populations. Once, seemingly long ago, this act of public expropriation was done in the name of some greater common good, like commandeering land that would eventually be used for public services and/or public utilities. Now, it expresses the public sector seizing land and then giving it away at discount prices for upscale private reappropriation, letting private economic interests cash in on what is effectively legalized public subsidization—legalized looting. Many urban areas the world over have seen the greatest land grab in history, when big corporate money obtains at practically no cost large swaths of land for redevelopment.
29. Isaac Bashevis Singer, “The Spinoza of Market Street” in The Spinoza of Market Street and Other Stories (Toronto: Ambassador Books, 1958), 6–7.
30. In a curious sense Pollock’s paintings suggest these two seemingly different vantage points: the outer space cosmos of stars, planets, galaxies, and meteorites; and the equally mysterious and magnificently kinetic disorderly world of the urban everyday. In another sense, Pollock’s pictures portray something inconceivably small, too—the reality of protons and electrons and subatomic particles—which likewise seem part of our inner self. (Pollock’s paintings, John Berger once said, “are like pictures painted on the inside walls of his mind.”)
31. According to Althusser, the metaphor expresses spatial verticality because capitalist society for Marx is an edifice with “floors”; each floor needs all the other floors so the building can remain upright. World market street, however, would operate more in a horizontal sense, as a lateral web of social relations, with each street existing relatively autonomously vis-à-vis other streets on an immanent planetary plane.
32. Louis Althusser, Essays in Self-Criticism (London: New Left Books, 1976), 129.
33. The notion of “seeing” here is both literal and metaphorical, perceptual and something more than perception. Seeing, of course, is crucial in Spinoza’s own Pantheist thought—hardly surprising given Spinoza’s lens-polishing predilections. For Spinoza, polishing lenses was equivalent to polishing propositions, removing the opacity from truth, letting it be clearly glimpsed, like cataracts being peeled away. Jorge-Luis Borges said that when Spinoza polished his crystal lenses he polished a vast crystal philosophy of the universe, which are touching words coming from a blind man. “He grinds a stubborn crystal,” wrote Borges in his famous sonnet “Spinoza.” “The infinite map of the One who is all His stars.” Another man of seeing, John Berger, is likewise another Spinoza fan. In the recent Bento’s Sketchbook (London: Verso, 2011), Berger isn’t so much devoted to Spinoza the lens-polisher/philosopher as to Spinoza the drawer, the Spinoza who for most of his shortish life carried a small sketchbook. The point to remember in all these interpretations is how “vision” has a specific meaning for Spinoza; it doesn’t solely emanate from the intellectual as it expresses a certain perception, an intuitive sort of reason, seeing things sub specie aeternitatis —“in view of eternity.”
34. Le monde dipolomatique, May 1989, 16–17. Lefebvre’s essay has since had two reruns, both times in Le monde diplomatique’s bimonthly magazine, Manière de voir. The first was a special edition, “Banlieues: trente ans d’histoire et de révoltes” (no. 89, October/November 2006); the most recent is “L’urbanisation du monde” [“The Urbanization of the World”] (no. 114, December/January 2010–2011).
35. Removal can be forced and brutal, like under Brazil’s military regime (1964–1985), which displaced thirty million family and tenant farmers from the land, reenacting the barbarism of eighteenth-and nineteenth-century English Enclosure Laws. Or it can be more indirect, like slashing import tariffs on specific commodities and providing generous subsidies for export trade, leaving smallholders to the vagaries of the world market. Elsewhere, “incorporation drives” are more subtle and progressive, “accompanied as they are by an intensification of communication and exchange of goods, persons and ideas between the rural neighborhoods and the urban centers” (Andrew Pearse, “Metropolis and Peasant: The Expansion of the Urban-Industrial Complex and the Changing Rural Structure,” in T. Shanin, ed., Peasants and Peasant Societies [Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1971], 76). Here rural localities begin to conform to urban cultural norms and economic aims; soon they’re institutionally incorporated; credit and technical services are offered, developing new forms of dependency; obsolescence then ensues in certain sectors of the rural economy. As Pearse says (77) in what remains one the best accounts of the expansion of the “urban industrial complex” into rural areas, henceforth “agricultural productive effort and investment are justified by urban rewards.”
1. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976), 32. When Joyce lived in Zurich, he and Carl Jung got together a few times; Jung was convinced that Joyce was schizophrenic. Always skeptical of psychoanalysis, Joyce himself refused to let the Swiss psychologist psychoanalyze him. Later on, desperate about his daughter Lucia’s mental condition, he relented and agreed to allow Jung to analyze her. The sessions, however, proved disastrous and Joyce soon broke off contact with Jung. In several places of Finnegans Wake, the psychologist is satirized: in using “Jungfraud” instead of jungfrau (the German for young woman), Joyce puns both Jung and Freud; he saw them equally as “frauds.” In truth, the Joycean unconscious, with its patterns of raving and instinctual behavior, resembles more Deleuze and Guattari’s “desiring machine” from Anti-Oedipus; Joyce, remember, was Guattari’s hero.
2. Joyce, Finnegans Wake, 261.
3. Ibid., 32.
4. Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations (New York: Penguin, 2008).
5. Ibid., 31. In a somewhat different guise, imaginative positivity and creativity were major themes in my Magical Marxism (London: Pluto Press, 2011).
6. Malcolm Gladwell, “Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not be Tweeted,” New Yorker, October 4, 2010.
7. Marx, Grundrisse (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1973), 99.
8. Henri Lefebvre, La proclamation de la Commune (Paris: Gallimard, 1965).
9. Henri Lefebvre, The Explosion (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969); Lefebvre, L’irruption, du Nanterre au sommet (Paris: Anthropos, 1968).
10. Henri Lefebvre, “The Urban in Question” in Elizabeth Lebas and Eleonore Kofman, eds., Writings on Cities—Henri Lefebvre (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1996), 209.
11. Lefebvre never quite lived long enough (he died in June 1991) to witness how suburban areas the world over have transformed themselves. This is especially the case in the United States, where what was once low-density sprawl has filled itself in to become high-density sprawl, a sprawl that defines newer urban forms—Joel Garreau calls them “Edge Cities”; Ed Soja, “Exopolises,” or “Post-Metropolises.” Incredibly, the quintessential stretched out, decentered, and dissociated city of Los Angeles is now America’s densest metropolis, with the largest expanse of areas with over 10,000 people per square mile, nudging ahead of New York. Once-decentered suburban forms have recentered into new centers; polycentric forms have sprouted new community coalitions (and not only rich, reactionary NIMBY types). Theorists such as Roger Keil point out that these suburban borderlands and edge-city peripheries are now central in a congealed and legitimate urban form of the future. It is not that sprawl is good: it is that it is here to stay, and not all bad, and it is also the life form in which ecological struggles must now unfold. Roger Keil, “Frontiers of Urban Political Ecology,” in Matthew Gandy, ed., Urban Constellations (Berlin: Jovis Verleg GmbH, 2011), 26–29.
12. Lefebvre, “The Right to the City,” in Lebas and Kofman, Writing on Cities, 126.
13. Lefebvre, “Engels et l’utopie,” in Espace et politique in Le droit à la ville (Paris: Anthropos, 1968), 217; cf. Metromarxism (New York: Routledge, 2002), 42–48.
14. Peter Marcuse, “The Right to the Creative City,” paper presented at a conference on “The Limits to the Creative City,” University College London Urban Laboratory, Hub Westminster, London, July 29, 2011.
15. This last remark may be a backhand rejoinder to Marshall Berman, who’d ended On the Town (London: Verso, 2009), his paean to Times Square, by ontologizing Times Square, suggesting Times Square since its inception in 1901 has expressed a deep human desire for urban life, for bright lights and the big city, for our right to participate in the spectacle, for “our right to party,” as Berman puts it (paraphrasing the Beastie Boys): “You gotta fight for your right to party!” “Whatever this fight consists of,” says Berman (225), “it may be the only way we can translate the Enlightenment idea of ‘the right to the city’ into twenty-first century Times Square.” For an interesting glimpse of Marcuse’s own conception and ongoing problematization of RTTC, see the special issue of the journal City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action 13, nos. 2–3 (June–September 2009).
16. “In March 1964,” writes Mark Tushnet in his compelling “Critique of Rights,” “five black men tried to use a segregated public library. When they were denied service, one sat down in a chair in the reading room while the others stood quietly nearby.… In December 1982, a group of homeless men pitched tents in Lafayette Park across from the White House. At night their lack of any place to sleep other than the tents brought home to the public the terrible consequences of its penny-pinching. Can anyone seriously think that it helps either in changing society or in understanding how society changes to discuss whether the black men and the homeless men were exercising rights protected by the First Amendment? It matters only whether they engaged in politically effective action. If their action was politically effective, we ought to establish the conditions for its effectiveness, not because those conditions are ‘rights’ but because politically effective action is important” (Mark Tushnet, “Critique of Rights,” Texas Law Review [May 1984]: 1370–1371).
17. Bob Colenutt, “The Contemporary Politics of Rights in UK Urban Development,” paper presented at The Limits to the Creative City Conference, July 29, 2011.
18. Tushnet, “Critique of Rights,” 1363.
19. See http://usf2010.wordpress.com (accessed October 22, 2012).
20. David Harvey, “The Right to the City,” New Left Review 53 (September–October 2008): 40.
21. Manual Castells, The Urban Question: A Marxist Approach (London: Edward Arnold, 1977), 90.
22. Castells, The Urban Question, 90. The emphasis is mine, underscoring a citation from The Urban Revolution that is important and one to which I will return in chapter 3.
