When telling a story the Latin uses the perfect indefinite to mark the different forward steps of the narrative, and the imperfect to describe situations and circumstances that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used?
“Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.”
«191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows:
CONJ. I «amāvī» I have loved, I loved or did love
CONJ. II «monuī» I have advised, I advised or did advise
CONJ. III «rēxī» I have ruled, I ruled or did rule
«cēpī» I have taken, I took or did take
CONJ. IV «audīvī» I have heard, I heard or did hear
PERFECT STEMS
«amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»
SINGULAR
1. amā´vī mo´nuī rē´xī cē´pī audī´vī
2. amāvis´tī monuis´tī rēxis´tī cēpis´tī audīvis´tī
3. amā´vit mo´nuit rē´xit cē´pit audī´vit
PLURAL
1. amā´vimus monu´imus rē´ximus cē´pimus audī´vimus
2. amāvis´tis monuis´tis rēxis´tis cēpis´tis audīvis´tis
3. amāvē´runt monuē´runt rēxē´runt cēpē´runt audīvē´runt
or or or or or
amāvē´re monuē´re rēxē´re cēpē´re audīvē´re
1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly.
2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī», «cūrāvī», «laudāvī».
3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it.
«192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects:
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dō dăre dedī give dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī destroy habeō habēre habuī have moveō movēre mōvī move pāreō pārēre pāruī obey prohibeō prohibēre prohībuī restrain, keep from videō vidēre vīdī see dīcō dīcere dīxī say discēdō discēdere discessī depart dūcō dūcere dūxī lead faciō facere fēcī make, do mittō mittere mīsī send mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī fortify veniō venīre vēnī come
«193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Continued)
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.
Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt.
Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum,
Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum
Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et
prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et
Andromedam servābis, tibi (to you) eam dabō.”
«194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV
«amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō»
PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-»
PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN «-erā-»
SINGULAR
I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard
1. amā´veram monu´eram rē´xeram cē´peram audī´veram 2. amā´verās monu´erās rē´xerās cē´perās audī´verās 3. amā´verat monu´erat rē´xerat cē´perat audī´verat
PLURAL
1. amāverā´mus monuerā´mus rēxerā´mus cēperā´mus audīverā´mus
2. amāverā´tis monuerā´tis rēxerā´tis cēperā´tis audīverā´tis
3. ama´verant monu´erant rē´xerant cē´perant audī´verant
FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE
TENSE SIGN «-eri-»
SINGULAR
I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have
loved advised ruled taken heard
1. amā´verō monu´erō rē´xerō cē´perō audī´verō
2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris
3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit
PLURAL
1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus
2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis
3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint
1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here.
2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.»
«195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem.
CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE
I. amāv- amāvis´se, to have loved
II. monu- monuis´se, to have advised
III. (a) rēx- rēxis´se, to have ruled
(b) cēp- cēpis´se, to have taken
IV. audīv» audīvis´se, to have heard
sum fu- fuis´se, to have been
1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō».
I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris.
8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet.
II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (sing. and plur.). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (sing. and plur.). 6. I have given, you had moved (sing. and plur.), we had said. 7. You will have made (sing. and plur.), they will have led, to have given.
8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did.
[Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?]
[Footnote 2: Did … obey, perfect tense.]
[Footnote 3: What case?]
[Special Vocabulary]
ADVERBS
«celeriter», quickly (celerity)
«dēnique», finally
«graviter», heavily, severely (gravity)
«subitō», suddenly
VERB
«reportō, -āre, -āvī», bring back, restore; win, gain (report)
«197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation:
{ PRESENT = First of the principal parts
TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m
OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II
INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV
{ PERFECT = Third of the principal parts
{ PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m
{ FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō
«198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows:
PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī»
PRES. STEM «amā-»
{ Pres. amō
INDIC. { Imperf. amābam
{ Fut. amābō
PRES. IMV. amā
PRES. INFIN. amāre
PERF. STEM «amāv-»
{ Perf. amāvī
INDIC. { Pluperf. amāveram
{ Fut. perf. amāverō
PERF. INFIN. amāvisse
1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dēleō», «habeō», «moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «dūcō», «mittō», «capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1]
[Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.]
