Section 5.1
The Spring and Autumn uses language cautiously. It is careful of how it designates human relationships and how it ranks the events [that it records].
For this reason, [when referencing] the Lesser Yi people, it says “to attack” but does not permit saying “to do battle.” [When referencing] the Greater Yi people, it says “to do battle” but does not permit saying “to capture.” [When referencing] the Central States, it says “to capture” but does not permit saying “to detain.”
1 Each case has its respective terminology. [When referencing] the Lesser Yi, [the
Spring and Autumn] avoids [terminology relevant to] the Greater Yi people and does not permit the term “to do battle.” [When referencing] the Greater Yi people, the
Spring and Autumn avoids [terminology relevant to] the Central States and does not permit the term “to detain.”
2 [When referencing] the Central States, [the
Spring and Autumn] avoids [terminology relevant to] the Son of Heaven and does not permit the term “to detain.” In designating [categories of] human relationships, [the
Spring and Autumn] prohibits conferring [inappropriate designations] and rejects terminology that equates [rulers and] ministers. For this reason, when the great and the small do not exceed their rank and the eminent and humble follow [the moral obligations binding] their [respective] human relationships, this is the perfection of righteousness.
3 [5/12/13–16]
Section 5.2
What was the grand rain-seeking sacrifice? [It was] a drought sacrifice.
4Someone raising an objection stated: When there was a great drought, the rain-seeking sacrifice was performed to implore Heaven to send down rain. When there was a great flood, the drums were beaten to intimidate the [spirit of] the altar of the earth. The operations of Heaven and Earth arise from the yin and yang energies. Why is it that sometimes [the spirits were] supplicated while other times they were [intentionally] intimidated?
The answer is: When there is a serious drought, yang obliterates yin. When yang obliterates yin, [this] corresponds to the lofty restraining the lowly. This certainly is righteous. Thus even if the drought is quite severe, you pray and implore Heaven to send down rain and nothing more. Who would dare to do more?
5 A great flood is due to yin’s obliterating yang. When yin obliterates yang, the lowly prevails over the lofty. Solar eclipses also are like this. Both are instances of the inferior defying the superior. Using the ignoble to injure the noble is to contravene proper regulations. Therefore the drums are beaten and [the spirit of the altar of the earth] is assaulted. It is coerced [by being bound with] with a vermilion silken cord because it lacked righteousness.
6 This also is [an example of the idea expressed in the]
Spring and Autumn that one does not fear a powerful opponent.
7 Therefore,
to distinguish clearly the proper positions of Heaven and Earth,
to rectify the proper sequences of yin and yang,
and in an upright manner instantiate this Way without fearing whatever difficulties may come your way; this is the perfection of righteousness. For this reason,
to threaten and assault the altar of the earth does not necessarily mean that one has failed to respect the spirits;
to drive out the Heavenly King does not necessarily mean that one has failed to respect a superior;
8to resist the commands of one’s father does not necessarily mean that one has failed to serve one’s father;
to cut off relations with one’s mother does not necessarily mean that one has failed to be filial and generous.
9They are righteous as well. [5/12/18–25]
Someone raising an objection said: It is a standard of the
Spring and Autumn that “a great officer has no [authority] to initiate an undertaking.”
10 [But] it states [elsewhere]: “If on a journey abroad, it is possible to benefit one’s state, then it is permissible [for a great officer] to act without authorization.”
11 It also states [elsewhere]: “It was on account of his lord’s order that he left [the state of Jin to attack Qi], but whether to advance or retreat lies within the jurisdiction of a great officer.”
12 And it further states: “When a great officer hears of a parent’s death while traveling abroad for one’s lord, he proceeds slowly and does not return [hastily].”
13 Now the
Spring and Autumn states: “[A great officer] has no [authority] to initiate an undertaking,” but it also states: “It is permissible for [a great officer] to act without authorization.” It states: “Whether to advance or retreat lies within the jurisdiction of the great officer,” but elsewhere it states: “[A great officer] proceeds slowly and does not return [hastily].” It appears that these statements contradict each other. What is their meaning?
The answer is: Each one of these four principles applies to a particular circumstance. If you grasp the particular circumstance pertinent to each principle, then they all will be correct. If you lose sight of the particular circumstances of each event, then they all will be incorrect. The
Spring and Autumn certainly possesses constant principles of righteousness. But there also are [righteous principles] adapted to changing circumstances. To “have no authority to initiate an undertaking” refers to ordinary times of peace and security. “It is permissible to act without authorization” refers to times of relieving danger and eradicating harm. “Whether to advance or retreat lies within the jurisdiction of a great officer” refers to [times when a great officer] leads an army and employs officers. “A great officer proceeds slowly and does not return [hastily]” refers to not harming the honorable on account of one’s relatives and not opposing the public good because of private interests.