23. Manual Castells, “Is There an Urban Sociology?” in C. Pickvance, ed., Urban Sociology: Critical Essays (London: Tavistock, 1976), 57.
24. Louis Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (London: New Left Books, 1971), 155.
25. Lefebvre himself knew this well. Remember how much of his thinking about radical urban politics sprang from rural everyday life, especially from seasonal festivals and raucous, Rabelaisian blowout feasts (ripaille). Lefebvre’s own disposition was a strange urban-rural mix. When describing his physiognomy in La somme et le reste (Tome 1), he spoke of his long, angular, urban face—his head of Don Quixote; yet his stocky body was peasant-like (trapu), he said, resembling Sancho Panza’s (La somme et le reste [Paris: La nef de Paris, 1959], 242). Lefebvre was proud of this curious combination. He lamented the destruction of the countryside almost as much as he lamented the destruction of the traditional city, even though he knew that in both instances there was no going back.
26. Régis Debray, Revolution in the Revolution? Armed Struggle and Political Struggle in Latin America (New York: Grove Press, 1967), 77. Emphasis added.
27. Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason—Volume One (London: Verso, 1976), see, especially, 45–48; 318–321.
28. John Berger, Lilac and Flag: An Old Wives’ Tale of the City (London: Granta Books, 1990), 47.
29. The term is Lefebvre’s, from La métaphilosophie (Paris: Editions de minuit, 1965), 77.
1. This bourgeois scramble for solidity takes on a regionality, evident in the recent “Eurozone crisis.” Many capitalists now want the European Central Bank to intervene, to provide a “firewall” addressing the volatile liquidity of financial markets. They want stabilization to let the European Union and its member states implement austerity measures.
2. Henri Lefebvre, Le droit à la ville (Paris: Anthropos, 1968), 110.
3. In his “Painter of Modern Life” essay (Charles Baudelaire, The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays [London: Phaidon Press, 1995]), Baudelaire was referring to the painter Constantin Guy as “the man of the world,” “the lover of universal life” who loved to go incognito, who “wants to know, understand and appreciate everything that happens on the surface of our globe.” Baudelaire’s thesis can be applied to many contemporary metropolitan dwellers, irrespective of gender. They’re all people of the world, “people who understand the world and the mysterious and legitimate reasons behind all its customs,” identifying themselves in thought with all the thoughts that are moving around them. The crucial point about Guy is that he is not blasé; Guy hates blasé people and he himself is passionately engaged with the world, passionately curious about the world. He tries to establish his dwelling in the ebb and flow of life, in the fleeting and infinite.
4. Henri Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 174.
5. Ibid., 118.
6. Manuel Castells, Communication Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 34.
7. Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution, 194–195n1.
8. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 102.
9. Lefebvre, The Production of Space, 102. Emphasis added.
10. Ibid., 331.
11. In the early 1980s Lefebvre began to hint at this kind of citizenship, founding “Le groupe de Navarrenx,” a dozen-or-so academics and fellow-travelers who met regularly at the retired philosopher’s Pyrenean home. The result was a collaborative volume, Du contrat de citoyenneté (H. Lefebvre et al., eds., Du contrat de citoyenneté [Paris: Syllepse, 1985]), a collection of essays around “A New Right of Citizenship.” Lefebvre kicks off the text with a discussion that blends Rousseau’s Social Contract with a rights-conscious Karl Marx. This “New Right of Citizenship” is multifold: “The Right to Information”; “The Right to Free Expression”; “The Right to Culture”; “The Right to Identity in Difference”; “The Right to Self-Management”; “The Right to the City”; and “The Right to [Public] Services.” Its demands are well taken; the problem, however, is that here as elsewhere in Du contrat de citoyenneté the argument is pitched at so high a level of abstraction that, while well-meaning, it may strike a reader as rather facile and hollow. In many ways, the argument attests to Marx’s own suspicion with rights’ questions: that rights are too conciliatory, too liberal and bourgeois a preoccupation; and that they cannot deal adequately with the property rights question, with the structural injustices and inequalities resultant of the normal functioning of our political-economic system. As many of us know only too well, human rights are flouted each and every day, despite the presence of the 1948 UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. And when rights are flouted, people are left with no right to ever reclaim their rights.