«199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2]
IRREGULAR VERBS
sum esse fuī be
ab´sum abes´se ā´fuī be away
dō dare dedī give
CONJUGATION II
contineō continēre continuī hold in, keep
doceō docēre docuī teach
egeō egēre eguī need
faveō favēre fāvī favor
iubeō iubēre iussī order
noceō nocēre nocuī injure
persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī persuade
respondeō respondēre respondī reply
sedeō sedēre sēdī sit
studeō studēre studuī be eager
CONJUGATION III
agō agere ēgī drive
crēdō crēdere crēdidī believe
fugiō fugere fūgī flee
iaciō iacere iēcī hurl
interficiō interficere interfēcī kill
rapiō rapere rapuī seize
resis´tō resis´tere re´stitī resist
CONJUGATION IV
repe´riō reperī´re rep´perī find
[Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the
perfect is the only new form to be learned.]
«200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (Concluded)
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story.
Perseus semper proeliō studēbat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dēscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vēnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3]
[Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.]
[Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, it is fought; translate freely, the battle is fought, or the contest rages. The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by it, is called impersonal.]
«201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects.
1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full:
CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART.
I. amō amā´-re amā´v-ī amā´t-us
This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation.
II. mo´neō monē´-re mo´nu-ī mo´nit-us
III. regō re´ge-re rēx-ī rēct-us
ca´piō ca´pe-re cēp-ī capt-us
IV. au´diō audī´-re audī´v-ī audī´t-us
2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle.
«202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb to be and the past participle; as, I have been loved, I had been loved, I shall have been loved.
Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as
Perfect passive, «amā´tus sum», I have been or was loved
Pluperfect passive, «amā´tus eram», I had been loved
Future perfect passive, «amā´tus erō», I shall have been loved
1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings.
«203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case.
«204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb.
EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR
«Vir laudātus est», the man was praised, or has been praised
«Puella laudāta est», the girl was praised, or has been praised
«Cōnsilium laudātum est», the plan was praised, or
has been praised
EXAMPLES IN PLURAL
«Virī laudātī sunt», the men were praised, or have been praised
«Puellae laudātae sunt», the girls were praised, or
have been praised
«Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», the plans were praised, or
have been praised
1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492).
«205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», to have been loved; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», to have been advised.
1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō», and give the English meanings.
«206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) «esse», to be about to love.
a. Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems:
Present, amāre (present stem), to love
Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), to have loved
Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), to be about to love
1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings.
I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat.
II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard.
[Special Vocabulary]
«dexter, dextra, dextrum», right (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», left «frūstrā», adv., in vain (frustrate)
«gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», bear, carry on; wear;
«bellum gerere», to wage war
«occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», seize, take possession of
(occupy)
«postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», demand (ex-postulate)
«recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», refuse
«stō, stāre, stetī, status», stand
«temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», try, tempt, test; attempt
«teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ——», keep, hold (tenacious)
The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of where in
asking a question, has two other uses equally important:
1. «ubi» = when, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as,
«Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», when they heard the monster,
they fled
2. «ubi» = where, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as,
«Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», I see the town where Galba
lives
«ubi» is called a relative conjunction because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. When in the first sentence is equivalent to at the time «at which»; and in the second, where is equivalent to the place «in which».
«208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead.
«sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» be «absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» be away «dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» give
[Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.]
«portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» carry
So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used.
«contineō» «continēre» «continuī» «contentus» hold in, keep «dēleō» «dēlēre» «dēlēvī» «dēlētus» destroy «doceō» «docēre» «docuī» «doctus» teach «egeō» «egēre» «eguī» —— lack «faveō» «favēre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» favor «iubeō» «iubēre» «iussī» «iussus» order «moveō» «movēre» «mōvī» «mōtus» move «noceō» «nocēre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» injure «pāreō» «pārēre» «pāruī» —— obey «persuādeō» «persuādēre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» persuade (from) «prohibeō» «prohibēre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» restrain, keep «respondeō» «respondēre» «respondī» «respōnsus» reply «sedeō» «sedēre» «sēdī» «-sessus» sit «studeō» «studēre» «studuī» —— be eager «videō» «vidēre» «vīdī» «vīsus» see
«agō» «agere» «ēgī» «āctus» drive «crēdō» «crēdere» «crēdidī» «crēditus» believe «dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» say «discēdō» «discēdere» «discessī» «discessus» depart «dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» lead «faciō»[2] «facere» «fēcī» «factus» make «fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» flee «iaciō» «iacere» «iēcī» «iactus» hurl «interficiō» «interficere» «interfēcī» «interfectus» kill «mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» send «rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» seize «resistō» «resistere» «restitī» —— resist
«mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» fortify «reperiō» «reperīre» «rep´perī» «repertus» find «veniō» «venīre» «vēnī» «ventus» come
[Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be
presented later.]