14 This is to say, when [a great officer] is about to achieve his personal aims, he is mindful of these precepts. Therefore, when [the great officer] Gongzi Jie received orders to accompany the wife of a man from Chen to Zheng and he initiated an undertaking while on the road by following Duke Huan of Qi and establishing an alliance, the
Spring and Autumn did not judge him to be wrong. It held that he took these actions to rescue Duke Zhuang from danger. Gongzi Sui received orders to travel to the capital as a messenger. While on route, he initiated an undertaking at Jin. The
Spring and Autumn judged his actions to be wrong. It held that at that time Duke Xi was not in danger. Therefore, when there is danger and [a great officer] does not act without authorization to rescue [his lord], the
Spring and Autumn states that he is disloyal. When there is no danger and [a great officer] initiates an undertaking without authorization, this is a case of slighting one’s lord. Therefore, although these two officers each initiated an undertaking, the
Spring and Autumn judged one to be right and the other to be wrong. Their righteousness corresponded accordingly. [5/12/27–5/13/8]
Section 5.4
With the talents of a worthy prime minister and with the resources of a large state, Duke Huan of Qi ruled for five years, but he was unable to win the allegiance of a single Lord of the Land. At the meeting at Ke, he concluded a covenant with Duke Zhuang of Lu and exhibited his deep trustworthiness.
15 Within a year, all the rulers of the neighboring states came to pledge their allegiance to Qi. These were the interstate meetings at Zhuan and You.
16 From that time forward for the next twenty years, through this lengthy period of time, Duke Huan still was not able to unify all the Lords of the Land. But when it came to the matter of rescuing the states of Xing and Wey,
17 he exhibited the righteous principle of preserving those who are on the verge of extinction and continuing the bloodline of those who are about to perish. The following year, all the rulers of distant states came to pledge their allegiance to Qi. These were the meetings at Guanzi and Yanggu.
18 Therefore it is said:
“In drawing close those who are near, do not rely on words;
in attracting those who are distant, do not rely on envoys.”
19Duke Huan of Qi is the proof! From this time forward, however, Duke Huan of Qi grew arrogant regarding his accomplishments. He became haughty and self-satisfied and failed to cultivate his virtue. Consequently, when the state of Chu destroyed the state of Xuan, he did not feel alarmed. When the state of Jiang and the Huang led a punitive expedition against the state of Chen, he did not move to rescue them. He harmed the people of other states. He detained their great officers. He did not relieve the suffering in the state of Chen but instead upbraided Chen for failing to provide a route [when he needed to cross that state].
20 He did not allow the state of Zheng to find peace and security again. Instead he employed troops to tyrannize that state. He had not yet completed his meritorious undertakings, but his heart already was content. Therefore [Confucius] said: “Guan Zhong was indeed a vessel of small capacity.”
21 He was referring to these events. From this time forward, the state of Qi gradually declined and numerous states rose up in rebellion against it. [5/13/10–16]
When settling cases, the Spring and Autumn consistently deduces the motives [informing the accused] based on the facts. When the intent is evil, it does not wait for the evil intent to come to fruition in an evil deed before passing judgment. The initiator of an evil deed receives the heaviest penalty. [Those whose intentions] are originally upright are judged with a light penalty.
For this reason, the crime of Feng Choufu warranted decapitation,
22 but it was not proper to capture Yuan Taotu.
23 Ji Zi of Lu banished Qingfu, while Ji Zi of Wu pardoned Helü.
24 In these four cases, the crimes were identical, but the judgments differed because the basis [of their intentions] differed.
25 When the leader of an army was deceived, in one case [the accused] died and in the other case [the accused] did not die. When the ruler was assassinated, in one case [the accused] was punished, and in another case [the accused] was not punished. When settling cases, one must be cautious! If the decision in a legal case is correct, then correct principles will be further clarified, and moral education will be enhanced. If the decision in a legal case is incorrect, then correct principles will be obscured, and the populace will be misled. [The legal process] will oppose [the influences] of moral education. Education is the root of government. Litigation is its branches. The realms over which each has jurisdiction differ, although they are employed to the same end. They must comply with one another. Therefore the Noble Man [Confucius] attached much importance to them. [5/13/18–23]
Section 5.6
Someone raising an objection to the matter involving the state of Jin stated: It is a standard of the
Spring and Autumn that a lord who has not yet passed the first year of mourning for his father is referred to as “a son.”
26 This practice accords with the usual sentiments of the heart. Why, then, when Li Ke assassinated Xi Qi, did the
Spring and Autumn avoid this usual terminology and instead refer to him as “the lord’s son”?
27The answer is: I have heard that the
Odes lacks a single comprehensive explanation; the
Changes lacks a single comprehensive prognostication; and the
Spring and Autumn lacks a single comprehensive term.
28 The terminology employed by the
Spring and Autumn follows changing circumstances and righteous principles and thereby uniformly reveres Heaven’s Way.
29 When a humane person records the calamities that befall a blood relation, it certainly is appropriate to use a different method to describe these events. The ruler of Jin had the same surname as [the one who prepared] the
Spring and Autumn.
30 Now the plot of Lady Li brought about the assassination of three rulers. These were events that caused everyone in the world to grieve. If you consider the matter based on her actions, her actions will blind you to what she desired, which was to establish her sons [as rulers], and you will not discover the calamity [she initiated]. The
Spring and Autumn, abhorring the possibility of being blinded by her actions, abandoned its usual terminology and referred [to the ruler of Jin] as “the lord’s son” and nothing more. It used this terminology as if to say to Xi Qi: “How regrettable! The son of a lord of a great state should find it sufficient to be wealthy and honored! Why must you usurp the throne of your elder brother and bring the state to such ruin?” The
Spring and Autumn records terms that expressed [Confucius’s] grief. Thus in his grief was something that caused him even greater grief. It was the assassination of those who were not guilty. Shen Sheng, Xi Qi, and Zhuo Zi were such persons. In an evil deed was an even greater evil. To bring about one’s own assassination after having set oneself up as ruler does not compare with a subject’s assassinating one’s ruler. The son of Duke [Huan] of Qi, Shang Ren, was such a person.
31 Thus the Jin calamity was painful, and the Qi calamity was weighty. The
Spring and Autumn expresses sorrow toward what is painful and anger toward what is weighty. Therefore it [did not refer to Xi Qi of Jin as a “son”] in order to avoid terminology designating one who inherits the position of ruler. It [referred to the son of Duke Zhao of Qi as “Lord She”] to bestow on him the designation of one who already has assumed the throne. It reveals these matters in the details of its terminology. [5/13/25–5/14/5]
Section 5.7
People of antiquity had a proverb that said: “If you do not know what is to come, observe what has gone before.”
32Now as a discipline to be studied, the
Spring and Autumn informs us of what has gone before to illuminate what is to come. However, its terminology embodies the subtle principles of Heaven and consequently is difficult to comprehend.
33 Therefore, if you do not investigate its terminology, the
Spring and Autumn will remain silent as if it does not contain a thing. If, however, you investigate its terminology, there will be nothing that it does not contain. Therefore, when studying the
Spring and Autumn, if you grasp one clue and enumerate and link it to others; and if you observe one omission and expand and connect it to others, then you will gain complete knowledge of the world.
Duke Xi of Lu assumed the position of rulership during a time of rebellion. He knew to trust and employ Ji Zi. When Ji Zi was alive, there was not a single rebellious minister in the state of Lu, and beyond the borders there were no Lords of the Land who came to invade the state of Lu. For twenty years, the state was peaceful and calm. But after Ji Zi died, the state of Lu could not resist invading its neighboring states and was compelled to request reinforcements from the state of Chu.
Now it is not the case that Duke Xi suddenly became an unworthy ruler, but his state declined and became ever more endangered. Why? It was because there was no Ji Zi [to assist him any longer]. Since this was the case in the state of Lu, we know that other states also were like this. Since other states were like this, we know that the entire world was like this. This is what is meant by the expression connecting and threading together.
Therefore, although the world is quite large and the expanse between antiquity and the present is quite long, you can rely on this method to reason things through. Thus when worthy men are appointed to office, we deduce that the ruler will be honored and the state will be secure. When unworthy men are appointed to office, we deduce that the ruler will be slighted and the state will be endangered. For ten thousand generations, this will hold true without a doubt. The Changes state: “A tripod with bent legs will overturn the cooked rice [inside].” “A tripod with bent legs” symbolizes appointing unworthy men. “Will overturn cooked rice” symbolizes the overthrow of a state. This is why from antiquity to the present, we have never heard of a ruler appointing unworthy men and his state not being overthrown.
Therefore I examine the Spring and Autumn, observe those who succeed and those who fail, embrace the various causes of success and failure in former ages, and discover that the states that employed worthies were the states that prospered. If the ruler’s wisdom was not sufficient to recognize who was worthy, then there was no chance for his state. As for those rulers who could recognize worthies but who did not employ them, in the worst cases their states were destroyed, and in the best cases their states were endangered.
Why were they like this? Do you think that Duke Zhuang did not know that Ji Zi was worthy? If he did not know that Ji Zi was worthy, then why did Duke Zhuang summon Ji Zi to pass on the state to him when the duke was sick and about to die? Do you think that Duke Shang did not know that Kongfu was worthy? Then how did Duke Shang know that if Kongfu died, he also would die and consequently hasten to rescue him from death? The wisdom of these two rulers was sufficient to recognize a worthy, but they hesitated and could not commit themselves, and so they were unable to employ them. Therefore, Duke Zhuang of Lu became endangered, and Duke Shang of Song was murdered. If Duke Zhuang had employed Ji Zi earlier, and if Duke Shang of Song had appointed Kongfu sooner, they still would have been able to bring prosperity to the neighboring states, not to mention avoiding assassination. But in the end they were killed. This causes me great remorse and regret. [5/14/7–21]