12. The Communist Manifesto (New York: Penguin “Deluxe” Edition, 2011), 68.
13. Murray Bookchin, Post-Scarcity Anarchism (London: Wildwood House, 1974), 221. Bookchin and Lefebvre had a lot in common: both were committed Communists of sorts, chips off the old Communist bloc[k], and they had a mutual interest in romantic libertarianism. “Listen, Marxist!” Bookchin’s well-known pamphlet from 1969, is a telling example of a love-hate relationship of an anarchist-ecologist and Marxist; Lefebvre, of course, was a Marxist urbanist with anarchist sensibilities. Both men bedded their politics in an urban context and knew how this deeply affected any privileging of a vanguard working class. “Are you an anarchist or Marxist?” a perplexed student once asked Lefebvre in the 1970s. “A Marxist, of course,” the septuagenarian professor replied, “so that one day we can all become anarchists” (Lefebvre, cited in Edward Soja, Thirdspace [Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1996, 33]). “All the old crap of the thirties,” Bookchin says in “Listen, Marxist!” (173), “is coming back again—the shit about the ‘class line,’ the ‘role of the working class,’ the ‘trained cadres,’ the ‘vanguard party,’ and the ‘proletarian dictatorship.’ It’s all back again, and in a more vulgarized form than ever.” “This pursuit of security in the past, this attempt to find a haven in a fixed dogma and an organizational hierarchy as substitutes for creative thought and praxis, is,” for Bookchin, “bitter evidence” of how little many revolutionaries are capable of revolutionizing themselves, let alone society.
14. Marshall Berman, “Tearing Away Veils: The Communist Manifesto,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Penguin Deluxe Edition (New York: Penguin, 2011), 10.
15. The reality of a decent, salaried job nowadays is, in Andrew Ross’s faithful words, “nice work if you can get It” (cf. Ross’s Nice Work If You Can Get It [New York: NYU Press, 2010]). Many people associate informal work, hustling a living in intermittent and menial self-employment, as the plight of the developing world; they don’t realize that this is the increasing plight of all the world’s laboring populations. Here it isn’t so much the free market that’s the issue as the “flea market” (Robert Neuwirth’s term): odd-jobbing and exchanging and peddling what wares you have in a pushcart. In Italy, Spain, and Greece, almost a third of the laboring population earns a living through these means. Rather than being something peripheral to “formal” work, informal work is a vital revenue-earner for many countries’ economies and, in certain instances, not a problem to postindustrial, postsalaried work life but the solution (see Robert Neuwirth’s Stealth of Nations: The Global Rise of the Informal Economy [New York: Pantheon, 2011]). I will return to this theme and to Neuwirth’s book in chapter 5.
16. André Gorz, Farewell to the Working Class (London: Pluto Press, 1982), 68.
17. Ibid., 68.
18. Berman, “Tearing Away Veils,” 11.
19. Murray Bookchin, The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1987), 60. Unbeknownst to one another, Bookchin and Lefebvre tried to redefine citizenship and the city during the same mid-1980s period. The former saw the role of the city as politically instrumental; the latter seemed ambivalent about the city’s role under planetary urbanization. Bookchin condemned urbanization from the standpoint of citification; Lefebvre problematized citification from the standpoint of urbanization. In 1995 Bookchin updated his 1987 text, renaming it From Urbanization to Cities: Towards a New Politics of Citizenship, and diluting his ecological component while affirming a “libertarian municipalism” as a buttress to uncontrollable urbanization. For a helpful discussion of the development of Book-chin’s thought, see Damian White’s Bookchin: A Critical Appraisal (London: Pluto Press, 2008).
20. Bookchin, The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship, 48.
21. Roger Keil, “Frontiers of Urban Political Ecology,” in Matthew Gandy, ed., Urban Constellations (Berlin: Jovis Verlag, 2011), 29.
22. Keil, “Frontiers of Urban Political Ecology,” 29.
23. Manuel Castells, “Neo-Anarchism,” La Vanguardia, May 21, 2005, cited in White’s Bookchin: A Critical Appraisal, 177.
24. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air (London: Verso, 1988), 150.
25. Ibid., 153.
1. Louis Althusser, Philosophy of the Encounter, Later Writings, 1978–1987 (London: Verso, 2006), 197 (Althusser’s emphases). This line of thinking about the transition from feudalism to capitalism had been first explicated in Reading Capital, by Etienne Balibar’s chapter on primitive accumulation, with an “encounter” between contingent forces giving rise to the birth of capitalism; all of which demonstrates a theory of the encounter in unexpressed and implied terms. See “Elements for a Theory of Transition” in Louis Althusser and Etienne Balibar, Reading Capital (London: Verso, 1979).
2. Althusser, “The Undercurrent of the Materialism of the Encounter,” in Philosophy of the Encounter, 167.
3. Clinamen is Lucretius’s original Latin word, referring to the unforeseen deviation in linear trajectory, the unpredictable, random movement of matter; in English clinamen translates as “swerve.”
4. Lucretius, The Nature of Things (London: Penguin Classics, 2007), 42.
5. Althusser, “The Undercurrent of the Materialism of the Encounter,” 169 (emphases in original). Althusser draws a lot from the Roman philosopher and poet Lucretius, whose six books of The Nature of Things expound the earlier ideas of the ancient Greek Epicurus. It’s hard not to believe that Althusser hadn’t read Gilles Deleuze’s The Logic of Sense, too, first published in 1969, because it gives a brilliant summary of Lucretius’s clinamen. “The clinamen,” Deleuze writes, “manifests neither contingency nor indetermination. It manifests something entirely different, that is, the irreducible plurality of causes or of causal series … the clinamen is the determination of the meaning of causal series, where each causal series is constituted by the movement of the atom and conserves in the encounter its full independence” (Deleuze, The Logic of Sense [London: Continuum Books, 2004], 306–307). For a nice recent take on Lucretius’s famous swerve, a swerve that arguably gave birth to the Renaissance, to Enlightenment humanism, and to a new intellectual dawn, see Stephen Greenblatt’s The Swerve: How the Renaissance Began (London: Bodley Head, 2011). As Greenblatt shows, out of Lucretius’s gloomy falling rain came the radiant light of reason, rebelling against the crippling orthodoxies of the church and centuries of monastic darkness.
6. Althusser, “The Undercurrent of the Materialism of the Encounter,” 193.
7. Ibid., 196.
8. Henri Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution, 32.
9. Ibid., 124.
10. Ibid., 125.
11. V for Vendetta (New York: Pocket Star Books, 2005), 4. I am citing from the film’s novelization by Steve Moore (no relation to Alan), based on a screenplay written by the Wachowski brothers.
12. V for Vendetta, 73–74.
13. Kalle Lasn, cited in “Revolution Number 99,” Vanity Fair, February 2012, 63.
14. James Carroll, “Youth Pushed to the Edge,” International Herald Tribune, October 11, 2010.
15. Cf. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (New York: Penguin, 1976), 21: “When mulk mountynotty man was everybully and the first leal ribberobber that had ever had her ainway everybilly to his love-saking eyes and everybuddy lived alove with everybiddy else.” Everybuddy lived alove with everybiddy else, preventing everybully from taking over. The digital presence concerned with the occupied movement is formidable. As of November 2011, according to the New York Times (November 24, 2011), there were 1.7 million videos on You Tube, viewed a total of 73 million times, and more than 400 Facebook pages with 2.7 million buddies around the world. When the late Gil Scott-Heron sang “The Revolution Will not be Televised,” he was rapping to another, older generation of militants.
16. Bill Wasik, “Crowd Control,” Wired, January 2012, 112.
17. Gilles Deleuze, Expressionism in Spinoza’s Philosophy (New York: Zone Books, 1990), 274.
18. Ibid., 290–291, emphasis in original.
19. Ibid., 294.
20. A recent World Economic Forum (WEF) report cited the Occupy movement among business leaders’ and policymakers’ “Top Global Risks” for 2012: “If not addressed,” the report warned, they contain “the seeds of dystopia,” “a place where life is full of hardship and devoid of hope.” According to WEF bigwigs, Occupy exhibits a potentially damaging “backlash against globalization” and “the darker side of connectivity,” as do cyberhacker groups like Anonymous, whose “motives for subversion can be as trivial as simple boredom”! (see www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalRisks_Report_2012.pdf).
21. Jacques Derrida, “Specters of Marx,” New Left Review 205 (May/June 1994), 45–46, emphases in original.
22. Henri Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville (Paris: Casterman, 1972), 68.
23. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1973), 705.
24. Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville, 68.
1. Fredric Jameson, Representing Capital: A Reading of Volume One (London: Verso, 2011), 149.
2. Henri Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville (Paris: Casterman, 1972), 7.
3. Ibid., 45.
4. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1969), 68–69.
5. Ibid., 69.
6. Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville, 30–31.
7. Ibid., 59.
8. Cf. André Gorz, Métamorphoses du travail: la critique de la raison économique (Paris: Gallimard, 1988); the text was translated into English as Critique of Economic Reason (London: Verso, 1989). See, also, Gorz’s Farewell to the Working Class (London: Pluto Press, 1982); and The Immaterial (London: Seagull Books, 2010).
9. In Megalopolis, Jean Gottmann, from a non-Marxist standpoint, had already begun hinting at such a correlation. In many ways, he was much more up to speed then (1961) than Lefebvre himself. In Introduction to Modernity, published the same year as Gottmann’s masterpiece, Lefebvre was still only testing the water with his explorations into capitalist modernity and urbanization. In “Notes on a New Town,” he’s preoccupied with French New Town development, which now seems like an archaic historical curiosity relative to the prevalence of megalopolitan development everywhere around the world. Gottmann identified a “quaternary family of economic activities,” something different from simple “tertiary” service activity, because the quaternary sector involves “transactions, analysis, research, or decision-making, and also education and government.” Older “city” divisions of labor were getting phased out, replaced by the rise of jobs requiring more intellectual training and responsibility, and these, said Gottmann, were the driving force of megalopolitan expansion (see Jean Gottmann, Megalopolis, 576–77).
10. Marx, Grundrisse, 700.
11. Ibid., 704–705.
12. Ibid., 705 (emphasis added).
13. Ibid., 705–706.
14. Needless to say, the social threats and political prospects of so-called immaterial labor and cognitive capitalism have prompted lively debate among Marxists and post-Marxists. All more or less agree, however, that cognitive capitalism marks the crisis of capitalism, not the resolution of its dilemmas. For more details, see my Magical Marxism (London: Pluto Press, 2011), especially chapter 5.
15. Apple made $13 billion in profits and $46 billion in sales during the final quarter of 2011 alone. Its iPads are made in Chengdu, China, by the Chinese company Foxconn whose starting pay for menial workers is $2 an hour, and workers live in crammed dormitories for which they are charged $16 a month (see John Lanchester, “Marx at 193,” London Review of Books, April 5, 2012).
16. Slavoj Žižek, “The Revolt of the Salaried Bourgeoisie,” London Review of Books, January 26, 2012, 9.
17. Marx, Grundrisse, 705.
18. Cited in Robert Neuwirth, Stealth of Nations: The Global Rise of the Informal Economy (New York: Pantheon, 2011), 18.
19. Ibid., 19.
20. Ibid., 179.
21. I’ve seen this one for myself, close up, at the Coalcalco rubbish dump in the northernmost reaches of Mexico City, in an urban milieu that’s more Mad Max than anything else. Puny little donkeys are everywhere in Coalcalco, clip-clopping along stoically, pulling rusty carts laden with bags of trash piled up high, sometimes bulging over the sides. They come by the dozen, in rapid succession, and donkey owners dispatch sacks of detritus into a deep crater in the earth. The carts come and go each weekday, off-loading 20 tons of trash a day, thanks to some 350 donkeys and as many horses who act as an ad-hoc refuse collection service, a stand-in for the formal one the municipality doesn’t have. Residents in surrounding neighborhoods leave the family garbage in sacks outside their front doors and before long donkeys pass by to whisk them away. For their services, donkey proprietors receive a tip of several pesos and when the carts are full they deposit their loads at the town dump. A lot of these men were once farmers who worked the land, frequently their own land; yet now there’s no rural land left, nothing green that hasn’t been devoured by inexorable gray, by metropolitan expansion, by speculative metropolitan development.
22. Neuwirth, Stealth of Nations, 28.
23. Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London: Verso, 2006), 19. More recently, Davis, with considerable hubris, has laid into what he takes to be “post-Marxist” camps, into those theorists who live in countries “where the absolute or relative size of the manufacturing workforce has shrunk dramatically” and who “lazily ruminate on whether or not ‘proletarian agency’ is now obsolete, obliging us to think in terms of ‘multitudes,’ horizontal spontaneities, whatever.” “But this is not a debate,” Davis says, “in the great industrializing society that Das Kapital describes even more accurately than Victorian Britain or New Deal America. Two hundred million Chinese factory workers, miners and construction laborers are the most dangerous class on the planet. Their full awakening from the bubble may yet determine whether or not a socialist Earth is still possible” (Mike Davis, “Spring Confronts Winter,” New Left Review 72 [November/December 2011]: 15). Chinese workers and ex-workers will doubtless play their relative part in pushing toward a postcapitalist politics; but to posit them as “the most dangerous class” seems politically rhetorical as well as analytically dubious.
24. John Berger, Lilac and Flag (London: Granta, 1990), 49, 114.
25. Neuwirth, Stealth of Nations, 151–152.
26. Cf. Marx, Capital Volume One, 794–802.
27. Fredric Jameson, Representing Capital, 149. “Marx does not call for the correction of this terrible situation,” Jameson says, “by a policy of full employment; rather, he shows that unemployment is structurally inseparable from the dynamic of accumulation and expansion [149].… To think of all of this in terms of a kind of global unemployment rather than of this or that tragic pathos is, I believe, to be recommitted to the invention of a new kind of transformatory politics on a global scale” (151).
28. Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville, 68.
29. Thomas Friedman, “Made in the World,” New York Times, January 28, 2012.
30. Lefebvre, La pensée marxiste et la ville, 137.
31. Cf. Lefebvre, le droit à la ville (Paris: Anthropos, 1968), 123–124.
32. Isaac Asimov, Gold: The Final Science Fiction Collection (New York: HarperPrism, 1995), 224.
33. Ibid.
34. Cited in ibid., 226.
35. Ibid., 227.
1. Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life—Volume Two (London: Verso, 2002), 351.
2. Ibid., 345.
3. Henri Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 5.
4. Etienne Balibar, “Elements for a Theory of Transition,” in Reading Capital (London: Verso: 1971), 272, 281, 307.
5. Ibid., 307. Emphasis in original.
6. Louis Althusser, The Philosophy of the Encounter: Later Writings (London: Verso, 1978–1987), 197. Emphasis in original.
7. Asimov himself suspected as much, knew as much. In Foundation and Empire, he created the mentalic character “the Mule” who reaches inside the minds of individuals to adjust their emotional life, scuppering Hari Seldon’s psychohistorical grand plan for the galaxy. Through the Mule’s manipulation, people (as individuals and en masse) behave as before; they retain their sense of logic, their former personalities and memories. Yet their ability to desire and resist has been fundamentally altered, thus invalidating Seldon’s assumption that no single individual could have a dramatic effect on big socio-historical trends.
8. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1986), etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/BonCrow.html (retrieved March 8, 2012).
9. John Berger, G. (London: Hogarth Press, 1989), 10.
10. In his recent Rebel Cities: From the Right to the City to the Urban Revolution (London: Verso, 2012), David Harvey throws the metaphor back in the face of the ruling classes to reflect not on nihilistic and feral mobs of rioters and demonstrators but on capitalism’s “feral” tendencies; on the “feral instincts” of its financial and political ruling class, “pontificating unctuously about the loss of moral compass, the decline of civility, and the sad deterioration of family values and discipline among errant youths” (156). They do so, says Harvey, while “feral bankers plunder the public purse … hedge fund operators, and private equity geniuses loot the world of wealth; telephone and credit card companies load mysterious charges on everyone’s bills; corporations and the wealthy don’t pay taxes while they feed at the trough of public finance” (156). Harvey’s book is full of powerful language and telling critique, full of interesting insights for “anticapitalist” struggles; yet it is marred, subtitle notwithstanding, by the conflation of the right to the city with the urban revolution. Such conceptual confusion creates a political confusion that Harvey can’t quite reconcile in his vision of practice, despite the surety of his scathing critique.
11. Jean-Paul Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason—Volume One (London: Verso, 1976), 524.
12. Berger, G., 68–69.
13. Berger, “The Nature of Mass Demonstrations,” reprinted in John Berger: Selected Essays, ed. Geoff Dyer (London: Bloomsbury, 2001), 247–248.
14. In 2008, in a theater in Ramallah, Palestine, under a curfew and with the menacing presence of the Israeli military, John Berger read aloud these passages on crowds from G. Amid charged and frayed emotions, he read to a crowd of Palestinian men, women, and children who identified themselves as kindred with the participants of 1898. “I had the impression,” Berger said, “of having written the chapter for this precise moment in Ramallah, more than thirty-years later” (see Andy Merrifield, John Berger [London: Reaktion Books, 2012], 207).
15. Andy Merrifield, Magical Marxism (London: Pluto, 2011), 91.
16. Peter Waterman, “International Labor Communication by Computer: The Fifth International,” Working Paper Series No. 129, Institute of Social Studies (ISS), The Hague, The Netherlands, July 1992.
17. Marx, Capital Volume One, 443. Emphasis added.
18. Marx’s discussion on “Cooperation” (Capital Volume One, chap. 13) is still worthy of inspection. It continues to say a lot about the relationship between technological advancement and collective human potentiality, and this not only in its capitalistic guise. “When the worker cooperates in a planned way with others,” says Marx (447), “he strips off the fetters of his individuality, and develops the capabilities of his species.” Why see this as exclusively a workplace affair?
19. Marx, Capital Volume One, 449.
20. Larry Niven, “Flash Crowd,” in Niven, The Flight of the Horse (London: Futura Books, 1975), 105. In Niven’s sci-fi, “wireheading” is a form of direct brain reward brought about through electrical stimulation; happiness is thereafter possible and pleasure an imaginable, feeling experience. In Niven’s Known Space tales, a wirehead has had a brain implant fitted, a so-called droud, that stimulates ceaseless and addictive pleasure, usually to a wirehead’s detriment, since everything else in their life gets deprioritized. Wirehead is also the name of an interactive video game from 1995.
21. Ibid., 107.
22. Ibid., 117.
23. Michio Kaku, Parallel Worlds (London: Penguin, 2006), 175.
24. Niven, “Flash Crowd,” 123.
25. Ibid., 158.
26. Ibid., 163.
27. Sartre, Critique of Dialectical Reason, 505.
28. Ibid., 356.
29. Ibid., 367 (emphasis in original).
30. Ibid., 363.
31. Cited in Karl Marx, Civil War in France (New York: International Publishers, 1940), 123 (Marx’s italics).
32. Ibid., 828.
33. Ibid., 559.
34. James Joyce, Finnegans Wake (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976), 143. “What would that fargazer seem to seemself to seem seeming of, dimm it all? Answer: A Collideorscape!”
35. Ibid., 143.
36. Cf. Brian Greene, The Elegant Universe (London: Vintage Books, 2000), 264–265.
37. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986).
38. Henri Lefebvre uses the idea of residues and the “irréducible” in Métaphilosophie (Paris: Editions du minuit, 1965). Totalizing systems, he says, always “expulse” a certain residue; each residue constitutes its dialectical other, precious and essential in its irreducibility, in its implacability, in its refusal to sit down and comply. Philosophy, for example, “expulses” the everyday, festivals, and the ludic; technocracy expulses desire and imagination; bureaucracies expulses “deviancy” and subversion; reason and rationality expulse irrationality and spontaneity.
39. Butler’s article is accessible at the online journal Transversal. See http://eipcp.net/transversal/1011/butler/en/ (accessed July 10, 2012).
40. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition [1958] (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 198 (emphases added).
41. The Invisible Committee, The Coming Insurrection (Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2009).
42. Ibid., 112. In the 1960s Allen Ginsberg had a habit of taking his clothes off at “Be-ins” and political gatherings; he had a great desire to express his own authenticity. Nowadays, though, to be naked signals only vulnerability and/or a certain naiveté and stupidity.
43. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 19.
1. The citation in the epigraph to this chapter comes from Kafka’s unfinished final novel, The Castle, one of the last books Henri Lefebvre (re)read (see Conversations avec Henri Lefebvre [Paris: Messidor, 1991, 23]). Perhaps Lefebvre thought Kafka’s book was particularly pertinent for understanding the conjuncture in which we were told history had ended and to which there was now no alternative (TINA)?
2. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Imaginary (New York: Routledge, 2004, 125).
3. Spinoza, Ethics, Book III, Proposition XII (London: Everyman Edition, 1993, 92).
4. See Picture the Homeless: http://picturethehomeless.org/Documents/Flyers/citywide%20findings_Flyer.pdf.
5. Take Back the Land started out in Miami in 2006 when a handful of activists and homeless people seized control of a vacant publicly owned lot in the Liberty City section of the city, establishing, out of discarded plywood and packing palettes, tin roofs and cardboard boxes, a self-run shantytown called Umoja [Unity] Village, housing fifty-three displaced residents. The village was held for six months before a mysterious fire burnt it to the ground. Nonetheless, these actions attracted sympathetic audiences nationwide, sparking a larger campaign against capital investment through gentrification, predatory loans, and enticing financial packages, on the one hand, and capital divestment through housing foreclosures, abandonment, and repossession, on the other. Take Back the Land received added lift from Michael Moore’s film, Capitalism: A Love Story, which featured activist Max Rameau and highlighted the successes of the Miami occupations and eviction defenses.
6. See Take Back the Land, www.takebacktheland.org/index.php?page=about-the-take-back-the-land—movement.
7. Max Rameau, “Occupy to Liberate,” see www.organizingupgrade.com/2011/11/max-rameau-occupy-to-liberate/.
8. Marcel Gauchet, “Les droits de l’homme ne sont pas une politique,” Le débat 3 (July–August 1980): 3–21.
9. A case in point would be the anti-abortionist Christian Right’s “Right to Life” campaign, with its belief that eggs are people, sacralizing the egg and the sperm against the “evils” of contraception.
10. Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the “Phenomenology of Spirit” (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980), 9. The French writer Raymond Queneau supervised the eventual book version of the classes taught at Paris’s École des Hautes Études during the period 1933–1939, compiled from Kojève’s scattered notes and draft papers. The late American conservative scholar Allan Bloom, immortalized in Saul Bellow’s beautiful novel Ravelstein, edited and introduced the text. Bloom called Kojève “the most thoughtful, the most learned, the most profound of those Marxists who, dissatisfied with the thinness of Marx’s account of the human and metaphysical grounds of his teaching, turned to Hegel as the truly philosophical source of his teaching” (viii). Turning to Hegel’s liberalism doubtless made Marx seem a lot more palatable to anti-Marxist conservatives like Bloom. Kojève himself went on to become a French diplomat. He died in May 1968, just as radical students across the world were attempting to transform the master–slave dialectic out on the streets.
11. Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel, 43. All upper cases are in Kojève’s original.
12. G. W. F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 115.
13. Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel, 58.
14. Ibid.
15. Marx, Capital—Volume One (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976), 342.
16. Ibid., 344.
17. Ibid.
18. “How about Gardening or Golfing at the Mall?” New York Times, February 5, 2012.
19. Asimov, Prelude to Foundation (London: Voyager, 1988), 212.
20. Fredric Jameson, “Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,” New Left Review 146 (July–August 1984): 87.
21. Salman Rushdie, “Outside the Whale,” reprinted in Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (London: Penguin, 1991), 99.
22. Franz Kafka, The Castle (New York: Penguin, 1997), 52.
23. Guy Debord, Comments on the Society of the Spectacle (London: Verso, 1991), 9.
24. David Harvey, The Enigma of Capital and the Crisis of Capitalism (London: Profile Books, 2010).
25. “Your Ad Here, on a Fire Truck? Broke Cities Sell Naming Rights,” New York Times, June 24, 2012.
26. Marx, Communist Manifesto (New York: Penguin, 2011), 67.