«209.» «Prepositions.»
1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the accusative and the
ablative are used with prepositions, and that prepositions
expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have
had are here summarized. The table following should be learned.
«ā» or «ab», from, by «cum», with «dē», down from, concerning «ē» or «ex», out from, out of «prō», before, in front of; for, in behalf of «sine», without
2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the accusative (§52). Of these we have had the following:
«ad», to; «apud», among; «per», through
There are many others which you will meet as we proceed.
3. The preposition «in» when meaning in or on governs the ablative; when meaning to, into, against (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the accusative.
«210.» «Yes-or-No Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like who, why, when, etc., but expecting the answer yes or no, may take one of three forms:
1. Is he coming? (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to
the answer expected.)
2. Is he not coming? (Expecting the answer yes.)
3. He isn´t coming, is he? (Expecting the answer no.)
These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows:
1. «Venitne?» is he coming? 2. «Nōnne venit?» is he not coming? 3. «Num venit?» he isn´t coming, is he?
a. «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first.
b. We learned in §56.b that yes-or-no questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vērō», «certē», etc. (so, truly, certainly, etc.) may be used for yes, and «nōn», «minimē», etc. for no if the denial is emphatic, as, by no means, not at all.
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290.
I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē.
II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back.
* * * * *
«Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516»
* * * * *
[Special Vocabulary]
«neque» or «nec», conj., neither, nor, and … not;
«neque … neque», neither … nor
«castellum, -ī», n., redoubt, fort (castle)
«cotīdiē», adv., daily
cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, cease, with the infin.
«incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», begin (incipient),
with the infin.
«oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», storm, assail
«petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», aim at, assail, storm,
attack; seek, ask (petition)
«pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», place, put (position);
«castra pōnere», to pitch camp
«possum, posse, potuī, ——», be able, can (potent), with the infin.
«vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», forbid (veto), vith the infin.;
opposite of «iubeō», command
«vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», conquer (in-vincible)
«vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ——», live, be alive (re-vive)
«212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», I am able, I can, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.)
a. «Possum», I can, is a compound of «potis», able, and «sum», I am.
«213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The infinitive (cf. §173) is a verbal noun. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English.
1. In English certain verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, he commanded the men to flee. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.
Similarly in Latin, some verbs of wishing, commanding, forbidding, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs fugere iussit», he commanded the men to flee.
«214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative.
«215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls. This is called the complementary infinitive, as the predicate is not complete without the added infinitive.
Similarly in Latin, verbs of incomplete predication are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», I am able, I can; «properō», «mātūrō», I hasten; «temptō», I attempt; as
«Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt»,
the Romans are able to (or can) conquer the Gauls
«Bellum gerere mātūrant»,
they hasten to wage war
a. A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb.
«Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», bad boys are not able to (or cannot) be good.
Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī».
«216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, To conquer (= conquering) is pleasing; To see (= seeing) is to believe (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as
«Superāre est grātum», to conquer is pleasing
«Vidēre est crēdere», to see is to believe
a. In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject,
which must then be in the accusative case, as
«Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs»,
for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many
b. An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the subject.
First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291.
I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis.
II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town.
[Footnote 1: Supply men. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often used as nouns in this way.]
[Footnote 2: Not children. The Romans used «līberī» either as an adjective, meaning free, or as a noun, meaning the free, thereby signifying their free-born children. The word was never applied to children of slaves.]
[Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.]
Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.[4]
Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.”
[Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», to make a plan. Why is the perfect tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.]
[Footnote 5: Dative with «nocēbant». (Cf. §154.)]
[Footnote 6: «ex», out of, i.e. from the nuumber of; best translated of.]
[Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA]
«219.» Sentences are simple, compound, or complex.
a. A simple sentence is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: The Romans approached the town.
b. A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more
independent statements:
The Romans approached the town | and | the enemy fled.
NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement.
c. A complex sentence is a sentence containing one independent
statement and one or more dependent statements:
When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled.
NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus the enemy fled is independent, and when the Romans approached the town is dependent or subordinate.
d. The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called clauses. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the main clause and the dependent statement the subordinate clause.
«220.» Examine the complex sentence
The Romans killed the men who were taken
Here are two clauses:
a. The main clause, The Romans killed the men
b. The subordinate clause, who were taken
The word who is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun men. It also connects the subordinate clause who were taken with the noun men. Hence the clause is an adjective clause. A pronoun that connects an adjective clause with a substantive is called a relative pronoun, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The relative pronouns in English are who, whose, whom, which, what, that.
«221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows:
SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. Nom. «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae» Gen. «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum» Dat. «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» Acc. «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae» Abl. «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus»
1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings.
NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced co͝oi´yo͝os (two syllables) and co͝oi (one syllable).
«222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1]
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. Nom. who, that which, what, that Gen. of whom, whose of which, of what, whose Dat. to or for whom to or for which, to or for what Acc. whom, that which, what, that Abl. from, etc., whom from, etc., which or what
[Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.]
a. We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of who or by that; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by which, what, or that.
«223.» Note the following sentences:
The Romans killed the men who were taken The Romans killed the woman who was taken «Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt» «Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est»
In the first sentence who («quī») refers to the antecedent men («virōs»), and is masculine plural. In the second, who («quae») refers to woman («fēminam»), and feminine singular. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in gender and number. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fēminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence
«224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause.
«225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are who? which? what? In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective).
«226.» Examine the sentences
a. Who is the man? «Quis est vir?» b. What man is leading them? «Quī vir eōs dūcit?»
In a, who is an interrogative pronoun. In b, what is an interrogative adjective. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the pronoun and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the adjective.
«227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.)
2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows:
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
Nom. «quis», who? «quid», what? which?
Gen. «cuius», whose? «cuius», whose?
Dat. «cui», to or for whom? «cui», to or for
what or which?
Acc. «quem», whom? «quid», what? which?
Abl. «quō», from, etc., whom? «quō», from, etc.,
which or what?
NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid.
I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt.
[Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.]
[Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI]
II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay.
«229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (Concluded)[2]
Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō[1] Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt.
[Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.]
[Footnote 3: to me.]
[Footnote 1: quō = whither, to the place where. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, whither? to what place?]
[Footnote 2: upon.]
[Special Vocabulary]
«barbarus, -a, -um», strange, foreign, barbarous. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., savages, barbarians «dux, ducis», m., leader (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., horseman, cavalryman (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, m., judge «lapis, lapidis», m., stone (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., soldier (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., foot soldier (pedestrian) «pēs, pedis»,[A] m., foot (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., chief (principal) «rēx, rēgis», m., king (regal) «summus, -a, -um», highest, greatest (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., manliness, courage (virtue)
[Footnote A: Observe that «e» is long in the nom. sing, and short in the other cases.]
«230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-».
These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the Ā- and O-Declensions.
«231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or I-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the stem ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a consonant stem; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»stem. In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In «i-»stems the stem is formed by adding «-i-» to the base. The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one.
«232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes:
I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular.
II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular.
«233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows:
«prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis»,
m., chief soldier m., stone
BASES OR
STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-»
SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. Nom. prīnceps mīles lapis -s Gen. prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is Dat. prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī Acc. prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em Abl. prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e
PLURAL
Nom. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs
Gen. prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um
Dat. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus
Acc. prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs
Abl. prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus
«rēx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f.,
m., king m.,judge manliness
BASES OR
STEMS «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-»
SINGULAR TERMINATIONS
M. AND F.
Nom. rēx iūdex virtūs -s
Gen. rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is
Dat. rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī
Acc. rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em
Abl. rēge iūdice virtū´te -e
PLURAL
Nom. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs
Gen. rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um
Dat. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus
Acc. rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs
Abl. rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus
1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular.
2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles» («mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative.