NOTES

The following short forms have been used:

Ambassador Dodd’s Diary –William E. Dodd and Martha Dodd, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary (London: Gollancz, 1939)

Berg Diary – S. L. Schneiderman ed., The Diary of Mary Berg (Oxford: Oneworld, 2006)

Berr Journal – Hélène Berr, Journal, trans. David Bellos (London: MacLehose Press, 2008)

The Black Book – Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman eds, The Black Book, trans. John Glad and James S. Levine (New York: Holocaust Library, 1981)

Czerniakow Diary – Raul Hilberg et al. eds, The Warsaw Diary of Adam Czerniakow (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1979)

Documents on the Holocaust – Y. Arad, Y. Gutman, A. Margaliot eds, Documents on the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1981)

Dorian Diary – Emil Dorian, The Quality of Witness. A Romanian Diary 1837–1944, ed. Marguerite Doria, trans. Mara Soceanu Vamos (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1992)

Einsatzgruppen Reports – Yitzhak Arad, Shmuel Krakowski, Shmuel Spector eds, The Einsatzgruppen Reports (New York: Holocaust Library, 1982)

Fremde Blicke – Frank Bajohr and Christop Strupp eds, Fremde Blicke auf das ‘Dritte Reich’. Berichte ausländischer Diplomaten über Herrschaft und Gesellschaft in Deutschland 1933–1945 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2011)

Fromm Diary – Bella Fromm, Blood and Banquets. A Berlin Social Diary (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1942)

Germans No More – Margarete Limburg and Hubert Ruebsaat ed., Germans No More. Accounts of Everyday Jewish Life, 1933-1938, trans. Alan Nothangle (New York: Berghahn, 2006)

HGS – Holocaust and Genocide Studies

Jewish Responses, vol. I – Jürgen Matthäus and Mark Roseman eds, Jewish Responses to Persecution, vol. I, 1933–1938 (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2010)

Jewish Responses, vol. II – Alexandra Garbarini et al. eds, Jewish Responses to Persecution, vol. II, 1938–1940 (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2011)

Kaplan Diary – Abraham Katsh ed., Scroll of Agony. The Warsaw Diary of Chaim A. Kaplan (New York: Macmillan, 1965)

Klemperer Diaries – Victor Klemperer, I Shall Bear Witness. The Diaries of Victor Klemperer, 1933–41, trans. and ed. Martin Chalmers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998)

Lambert Diary – Raymond-Raoul Lambert, Diary of a Witness 1940–1943, trans. Isabel Best, ed. Richard I. Cohen (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007)

Letters of Karl Fuchs – Horst Fuchs Richardson ed., Your Loyal and Loving Son. The Letters of Tank Gunner Karl Fuchs, 1937–1941 (Washington DC: Brassey’s, 2003)

Lodz Ghetto Chronicle – Lucjan Dobroszycki ed., The Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto 1941–1944, trans. Richard Lourie, Joachim Neugroschel et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984)

Lewin Diary – Abraham Lewin, A Cup of Tears. A Diary of the Warsaw Ghetto, ed. Antony Polonsky, trans. Christopher Hutton (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988)

McDonald Diaries, I – Richard Breitman et al. eds, Advocate for the Doomed. The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald, vol. 1, 1932–1935 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007)

McDonald Diaries, II – Richard Breitman et al. eds, Refugees and Rescue. The Diaries and Papers of James G McDonald, vol. 2, 1935–45 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009)

The Night of Broken Glass – Uta Gerhardt and Thomas Karlauf eds, The Night of Broken Glass. Eyewitness Accounts of Kristallnacht, trans. Robert Simmons and Nick Somers (London: Polity, 2012)

Phipps Diary – Gaynor Johnson ed., Our Man In Berlin. The Phipps Diary 1933–1937 (London: Palgrave, 2008)

Ringelblum Notes – Jacob Sloan ed. and trans., Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto. The Journal of Emmanuel Ringelblum (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958)

Ruth Maier’s Diary – Jan Erik Vold ed., Ruth Maier’s Diary. A Young Girl’s Life under Nazism, trans. Jamie Bullock (London: Harvill Secker, 2009)

Sakowicz Diary – Kazimierz Sakowicz, Ponary Diary 1941–1943, ed. Yitzhak Arad (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005)

Secret Nazi Reports – Otto Dov Kulka and Eberhard Jäckel eds, The Jews in the Secret Nazi Reports on Popular Opinion in Germany, 1933–1945, trans. William Templer (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011)

Seidman Diaries – Hillel Seidman, The Warsaw Ghetto Diaries, trans. Yosef Israel (Jerusalem: Targum, 1997)

Shirer Diary – William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary. The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002 [orig. 1941])

Sierakowiak Diary – Alan Edelson ed., The Diary of Dawid Sierakowiak, trans. Kamil Turowski (London: Bloomsbury, 1996)

Tory Diary – Avraham Tory [Golub], Surviving the Holocaust. The Kovno Ghetto Diary, trans. Jerzy Michalowicz, ed. Martin Gilbert with Dina Porat (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1990)

The Unknown Black Book – Joshua Rubinstein and Ilya Altman eds, The Unknown Black Book. The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories, trans. Christopher Morris and Joshua Rubinstein (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008)

Vilna Ghetto Chronicles – Herman Kruk, The Last Days of the Jerusalem of Lithuania: Chronicles from the Vilna Ghetto and the Camps 1939–1944, trans. Barbara

Harshav, ed. Benjamin Harshav (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002)

Von Hassell Diaries – Hugh Gibson ed., The von Hassell Diaries 1938–1944 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1948)

Weiss Diary – Helga Weiss, Helga’s Diary. A Young Girl’s Account of Life in a Concentration Camp, trans. Neil Bermel (London: Viking, 2013)

Introduction

1 Daniel Levy and Natan Sznaider, The Holocaust and Memory in a Global Age, trans. Assenka Oksiloff (Philadelphia: Temple University, 2006); Klas-Göran Karlsson and Ulf Zander eds, The Holocaust – Post-War Battlefields. Genocide as Historical Culture (Malmo: Sekel Bokförlag, 2006); Rebecca Clifford, Commemorating the Holocaust. The Dilemmas of Remembrance in France and Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Caroline Sharples and Olaf Jensen eds, Britain and the Holocaust. Remembering and Representing War and Genocide (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Andy Pearce, Holocaust Consciousness in Contemporary Britain (London: Routledge, 2014); Larissa Allwork, Holocaust Remembrance Between the National and the Transnational. The Stockholm International Forum and the First Decade of the International Task Force (London: Bloomsbury, 2015).

2 For important, but all too rare, evidence-based assessments of what teachers know and what school students learn in two countries that pioneered ‘Holocaust education’ see Holocaust Education and Development Programme, Teaching About the Holocaust in English Secondary Schools (London: Institute of Education, 2009); Anders Lange, A survey of teachers’ experiences and perceptions in relation to teaching about the Holocaust (Stockholm: The Living History Forum, 2008). More recent, as yet unpublished, research by the Holocaust Education and Development Programme (now the Centre for Holocaust Education) reveals that knowledge levels amongst school students exposed to teaching on the subject remains patchy. On the perils of fiction for young adults, see David Cesarani, ‘Striped Pyjamas’, Literary Review, May 2011, accessible at https://literaryreview.co.uk/striped-pyjamas. Jackie Feldman, Above the death pits, beneath the flag. Youth voyages to Poland and the performance of Israeli national identity (New York: Berghahn, 2008); Karen Hadley, ‘Lessons from Auschwitz’, History Today, September 2010, 4–5, on the work of the UK-based Holocaust Educational Trust.

3 Timothy Snyder, ‘The Holocaust: the ignored reality’, New York Review of Books, 16 July 2009, accessible at http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2009/jul/16/holocaust-the-ignored-reality/ wrote compellingly about this disparity, although his extended analysis and explanation for why so many Jews died in the area he dubbed the ‘Bloodlands’ was more contentious; see his Bloodlands. Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (London: Bodley Head, 2010).

4 For an interpretation of testimony offering little in the way of redemption, see Lawrence Langer, Holocaust Testimonies. The ruins of memory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991). It is significant that he drew on the Yale Fortunoff Video Archive for Holocaust Testimonies that recorded survivors’ testimony on video in the late 1970s and 1980s. Thanks to the timing it was able to capture the fate of witnesses such as ‘Magda F., whose husband, parents, brothers, three sisters, and all their children were engulfed in the tide of Nazi mass murder’.

5 For research on some of these fraught issues, see Jonathan Petropoulos and John K. Roth eds, Gray Zones. Ambiguity and Compromise in the Holocaust and its Aftermath (New York: Berghahn, 2005) and Sonia M. Hedgepeth and Rochelle G. Saidel eds, Sexual Violence Against Jewish Women During the Holocaust (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2010).

6 See, for example, Thomas Kühne and Tom Lawson eds, The Holocaust and Local History (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2011); Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution. A Genocide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 1–10.

7 Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich. A History (London: Macmillan, 2000); Peter Longerich, Holocaust. The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Ian Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936. Hubris (London: Allen Lane, 1998) and Hitler 1936–1945. Nemesis (London: Allen Lane, 2000); Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (London: Allen Lane, 2003); The Third Reich in Power 1933–1939 (London: Allen Lane, 2005); The Third Reich at War 1939–1945 (London: Allen Lane, 2008); Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, The Years of Persecution 1933–1939 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997) and Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, The Years of Extermination 1939–1945 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2007); Christopher Browning with Jürgen Matthäus, The Origins of the Final Solution (London: Heinemann, 2004).

8 For books based on two award-winning BBC documentary series, see Lawrence Rees, The Nazis. A Warning from History (London: BBC Books, 1997); Lawrence Rees, Auschwitz. The Nazis and the ‘Final Solution’ (London: BBC Books, 2005). Wolfgang Benz, The Holocaust, trans. Jane Sydenham-Kwiet (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995); David Engel, The Holocaust. The Third Reich and the Jews (London: Longman, 1999); Jeremy Black, The Holocaust (London: The Social Affairs Unit, 2008); Doris Bergen, War & Genocide. A Concise History of the Holocaust, 2nd edition (Lanham MD: Rowan and Littlefield, 2009); Bloxham, The Final Solution. The exceptional one-volume history is Debórah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Holocaust: A History (London: John Murray, 2002).

9 For analysis and assessments, see Christian Wiese and Paul Betts eds, Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination. Saul Friedländer and the Future of Holocaust Studies (London: Continuum, 2010).

10  For a discussion of these issues, see ‘What was the Holocaust’ and ‘Comparisons with other genocides’ in Yehuda Bauer, Rethinking the Holocaust (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 1–13, 39–67 and Donald Niewyk and Francis Nicosia, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 45–52; Omer Bartov, ‘Antisemitism, the Holocaust, and Reinterpretations of National Socialism’ in his Murder in Our Midst. The Holocaust, Industrial Killing and Representation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 53–70. The linguistic determinism is not quite the same for languages other than English. However it is common for Holocaust and Shoah to be incorporated into German, French and Italian, too.

11  David Cesarani, The Holocaust. A Teacher’s Guide (London: Holocaust Educational Trust, 1998); the HMDT statement is accessible at http://hmd.org.uk/genocides/holocaust; Michael André Bernstein, Foregone Conclusions: Against Apocalyptic History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

12  Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler’s World View. A Blueprint for Power (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 52–61; Philippe Burrin, Hitler and the Jews (London: Edward Arnold, 1994), 17–39; Jeffrey Herf, The Jewish Enemy. Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the Holocaust (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 3–13.

13  David Cesarani ed., The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation (London: Routledge, 1994), 4–14; Ian Kershaw, The Nazi Dictatorship. Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (London: Arnold, 2000 edn), 69–133; Longerich, Holocaust, 1–8, 40–61, 70–2, 423–7. The classic statement of haphazardly developing anti-Jewish policy, first published in 1970, remains Karl A. Schleunes, The Twisted Road to Auschwitz. Nazi Policy Towards German Jews 1933–1939 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990 edn).

14  Karl-Heinz Frieser, The Blitzkrieg Legend. The 1940 Campaign in the West (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2012); Robert M. Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht. The German Campaigns of 1942 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2007), 3–34; Geoffrey P. Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2000), 323–4.

15  Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust. The Jewish Tragedy (London: Collins, 1986), 154; Michael Marrus, ‘The Shoah and the Second World War: Some Comments on Recent Historiography’, in Asher Cohen, Yehoyakim Cochavi and Yoav Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War (New York: Peter Lang, 1992), 1–24. Gerhard Weinberg, A World at Arms. A Global History of World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) was the first military history of the conflict to integrate the fate of the Jews. See also his essay ‘The “Final Solution” and the war in 1943’ in his Germany, Hitler & World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 217–44. In exemplary fashion, Stephen G. Fritz, Ostkrieg. Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East (Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2011), skilfully weaves the fate of the Jews into all aspects of the Russo-German war.

16  See Parts 5–6.

17  Thomas Weber, Hitler’s First War. Adolf Hitler, the Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), passim but particularly 229–30, 338; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 65–6.

18  See Herf, The Jewish Enemy.

19  Robert M. Citino, The German Way of War: From the Thirty Years War to the Third Reich (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2008); Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction. Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).

20  David Stahel, Operation Barbarossa and Germany’s Defeat in the East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 33–138; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 87–141.

21  Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 513–51; Lizzie Collingham, The Taste of War. World War Two and the Battle for Food (London: Allen Lane, 2011), 30–7, 157–64.

22  Ian Kershaw, Fateful Choices. Ten Decisions that Changed the World 1940–1941 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 382–470.

23  Ian Kershaw, ‘“Working Towards the Führer.” Reflections on the Nature of the Hitler Dictatorship’, Contemporary European History, 2:2 (1993), 103–18.

24  Citino, The German Way of War, 16–17; Michael Wildt, An Uncompromising Generation. The Nazi Leadership of the Reich Main Security Office, trans. Tom Lampert (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 21–36, 72–80.

25  Götz Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries. Plunder, Racial War and the Nazi Welfare State, trans. Jefferson Chase (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).

26  Jan Tomasz Gross with Irena Grudzinska Gross, Golden Harvest. Events at the Periphery of the Holocaust (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

27  Hedgepeth and Saidel eds, Sexual Violence Against Jewish Women, 1–5; Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939–1945 (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), 266–77; Dagmar Herzog ed., Lessons and Legacies, vol. VII, The Holocaust in International Perspective, Part III ‘Gender and Sexual Violence’ (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 159–215; Mary Louise Roberts, What Soldiers Do. Sex and the American GI in World War II France (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2013), 195–236; Raphaelle Branche and Fabrice Virgili eds, Rape in Wartime (London: Palgrave, 2012).

28  For the fate of ‘other victims’, see Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance. ‘Euthanasia’ in Germany 1900–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Guenter Lewy, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Robert Gellately and Nathan Stolzfus eds, Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Donna F. Ryan and John Schuman eds, Deaf People in Hitler’s Europe (Washington DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2002); Clarence Lusane, Hitler’s Black Victims. The Historical Experience of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi Era (London: Routledge, 2003).

29  Avinoam J. Patt and Michael Berkowitz eds, ‘We Are Here’. New Approaches to Jewish Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2010); Emunah Nachmany Gafny, Dividing Hearts. The Removal of Jewish Children from Gentile Families in Poland in the Immediate Post-Holocaust Years (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009); Nahum Bogner, At the Mercy of Strangers. The Rescue of Jewish Children with Assumed Identities in Poland (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009), 183–295; Regula Ludi, Reparations for Nazi Victims in Postwar Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Patricia Heberer and Jürgen Matthäus eds, Atrocities on Trial. Historical Perspectives on the Politics of Prosecuting War Crimes (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008).

Prologue

1 This account relies on the excellent analysis and narrative of Henry Ashby Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power: January 1933 (London: Bloomsbury, 1996).

2 André François-Poncet, The Fateful Years. Memoirs of the French Ambassador in Berlin 1931–38 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1949), 47–8.

3 Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 155–6.

4 François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 48.

5 Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 305–8.

6 Leopold Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall. Germany, 1929–1939, ed. Andreas Wesemann, trans. Michel Mitchell (London: I. B. Tauris, 2010), vi–xii, 97–9.

7 ‘Chancellor Hitler’, 4 February 1933, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 97–9.

8 Sir Horace Rumbold to the Foreign Office, 18 August 1931, 21 August 1932, 27 January 1933, 3 October 1938 (on Jews), cited in Martin Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold. Portrait of a Diplomat 1869–1941 (London: Heinemann, 1973), 319, 360–1, 366, 368.

9 Georges Simenon, ‘Hitler in the Elevator’, in Oliver Lubrich ed., Travels in the Reich 1933–1945. Foreign Authors Report from Germany, trans. K. Northcott, S. Wichmann, D. Krouk (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 34–5.

10  Jürgen Matthäus and Mark Roseman, Jewish Responses to Persecution, vol. I, 1933–1938 (Lanham MD: AltaMira Press, 2011), 1–2.

11  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 8–9.

12  Ibid, 10–11.

13  Joseph Roth to Stefan Zweig, February 1933 in Josef Roth. A Life in Letters, ed. and trans. Michael Hofmann (London: Granta, 2012), 237.

14  Abraham Ascher, A Community under Siege. The Jews of Breslau under Nazism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 65–6; J. A. S. Grenville, The Jews and Germans of Hamburg (London: Routledge, 2012), 52–3, 58–9.

15  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 14–15; Matthäus and Roseman, Introduction, Jewish Responses, vol. I, xiv–xvi, xxx–xxxvi.

16  Marion Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair. Jewish Life in Nazi Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 10–11.

17  Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair, 10–11. Donald Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 2001), 16–20.

18  Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar, 13–16.

19  Donald Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar, 18–21; Steven Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers. The East European Jew in German and German Jewish Consciousness, 1800–1923 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1999 edn), 215–45; Annemarie Sammartino, The Impossible Border. Germany and the East, 1914–1922 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); Michael Brenner, The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 33, 51–65.

20  Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-semitism in Germany and Austria (London: Peter Halban, 1988 edn).

21  Richard S. Levy, The Downfall of the Anti-Semitic Political Parties in Imperial Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975).

22  Shulamit Volkov, Germans, Jews, and Antisemites. Trials in Emancipation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 100–28; Uriel Tal, Christians and Germans in Germany. Religion, Politics and Ideology in the Second Reich, 1870–1914 (London: Cornell University Press, 1975); Donald Niewyck, ‘Solving the “Jewish Problem”: continuity and change in German antisemitism, 1871–1945’, in David Cesarani ed., Holocaust. Critical Concepts in Historical Studies, vol. 1 (London: Routledge, 2004), 50–90.

23  Ismar Schorsch, Jewish Reactions to German Anti-Semitism, 1870–1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972); Judah Reinharz, Fatherland or Promised Land. The Dilemma of the German Jew, 1893–1914 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975); Marjorie Lamberti, Jewish Activism in Imperial Germany. The Struggle for Civic Equality (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978).

24  Peter Pulzer, ‘The First World War’, in Michael Meyer ed., German-Jewish History in Modern Times, vol. 3, Integration in Dispute 1871–1918 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 360–84.

25  Eberhard Kolb, The Weimar Republic, trans. P. S. Falla (London: Routledge, 1988), 3–21.

26  Kolb, The Weimar Republic, 35–8; Sammartino, The Impossible Border, 46–65.

27  Kolb, The Weimar Republic, 23–33.

28  Peter Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 93–136; Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 103–12.

29  Michael Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft and the Dynamics of Racial Exclusion. Violence against the Jews in provincial Germany, 1919–1939, trans. Bernard Heise (New York: Berghahn, 2012), 20–70. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar, 49–53, minimizes the extent and impact of anti-Semitic politics.

30  Richard M. Watt, The Kings Depart. The German Revolution and the Treaty of Versailles 1918–1919 (London: Penguin, 1972), 235–6; Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 156–161; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 53–4; Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers, 243–5.

31  Kolb, The Weimar Republic, 57–61, 70–2.

32  Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar, 84–95; Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers, 220–3.

33  Ben Barkow, Alfred Wiener and the Making of the Holocaust Library (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 1997); for an example of Jewish defence work, see Jacob Borut, ‘Antisemitism in Tourist Facilities in Weimar Germany’, Yad Vashem Studies, 28 (2000), 7–50; Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 330–2.

34  Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (London: Hutchinson, 1973 edn); Neil Gregor, How to Read Hitler (London: Granta, 2005).

35  Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 196–8; Gilbet, Sir Horace Rumbold, 339; Phipps Diary, 31. For varied historical interpretations, see Ron Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler, The Search for the Origins of His Evil (New York: Macmillan, 1998) and John Lukacs, The Hitler of History. Hitler’s Biographers on Trial (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000).

36  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 10–26, 29–60. Brigitte Hamann, ‘Hitler and Vienna’, in Hans Mommsen ed., The Third Reich Between Vision and Reality. New perspectives on German history, 1918–1945 (2001), 23–37 and more fully in Brigitte Harmann, Hitler’s Vienna. A Dictator’s Apprenticeship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

37  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 81–105; Weber, Hitler’s First War, part 1.

38  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 116–25, 137–65.

39  Ibid, 170–9.

40  Ibid, 192–3, 200–19.

41  Ibid, 224–34.

42  Ibid, 262–79; Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis, 173–81, 186–204; Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 207–26.

43  Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 59–64.

44  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 302–4, 309–11; Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis, 161–72. ‘The Weimar Constitution Ten Years On’, 10 August 1929, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 2–5.

45  Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 232–42.

46  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 333–5.

47  14 October, 25 December 1930, Fromm Diary 31, 32–3. For a caveat to Fromm’s contemporary record of events, see Henry Ashby Turner Jr, ‘Two Dubious Third Reich Diaries’, Central European History 33:3 (2000), 415–22.

48  Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis, 208–9.

49  Thomas Friedrich, Hitler’s Berlin. Abused City (London: Yale, 2012), 186–9, 200–1, 236–41; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 64–6.

50  Friedrich, Hitler’s Berlin, 242.

51  29 January 1932, Fromm Diary, 43; Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 340–56.

52  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 360–5.

53  Toby Thacker, Joseph Goebbels. Life and Death (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 13–28, 36–54, 56–74, 78–98; Peter Longerich, Goebbels. A Biography, trans. Alan Bance, Jeremy Noakes and Lesley Sharpe (London: Bodley Head, 2015), 36–94, 168–74.

54  Anna von der Golz, Hindenburg. Power, Myth and the Rise of the Nazis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 153–7; Friedrich, Hitler’s Berlin, 267–72.

55  ‘An Imaginary Speech by Brüning’, 20 September 1930, ‘Let him have a go’, 30 April 1932, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 44–51, 69–73.

56  Friedrich, Hitler’s Berlin, 274–5; Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 272–82.

57  Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 366–8.

58  Ibid, 367–70.

59  Ibid, 370–5, 380–91; Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 11–13.

60  Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 17–29.

61  ‘Twilight’, 30 December 1932, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 89–91

62  Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 41–52, 58–68, 74–7.

63  Ibid, 70–1, 109–33.

64  Ibid, 133–48.

65  Jüdische Rundschau quoted in Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 9 January 1933, in Monty Noam Penkower, The Swastika’s Darkening Shadow. Voices Before the Holocaust (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 119–20.

66  Siegmund Warburg to Mauritz Philipson, 15, 17 September 1930 cited in Niall Ferguson, High Financier. The Lives and Times of Siegmund Warburg (London: Allen Lane, 2010), 77–8; Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 22, 196.

67  Cited in Friedrich, Hitler’s Berlin, 183.

68  Joachim Fest, Not Me. Memoirs of a German Childhood, trans. Martin Chalmers (London: Atlantic Books, 2012), 39; cited in Turner Jr, Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power, 158.

69  Sir Horace Rumbold to Sir John Simon, 27 January, 4 and 10 February 1933, in Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold, 366, 368.

70  1 September 1932, in Richard Breitman et al. eds, Advocate for the Doomed. The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald 1932–1935 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 13–14, 15. On Hanfstaengl see Peter Conradi, Hitler’s Piano Player. The Rise and Fall of Ernst Hanfstaengl, Confidant of Hitler, Ally of FDR (London: Duckworth, 2005).

71  Grenville, The Jews and Germans of Hamburg, 57.

72  Melita Maschmann, Account Rendered, trans. Geoffrey Strachan (London: Abelard-Schuman, 1964), 11.

One – The First Year: 1933

1 Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 37.

2 Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 314–27; François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 49–54.

3 Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 328–37.

4 Nikolaus Wachsmann, ‘The Dynamics of destruction: the development of the concentration camps, 1933–1945’, in Jane Caplan and Nikolaus Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany. The New Histories (London: Routledge, 2010), 18–20.

5 Christopher Isherwood, ‘Berlin Diary (Winter 1932–3)’, Goodbye to Berlin (London: Vintage, 1998 edn), 251. The diary was first published in 1935.

6 Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 339–40.

7 ‘Fait Accompli’, 11 March 1933 in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 100–2.

8 Avraham Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation. The Economic Struggle of German Jews 1933–1945, trans. William Templer (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1989), 13–17; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 77–109; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 11–12.

9 Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 80–1; Report by the Mayor of Gollnow, 14 March 1933, in Otto Dov Kulka and Eberhard Jäckel eds, The Jews in the Secret Nazi Reports on Popular Opinion in Germany, 1933–1945, trans. William Templer (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 4–6.

10  Prussian Political Police, Berlin, reporting communication from Breslau Police Superintendent, 11 March 1933, in Secret Nazi Reports, 3–4.

11  Police HQs Bochum, Dortmund, Oberhausen reports to Highert Police Leader, West, for 27–28 March 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 6–7.

12  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 27–9; Benjamin Carter Hett, Crossing Hitler. The Man Who Put the Nazis on the Witness Stand (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 159–63; Kim Wünschmann, Before Auschwitz. Jewish Prisoners in the Prewar Nazi Concentration Camps (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 19–57. For the assault on Judaism, see Alon Confino, A World Without Jews. The Nazi Imagination. From Persecution to Genocide (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 27–39.

13  Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold, 370–3; Richard Breitman and Alan J. Lichtman, FDR and the Jews (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 55–6.

14  20, 21 March 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 24–5. For similar protests in France, see Vicki Caron, Uneasy Asylum. France and the Jewish Refugee Crisis 1933–1942 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 96–7.

15  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 52–3.

16  Ibid, 54.

17  Ibid, 56–9.

18  David Cesarani, The Jewish Chronicle and Anglo-Jewry, 1841–1991 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 145–6.

19  J. P. Fox, ‘Great Britain and the German Jews, 1933’, Wiener Library Bulletin, 36:26/7 (1972), 40–6; Sharon Gewirtz, ‘Anglo-Jewish responses to Nazi Germany, 1933–1939. The Anti-Nazi Boycott and the Board of Deputies of British Jews’, Journal of Contemporary History 26 (1991), 255–76.

20  Jewish Chronicle, 2 April 1933, 21 and 28 July 1933. David Cesarani, ‘The Transformation of Jewish Communal Authority in Anglo-Jewry, 1914–1940’, in David Cesarani ed., The Making of Modern Anglo-Jewry (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), 126–7.

21  Moffat journal entry for 22 February 1933 cited in McDonald Diaries, I, 25.

22  Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold, 373–5.

23  François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 71.

24  Gulie Ne’eman Arad, America, Its Jews and the Rise of Nazism (Bloomington: Indiana University, 2007), 145.

25  27 March 1933, Fromm Diary, 88. Arad, America, its Jews and the Rise of Nazism, 144–5; Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 19–21; Longerich, Goebbels, 218–19.

26  23 March 1933, Fromm Diary, 86–7. Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 56; Fox, ‘Great Britain and the German Jews’.

27  Messersmith journal entry for 31 March 1933 cited in McDonald Diaries, I, 32; Frank Bajohr and Christoph Strupp eds, Fremde Blicke auf das ‘Dritte Reich’. Berichte ausländischer Diplomaten über Herrschaft und Gesellschaft in Deutschland 1933–1945 (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2011), 362. I would like to thank Dr Rudolf Mühs for bringing this volume to my attention.

28  Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews (London: Penguin, 1975), 83–5; Martin Gilbert, Holocaust, 86, actually inverts the order of events; Hermann Graml, Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich (Oxford: Berghahn, 1988), 91, 93–6, sees the boycott as a device to overcome opposition to anti-Semitism; Leni Yahil, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 60–3, explains it as a tool to extend Nazi influence and discomfort opponents; Wolfgang Benz, The Holocaust, trans. Jane Sydenham-Kwiet (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 15–17, treats the stated reason for the boycott as an ‘excuse’ for a move that would let the population know where policy was trending; Debórah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Holocaust: A History (London: John Murray, 2002), 69–70, regard it as a ‘pre-emptive strike’.

29  Victor Klemperer, I Shall Bear Witness. The Diaries of Victor Klemperer, 1933–41, trans. and ed. Martin Chalmers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998), 27, 30 March 1933, 9.

30  McDonald to FPA, 3 April 1933 and diary 1 April 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 28, 33.

31  29 March 1933, Fromm Diary, 88–9; District Governor Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate, ‘Report for the Second Half of March’, 30 March 1933; Bad Kissingen Municipal Council, ‘Report for the Second Half of March’, 31 March 193; reports to Higher Police Leader in the West, 30 March–1 April, Secret Nazi Reports, 7, 7–8, 8.

32  Messersmith to Secretary of State Hull, ‘With further reference to the manifold aspects of the anti-Jewish movement in Germany’, 31 March 1933, cited in Bat-Ami Zucker, In Search of Refuge. Jews and US Consuls in Nazi Germany 1933–1941 (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2001), 67.

33  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 15; 3 April 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 27; 31 March 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 9–10.

34  3 April 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 9; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 19–20; Abraham Ascher, A Community under Siege, 82. Avraham Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 17–25.

35  Ralph C. Busser, ‘Present Operation and Effect of the Anti-Jewish Movement in Central Germany’, 5 April 1933, Fremde Blicke, 364–5.

36  Edwin Landau in Margarete Limburg and Hubert Ruebsaat ed, Germans No More. Accounts of Everyday Jewish Life, 1933–1938, trans. Alan Nothangle (New York, Berghahn, 2006), 10–11.

37  Henriette Necheles-Magnus in Germans No More, 19–21; Grenville, The Jews and Germans of Hamburg, 82–5.

38  1 April 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 33; Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold, 375.

39  George Messersmith, ‘With Reference to the Boycott Against Jewish Business Establishments and with further reference to the Manifold Appeals of the Anti-Jewish Movement in Germany’, 3 April 1933, Fremde Blicke, 363–4.

40  Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 77–109; Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 431–8.

41  George Messersmith, ‘Uncertainty as to the Developments in the Economic and Financial Situation in Germany’, 9 May 1933; Charles M. Hathaway, Munich, report, 13 May 1933, Fremde Blicke, 372–3.

42  Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 374–89; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 28–31.

43  Evans, Coming of the Third Reich, 342–8.

44  Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933–1939 (London: Penguin, 2005), 20–1, 81–5; Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 73–4; Nikolaus Wachsmann, Hitler’s Prisons. Legal Terror in Nazi Germany (London: Yale University Press, 2004), 113–18; Nikolaus Wachsmann, KL. A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps (London: Little Brown, 2015), 38–60.

45  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 52–5, 77, 96–104. Robert Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).

46  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 120–40, 261–5; Longerich, Goebbels, 212–13, 222–7, 240–2; Alan Steinweis, Art, Ideology and Economics in Nazi Germany. The Reich Chambers of Music, Theater and the Visual Arts (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 32–48; David Welch, The Third Reich. Politics and Propaganda (London: Routledge, 1993), 17–47.

47  Confino, World Without Jews, 39–45; Joseph Roth to Stefan Zweig, 6 April 1933, Josef Roth. A Life in Letters, 251; Jüdische Rundschau, 12 May 1933, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 41–2.

48  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 419–41, 465–75, 484–8.

49  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 507–10, 516–19, 529–35. Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wipperman, The Racial State. Germany 1933–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Lisa Pine, Nazi Family Policy, 1933–1945 (Oxford: Berg, 1997), 8–46; Donna F. Ryan and John S. Schuman eds, Deaf People in Hitler’s Europe (Washington DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2002), 11–97, 121–63; Geoffrey Giles, ‘The Institutionalisation of Homosexual Panic in the Third Reich’, in Robert Gellately and Nathan Stolzfus eds, Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 233–47.

50  Andrew Stuart Bergerson, Ordinary Germans In Extraordinary Times. The Nazi Revolution in Hildesheim (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 131–64.

51  Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis, 211–30; Peter Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 20–4, 35–52, 56–65, 76–91; S. Jonathan Wiesen, Creating the Nazi Marketplace. Commerce and Consumption in the Third Reich (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 39–49, 53–60. Irene Guenther, Nazi Chic? Fashioning Women in the Third Reich (Oxford: Berg, 2004).

52  Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich, 96–108; Thomas Kühne, Belonging and Genocide. Hitler’s Community, 1918–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 42–6; Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 144–5.

53  Maschmann, Account Rendered, 10–12, 17–22, 24–6.

54  ‘Caught up in the nationalist revolution’, 1 July 1933 in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 111. Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich, 5–8, 50–4; Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, 131–9, 201–14; Welch, The Third Reich. Politics and Propaganda, 50–89, and his ‘Manufacturing a Consensus: Nazi Propaganda and the Building of a “National Community” (Volksgemeinschaft)’, Central European History 2:1 (1993), 1–15.

55  Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich, 96–108, 123–4; Koonz, The Nazi Conscience.

56  Longerich, Holocaust, 31–2.

57  Grenville, The Jews and Germans of Hamburg, 111–13.

58  Francis Nicosia and David Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany. Dilemmas and Responses (New York: Berghahn, 2012), 4–5; Longerich, Holocaust, 40–1; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 12–13.

59  Annemarie Schwarzenbach to Klaus Mann, 8 April 1933 in Lubrich ed., Travels in the Reich, 37–9; Secret Nazi Reports, 633; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 201–2.

60  NSDAP District Office report, 15 July 1933; District Governor, Lower Franconia, reports, 8 August and 6, 20 September 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 12, 14, 17.

61  Martha Dodd, My Years in Germany (London: Gollancz, 1939), 28–30.

62  Stapostelle Government District Kassel, August report, 29 August 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 16; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 37.

63  Martin Doerry, My Wounded Heart. The Life of Lilli Jahn, trans. John Brownjohn (London: Bloomsbury, 2004), 1–50 and 51–2, 55–6, 60–2 for letters to Leo and Hanne Barth, 5 February and 2 April 1933.

64  Raymond Geist to State Department, 15 December 1933, Fremde Blicke, 395; Reich Economic Ministry circular, 16 December 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 666.

65  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 33–4.

66  Siegmund Warburg diary, 6 March 1933, in Ferguson, High Financier, 78–80.

67  Warburg diary, 6, 9, 11 March 1933, in Ferguson, High Financier, 79–80.

68  Warburg diary, 21 March 1933, in Ferguson, High Financier, 79–80.

69  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 21–2, 48–52, 56–7.

70  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 5–6; 3 April 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 9; Edwin Landau in Germans No More, 10–11.

71  Y. Arad, Y. Gutman, A. Margaliot eds, Documents on the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1981), 37–9.

72  25 April 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 15.

73  8 April 1933, 6 May 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 43, 47–8, 59; Gilbert, Sir Horace Rumbold, 379–80.

74  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 61; Gewirtz, ‘Anglo-Jewish responses to Nazi Germany’, 259, 265–6; Cesarani, ‘The Transformation of Jewish Communal Authority’, 127–8.

75  16 June, 3 July, 4 July, 13 July 1933, William E. Dodd and Martha Dodd, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary (London: Gollancz, 1939), 18–20, 22–3, 24, 25, 40–1.

76  23 August, 14 September, 17 October 1933, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 50, 61–3. For a critical assessment of the diary, see Richard Breitman, ‘Conclusion’ in McDonald Diaries, I, 793–5.

77  21 November 1933, Phipps Diary, 31.

78  13 May, 18 August 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 68–9, 82–3, 229.

79  Kurt Sabatzky in Germans No More, 45. In his case the Gestapo successfully appealed.

80  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 3.

81  Avraham Barkai, ‘Shifting Organisational Relationships’, in Michael Meyer ed., German-Jewish History in Modern Times, vol. 4, Renewal and Destruction 1918–1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 260–1; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 45–7; Grenville, The Jews and Germans of Hamburg, 111–13.

82  Avraham Barkai, ‘Self-Help in the Dilemma: “To Leave or to Stay?”’, in Meyer ed., Renewal and Destruction, 314–15; Alexander Szanto in Germans No More, 131–42; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 89–110.

83  Paul Mendes-Flohr, ‘Jewish Cultural Life under National Socialism’, in Meyer ed., Renewal and Destruction, 301–3.

84  Francis Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 78–90, 145–50, 211–20, and his ‘German Zionism and Jewish Life in Nazi Berlin’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 96–102.

85  Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, 91–3.

86  Kurt Bauman in Germans No More, 118–27; Mendes-Flohr, ‘Jewish Cultural Life under National Socialism’, in Meyer ed., Renewal and Destruction, 284–92; Steinweis, Art, Ideology and Economics in Nazi Germany, 121–3.

87  Roth to Zweig, 29 November 1933, Josef Roth. A Life in Letters, 287–8; 9 October 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 33.

88  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 79–80, 83–4; 14 November 1933, Klemperer Diaries, I, 39–40.

89  Stapostelle Government District Kassel, ‘Report on the Activity of Jewish Associations’, 9 November 1933; Police HQ Nuremberg-Fürth, ‘Political News’, 4 December 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 19–20, 21.

90  Michael Marrus, The Unwanted. Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 128–30; Herbert Strauss, ‘Jewish Emigration from Germany. Nazi Policies and Jewish Responses (1)’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 25 (1980), 312–59.

91  Louise London, Whitehall and the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 25–33; Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 14–17.

92  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 43–59. Even though France felt obligated towards the population of the Saar which had lived under French rule from 1919 to 1934, it accepted German and German Jewish refugees from the Saar in the wake of the January 1934 plebiscite grudgingly and did not amend the restrictions on their ability to work.

93  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 72–4.

94  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 99–115; 12 December 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 218.

95  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 97–8; 13 December 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 218.

96  Roth to Zweig, 7 November 1935, A Life in Letters, 426–8.

97  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 25–33; V. D. Lipman, ‘Anglo-Jewish Attitudes to the Refugees from Central Europe 1933–1939’, in W. E. Mosse ed., Second Chance. Two centuries of German-speaking Jews in the United Kingdom (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1992), 519–31.

98  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 59–60; Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 50.

99  6, 12 September and 15, 17 November 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 99–100, 152, 161, 172.

100  10, 26 October, 11, 18, 21, 22–3 November, 6, 15 December 1933, McDonald Diaries, I, 108–10, 133–47, 176, 180–2, 187, 205–6, 223–4. On Palestine, see also 9 April, 18 October 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 345–6, 515–17.

101  Moffat journal, 5 January, 3 March 1934, cited in McDonald Diaries, I, 258, 311. For meetings with FDR, see 16 January, 5 May, 17 December 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 261–4, 383–4, 575. On business of the High Commission, 30 January, 13 November, 17, 21 December 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 276–7, 553–4, 575, 585.

Two – Judenpolitik: 1934–1938

1 2 February 1934, Klemperer Diaries, I, 51; Roth to Zweig, 18 February 1934, A Life in Letters, 310; ‘Severing rules in Europe’, 3 February 1934, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 115–18.

2 22 January 1934, Phipps Diary 38–9. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 59–66, 71–98.

3 Dodd, ‘Internal Political Situation’, 20 April 1934, Fremde Blicke, 405–6; Fromm Diary, 142–3; 13 May, 13 June 1934, Klemperer Diaries, I, 62, 67.

4 21 June 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 125–8. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 27–31.

5 Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 31–41.

6 4, 11 July 1934, Phipps Diary 63, 65–6; 1, 8, 13 July 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 129–34; Roth to Zweig, 24 July 1935, A Life in Letters, 411–13.

7 Peter Longerich, Heinrich Himmler. A Life, trans. Jeremy Noakes and Lesley Sharpe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 13–73, 88–100, 110–127, 160–76; Robert Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman. The Life of Reinhard Heydrich (London: Yale University Press, 2011), 78–80.

8 12 September 1934, Phipps Diary 70–1; Ambassador Dodd, ‘Discontent Among Germans with the Nazi Regime’, 14 November 1934, Fremde Blicke, 422; 4, 21 August 1934, Klemperer Diaries, I, 77, 79.

9 Jewish Responses, vol. I, 97–8, 127–8; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 114–27.

10  Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 92–3; Gilbert, Holocaust, 42–3; Graml, Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich, 106–11; Yahil, The Holocaust, 67–8. Compare: Longerich, Holocaust, 41–3; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 95–8.

11  Secret Nazi Reports, 671.

12  Eric Kurlander, Living With Hitler. Liberal Democrats in the Third Reich (London: Yale University Press, 2009), 8–9, 14–15, 60–5, 155; Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 59–63; compare with Albert Fischer, ‘The Ministry of Economics and the Expulsion of the Jews from the German Economy’, in David Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism. German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933–1941 (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2000), 213–25.

13  31 January, 7 February, 20 and 21 April 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 279, 290–3, 366–7.

14  10 February, 5, 7 March, 4, 12 July 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 92, 98–9, 100–1, 130, 136. Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 107.

15  9, 18, 24, 28 May, 1, 13 June 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 111–13, 116–17, 121, 134.

16  31 August 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 167; 30 May 1934, Phipps Diary, 58–60; Raymond Geist, ‘Situation of the Jews in Germany’, 28 July 1934, Fremde Blicke, 416–17.

17  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 107–8; Fraenkel, ‘Jewish Self-Defence under the Constraints of National Socialism: the Final Years of the Centralverein’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 348–51.

18  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 108.

19  Hertz to Hitler, 27 April 1934, Henrik Eberle ed., Letters to Hitler, ed. Victoria Harris, trans. Steven Rendall, (London: Polity 2012), 130; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 110–11.

20  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 95–8, 104–5, 112, 117–20; Fraenkel, ‘Jewish Self-Defence under the Constraints of National Socialism: the Final Years of the Centralverein’ in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 339–59.

21  Barkai, ‘Jewish Life Under Persecution’, and ‘Self-Help in the Dilemma: “To Leave or to Stay?”’, in Meyer ed., Renewal and Destruction, 242–4, 314–16; Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 80–8.

22  25 June 1934, Phipps Diary 60–1; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 122–3; Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 241.

23  Norman Bentwich, They Found Refuge (London: Cresset Press, 1956), 26–7; Moffat journal, 29 May 1934, cited in McDonald Diaries, I, 398. 13, 23 June, 23 July 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 398, 439, 458.

24  Diary entry, 26 January 1934, and McDonald to Rosenberg, 27 July 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 269, 447.

25  26 April 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 376; Smallbones to Phipps, 24 February 1934, 400–1; Raymond Geist, ‘Situation of the Jews in Germany’, 28 July 1934, Fremde Blicke, 416–17; 29 October 1934, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 192; Naomi Shepherd, Wilfred Israel. German Jewry’s Secret Ambassador (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984), 81–91.

26  Gestapa Berlin, report for 1 November 1933–10 January 1934, 10 January 1934; Central Office for the Commander of the Political Police, report for February–March, 14 April 1934; District Government Swabia and Neuberg, August Report, 6 September 1934 and Gendarmerie Bad Neustadt, October Report, 24 October 1934; Stapostelle Berlin Region, September report, 4 October 1934; Chief of Police, Dresden, report for 6–12 December 1934, 13 December 1934; Chief of Police, Berlin, report for November–December 1934, 18 January 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 26–7, 29–30, 60, 61, 67, 73–4, 74–5.

27  Fichte to Hitler, 2 February 1934, Falkstein to Hitler, 5 February 1934, Barth to Hitler, 4 March 1934, in Eberle ed., Letters to Hitler, 115–18, 118–19, 119–20.

28  Gestapa Berlin, II 1 B 2, report, November 1934, Secret Nazi Reports, 67–9.

29  Stapostelle Government District Kassel, October report, 5 November 1934, Secret Nazi Reports, 65–6.

30  Stapostelle Government District Kassel, November report, 5 December 1934; Interior Ministry of Braunschweig report, 14 December 1934; District Office, Alzenau, Lower Franconia, November report, 27 November 1934; Military Police Squad 1/V Frankfurt-am-Main, report for 23 December 1934, 25 December 1934, Secret Nazi Reports, 69, 71, 72–3, 91–2.

31  Stapostelle Cologne Government District, September report, 1 October 1934; Stapostelle Government District Koblenz, October 1934 report; 62, 66–7; 13 June 1934, Klemperer Diaries, I, 64–5; Raymond Geist, ‘Situation of the Jews in Germany’, 28 July 1934, Fremde Blicke, 416–17.

32  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 130–2; Secret State Reports, 83 (State Minister for Hesse, Report, 11 January 1935), and 96 (County Commissioner, Woldhagen, Report, 27 December 1934).

33  CV-Zeitung, 20 December 1934 in Jewish Responses, vol. I, 146; 16 December 1934, 15 January 1935, Klemperer Diaries, I, 97, 104–5.

34  20 June 1935, Klemperer Diaries, I, 121.

35  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 152; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 126.

36  Longerich, Himmler, 187–9, 209–13, 214–18; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 84–98.

37  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 108–11; Gestapo Head Office (Gestapa) Berlin, ‘The Jews in Germany’, April 1934, Secret Nazi Reports, 31–7.

38  Gestapa Berlin Department II/1 B 2 report, November 1934, 24 October 1934, Secret Nazi Reports, 68–9. Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 87–90.

39  SD Main Office, ‘Situation Report’, May–June 1934; SD Main Office J I/6, ‘Situation Report’, n.d. January 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 43–4, 186–8. George C. Browder, Hitler’s Enforcers. The Gestapo and the SS Security Service in the Nazi Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 78–82; cf. Michael Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”: The Judenpolitik of the SD, 1935–1938’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 43 (1998), 241–69 and Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, 111–21, 228–48.

40  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 108, 153; Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”’, 241–8; David Cesarani, Eichmann. His Life and Crimes (London: Heinemann, 2004), 40–7.

41  Cesarani, Eichmann, 18–48.

42  Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, 118–21; Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”, 248–50.

43  District Governor Koblenz, report for December 1934–January 1935, 3 February 1935; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, February 1935 report; District Government Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, ‘Political and Economic Situation’, 8 February 1935; County Commissioner Fritzlar-Homberg, January–February 1935 report, Secret Nazi Reports, 101–2, 102–3, 104–5, 108.

44  Secret Nazi Reports, 134; William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary. The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002 [orig. 1941]), 36; Virginia Woolf diary, 9 May 1935, in Lubrich ed., Travels in the Reich, 73–5; 22 May 1935, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 255–6.

45  Stapostelle Government District Lüneburg, daily report, 20 December 1934; Gendarmerie, Bad Neustadt, report for 18/19 December, 21 December 1934; Governor of Silesia, April–May 1935 report; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, report June 1935; Stapostelle Government District Breslau, 5 July 1935; Stapostelle Government District Königsberg, report June 1935; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, July 1935 report, Secret Nazi Reports, 80, 90, 127, 130, 132, 134, 137–9.

46  Stapostelle Breslau, 3 August 1935; Stapostelle Government District Minden, report for August 1935, 4 September 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 140, 146–7.

47  District Governor Wiesbaden, ‘Political Situation Report’, 30 April 1935; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, ‘General Overview’, 13 June 1935 and June 1935 report; Stapostelle Government District Münster, May 1935 report, 6 June 1935; Secret Nazi Reports, 121–2, 123, 126–7, 130–1.

48  Samuel W. Honaker, US consul-general, Stuttgart, ‘Recent Developments in the Anti-Semitic Agitation in Stuttgart’, 23 August 1935, Fremde Blicke, 429–30.

49  District Governor Wiesbaden, May–June report, 1 July 1935; Stapostelle Government District Cologne, report for June, 7 July 1935; County Commissioner in Hünfeld, May–June 1935 report, 1 July 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 133–4, 135–6, 137.

50  Stapostelle Police District Berlin, report for July 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 137–9; Martin Gumpert in Germans No More, 71–3.

51  17 April, 30 June, 21 July, 11 August 1935, Klemperer Diaries, I, 113, 114, 124; 21 August 1935, Richard Breitman et al. eds, Refugees and Rescue. The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald 1935–1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 8–9; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 162–3.

52  District Governor Upper and Central Franconia, report for second half of September, 6 October 1933; NSDAP District Office for Municipal Policy, Kempten, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 3 January 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 18, 94. Longerich, Holocaust, 57–8.

53  Jüdische Rundschau, 10 May 1935; CV circulars, 15 April and 31 May 1935, RV report, 19 August 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 157, 158–9, 159–60, 173.

54  Secret Nazi Reports, liii–liv; Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 133–54, 188–9; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 126; Confino, World Without Jews, 56–61. Stapostelle Government District Frankfurt/Oder, daily report, 5 August 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 141.

55  J. Noakes and G. Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945. A Documentary Reader, vol. 2, State, Economy and Society 1933–1939 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1997 edn), 531–3; Documents on the Holocaust, 73–5; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 130–1.

56  Wildt, Hitler’s Volksgemeinschaft, 188–9; B. C. Newton to Samuel Hoare, on ‘Situation of the Jews in Germany based on assessments from consulates in Frankfurt a. M., Munich and Breslau’, 9 September 1935, Fremde Blicke, 431; 22 August 1935, McDonald Diaries, II, 10, 20; Longerich, Holocaust, 57–9.

57  2 August 1935, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 273–4; Kershaw, Hitler, 1889–1936, 559–68.

58  For an early proposal for segregation and turning the Jews into a ‘national minority’ as an alternative to ‘physical extermination’, see Interior Ministry of Württemberg situation report on the Jewish Question, 30 November 1933, Secret Nazi Reports, 22–5. Kershaw, Hitler, 1889–1936, 568–71; Karl A. Schleunes ed., Legislating The Holocaust. The Bernhard Loesener Memoirs and Supporting Documents (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001).

59  Documents on the Holocaust, 77–82, 82–3; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933–1939, 539–43.

60  J. Noakes and G. Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945, 1997 edn., vol. 2, 533–41.

61  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 131–3; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 135–55. Compare with Longerich, Holocaust, 52–61.

62  11 November 1935, Phipps Diary, 122.

63  W. E. B. DuBois articles from the Pittsburgh Courier in Lubrich ed., Travels in the Reich, 135–49.

64  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 179–81; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 162–3; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 139–40.

65  Statement of the Reichsvertretung, 22 September 1935, Documents on the Holocaust, 84–6; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 190–1.

66  Willy Cohn diary, 15, 19 September 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 187–9.

67  Luise Solmitz diary, 15 September, 15 November 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 185–6, 196–7.

68  Jürgen Matthäus, ‘Evading Persecution. German Jewish Behaviour Patterns after 1933’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 47–70.

69  Doerry, My Wounded Heart, 68–72.

70  6 October 1935, Klemperer Diaries, I, 128; Leo Baeck, Prayer for the Eve of the Day of Atonement, 10 October 1935, Documents on the Holocaust, 87–8.

71  31 October 1935, Klemperer Diaries, I, 132; Bernard Kahn to AJJDC European Executive Council, 29 November 1935; Dr Karl Rosenthal to CV HQ, 26 September 1935; Yom Kippur precautions, 7 October 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 199–200, 201, 217–18.

72  Werner Angress, Between Fear and Hope. Jewish Youth in the Third Reich, trans. Werner Angress and Christine Granger (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 43–59.

73  McDonald to James Rosenberg, 18 September 1935 and to Felix Warburg, 10 October 1935, McDonald Diaries, II, 29, 45; Bernard Kahn to AJJDC European Executive Council, 29 November 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 217–18; Raymond Geist, ‘The German Economic Situation with Particular Reference to the Political Outlook’, 12 November 1935, Fremde Blicke, 442.

74  5, 12 February, 11 April 1935, McDonald Diaries, I, 617–18, 622.

75  30 December 1935, McDonald Diaries, I, 102–3.

76  31 July 1935, McDonald Diaries, I, 788–89; Bentwich, They Found Refuge, 28–9.

77  Bentwich, They Found Refuge, 30–3; McDonald Diaries, II, 110.

78  CV report on Situation in Pomerania, 6 November 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 201–2; Stapostelle Government District Arnsberg, report for September 1935; Stapostelle Government District Cologne, September 1935 report, 18 October 1935; County Commissioner, Melsungen, September–October 1935 report, 24 October 1935; Stapostelle Government District Breslau, overview, 2 January 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 153–4, 154–5, 171–2, 178.

79  Trier District Governor, report for April–May 1935, 6 June 1935; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, September report 1935; Stapostelle Government District Magdeburg, September 1935 report, 5 October 1935; Stapostelle Government District Minden, September report, 3 October 1935 and report for 8 November to 7 December 1935; Government District Minden, State Lippe and Hameln-Pyrmont, report for September 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 128, 151–2, 155, 156–7, 159–60, 177–8.

80  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 222–33, 234–53; Guenter Lewy, The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany (New York: DaCapo, 2000 edn), 151–6, 168–71; Ursula Büttner, ‘The “Jewish Problem Becomes a Christian Problem”. German Protestants and the Persecution of the Jews in the Third Reich’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 431–59.

81  NSDAP District Directorate Eichstätt, May 1935; Stapostelle Government District Aachen, August report, 5 September 1935; Stapostelle Königsberg, October 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 129, 144, 169.

82  District Governor Upper and Central Franconia, August 1935 report, 9 September 1935; County Commissioner Gelnhausen, July–August 1935 report, 31 July 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 149, 151; Smallbones to B. C. Newton, 4 September 1935, Fremde Blicke, 431–2. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 225–30; Susannah Heschel, The Aryan Jesus. Christian Theology and the Bible in Nazi Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 26–66; Doris Bergen, Twisted Cross: The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

83  Stapostelle Government District Trier, September report, 5 October 1935; NSDAP Main Office for Municipal Policy, 25 October 1935; Stapostelle Government District Magdeburg, report for November, 5 December 1935; Stapostelle Government District Breslau, overview, 2 January 1936; Stapostelle Police District Berlin, January 1936; Stapostelle Government District Arnberg, February 1936; Gestapa Baden, report February 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 157, 158, 175, 178, 190–1, 195, 196.

84  County Commissioner Bad Kissingen, September report, 27 September 1935; SDHA Office Dept. II/112, ‘The Situation of the Jews in Germany at the Moment’, 13 September 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 158–9, 213–14. Frank Bajohr, ‘Aryanization’ in Hamburg. The Economic Exclusion of Jews and the Confiscation of their Property in Nazi Germany (New York: Berghahn, 2002), 43–88, 115–25, illustrates its patchiness and complexity.

85  Uwe Dietrich Adam quoted in Jewish Responses, vol. I, 179; Yahil, The Holocaust, 70; Karl A. Schleunes, The Twisted Road to Auschwitz. Nazi Policy Towards German Jews 1933–1939 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990 edn), 126; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 571–3.

86  Jewish Responses vol. I, 177–9; Wildt, Volksgemeinschaft, 215–18; Longerich, Holocaust, 61–7.

87  23 January 1936, Shirer Diary, 45; Fromm Diary, 194.

88  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 140; Stapostelle Government District Aachen, February report, 5 March 1936 and Stapostelle Police District Berlin, February report, 6 March 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 193–5; 11 February 1936, Klemperer Diaries, I, 146.

89  28 October 1935, McDonald Diaries, I, 62–4; Smallbones to Newton, 4 September 1935, Fremde Blicke, 431–2; WJC report on ‘The Situation of the Jews in Germany’, January 1936, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 197–9.

90  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 216; Government District Koblenz, November report, 5 December 1935; Stapostelle Government District Hanover, December report, 6 January 1936; Stapostelle Government District Wiesbaden, 4 January 1936; Gendarmerie, Butzbach report, 27 February 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 175–6, 180, 184, 200.

91  District Governor, Kassel, January–February report, 4 March 1936; County Commissioner in Mayen, March report, 28 March 1936; District Governor of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate, June report, 7 July 1936; Gendarmerie, Gunzenhausen, March report, 31 March 1936; District Governor of the Palatinate, June report, 8 July 1936; Mayor of Haigerloch, 29 October 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 200–1, 205–6, 208–9, 266.

92  CV Head Office to Reich Economic Ministry, 30 October 1935, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 203–5; 14 October 1935, McDonald Diaries, II, 48; Shepherd, Wilfred Israel, 106, 131–3.

93  Stapostelle Government District Cologne, August report, 3 September 1935, Secret Nazi Reports, 145. Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 59–63.

94  François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 221. Eric Kurlander, Living With Hitler. Liberal Democrats in the Third Reich (London: Yale University Press, 2009), 8–9, 14–15, 60–5, 155; cf. Albert Fischer, ‘The Ministry of Economics and the Expulsion of the Jews from the German Economy’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 213–25.

95  5, 9 September 1935, McDonald Diaries, II, 20–1, 24–5; 27 November 1935, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 287.

96  3 December 1935, Phipps Diary, 131–3. Bella Fromm shared this view of Schacht, Fromm Diary, 168–9.

97  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 631–7. 8, 31 March 1936, Klemperer Diaries, I, 149, 151–2.

98  It is not mentioned in Gilbert, Holocaust, or Dwork and van Pelt, Holocaust; Yahil, The Holocaust, 90, notes its significance for ‘economic policy toward the Jews’; Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 127–8, treats it as a precursor to the expropriation of the Jews.

99  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 351–7; Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 71–86, 207–13, 214–29; Wiesen, Creating the Nazi Marketplace, 12–16.

100  Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945, vol. 2, 281–7.

101  Longerich, Holocaust, 61–7; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 179–89.

102  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 141–7; 12 September 1936, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 356–7; 22, 30 October 1935, Phipps Diary, 184–7.

103  Longerich, Holocaust, 90–4; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 194–203, 204–10; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 524–35; Lewy, The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies, 17–20, 24–35.

104  Longerich, Himmler, 204.

105  SDHA, II/112, Proposal for consultation between Heydrich and Reich Interior Ministry, 20 November 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 219–20. Longerich, Holocaust, 90–4; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 194–203, 204–10.

106  Longerich, Holocaust, 64.

107  26 April 1936, Kurt Rosenberg diary, Jewish Responses vol. I, 261; 13, 16 August 1936, Klemperer Diaries, I, 174–5, 176.

108  14 September 1936, Mally Dienemann diary, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 263–4; 14 September, 8 December 1936, Klemperer Diaries, I, 182, 193.

109  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 148–9; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 259–60.

110  Report of Reichsvertretung meeting on 15 June 1937 and David Glick report to AJJDC, mid 1937, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 264–8; Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Germany, 181–206.

111  SDHA Dept. II/112, ‘On the Jewish Problem’, January 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 227–33. Emphasis in original. Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”’, 258–9, and Judenpolitik, 32–3.

112  Guidelines for SD Officers, 21 April 1937, Wildt, Judenpolitik, 110–15.

113  SDHA Dept. II/112 (1 January–31 March 1937), 8 April 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 243–5.

114  SDHA Dept. II/112 (1–15 April 1937), 19 April 1937 and (15–30 April), 4 May 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 243–5, 248–9; 17 March, 29 November 1937, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 394–5, 439.

115  SDHA Dept. II/112, report for 1–15 July 1937 and 1–15 September 1937, 17 September 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 256–9, 262. Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”’, 255, and Judenpolitik, 34–5. Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others. The Great Powers, the Jews and International Minority Protection (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 278–9, 331, 334. J. W. Breughel, ‘The Bernheim petition: A challenge to Nazi Germany in 1933’, Patterns of Prejudice, 17:3 (1983), 17–25.

116  SDHA Dept. II/112, reports for 1–15 July, 1–15 August, 16–30 November 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 256–61, 270–1.

117  Herbert Strauss, ‘Jewish Emigration from Germany. Nazi Policies and Jewish Responses (II)’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 26 (1981), 343–8.

118  Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, 123–6.

119  SDHA Dept. II/112, reports for 1–15 July, 1–15 August, 16–30 November 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 256–61, 270–1. Cesarani, Eichmann, 53–6.

120  Willy Cohn diary, 27 June 1933, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 66–7.

121  Bavarian Political Police, October report, 1 November 1935; Stapostelle Government District Düsseldorf, October report, 6 November 1935; SD Main Office Dept. II/112 April–May report, 25 June 1936, Secret Nazi Reports, 161, 166–7, 206–7; Erich Sonnemann to Heinz Kellermann, n.d., Jewish Responses, vol. I, 228.

122  Willy Cohn diary, 26 March–3 May 1937, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 222, 230–2; 26 January 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 270. Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, 208; Barkai, ‘Self-Help in the Dilemma’, 320–3.

123  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 222–4; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 115; Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair, 62–73, on the family as well as the financial dilemmas of emigration.

124  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 142–57.

125  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 94–5; Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 87–90.

126  SDHA II/112, report for 1–15 November, 18 November 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 268–9; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 234–5, 307–10.

127  District Governor Upper and Central Franconia, April report, 5 May 1937; SDHA II/112, report for 1–15 September, 17 September 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 252, 262. Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 69–77.

128  Mayor, Bad Nauheim, August report, 27 August 1937; County Commissioner, Gelnhausen, situation report on the Jews, 30 November 1937; Gendarmerie, Cham, November report, 28 November 1937; Stapostelle, Munich, Dept. II 2 A, October report, 1 November 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 261–2, 264, 271–2. SD Upper Division East, Dept II/112 Annual Report for 1937, 8 January 1938; SD Upper Division Southeast Dept II/112, Annual Report for 1937, 14 January 1938; SD Upper Division Northwest, Dept II/112, Annual Situation Report for 1937, 14 January 1938; SD Upper Division South, Annual Report for 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 273–8.

129  SDHA Central Dept. II/1, Situation report, 1–31 January 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 282–5; François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 221. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 358–61; Bajohr, ‘Aryanization’ in Hamburg, 174–7.

130  SDHA Dept. II/112, ‘Short report for “C” on Jewry’, 12 November 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 267–8.

131  SDHA Central Dept. II/1, Situation Report, 1–31 January 1938; SD Upper Division Northwest, Dept II/112, Annual Situation Report for 1937, 14 January 1938; SD Main Office, II/112, report for February 1938, 4 March 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 273–4, 282–5, 286–8.

132  J. Webb Benton, US consul, ‘The Church Question in Bremen and Oldenburg’, 14 April 1937, Fremde Blicke, 469–70. Lewy, The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany, 156–9; Georges Passelecq and Bernard Suchecky, The Hidden Encyclical of Pius XI, trans. Steven Rendall (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997), 100–10.

133  10, 17 April, 23 June, 29 December 1937, Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 402, 405, 425, 449–50.

134  SDHA Dept. II/112, ‘Jews in Danzig’, 16 June 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 254–5.

135  18 October 1936, 13 July 1937, Klemperer Diaries, I, 190, 220.

136  17 August, 27 October 1937, 23 February 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 224, 229–30, 240–1.

137  Heinemann Stern in Germans No More, 77–9.

138  Ibid, 99–102.

139  Mayor’s report, Amt Altenrüthen, 22 May 1937, Secret Nazi Reports, 253.

140  Marion Kaplan, ‘Changing Roles in Jewish Families’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 15–25.

141  Gerta Pfeffer in Germans No More, 65–7; Kaplan, ‘Changing Roles in Jewish Families’, 20.

142  Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society. Enforcing Racial Policy 1933–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 160–4. Hans Kosterlitz in Germans No More, 74–6.

143  Stapostelle Government District Breslau, overview, 2 January 1936; District Office Bad Brückenau, ‘Surveillance of Jews in Bad Brückenau’, 9 October 1936; Chief Public Prosecutor Mannheim, Report for November and December 1936, 21 January 1957; State Public Prosecutor Karlsruhe, bi-monthly situation report, 30 October 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 178, 217, 225, 331.

Three – Pogrom: 1938–1939

1 31 January, 23 February 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 239, 241.

2 Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 359–60.

3 The full protocol is in J. Noakes and G. Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945. A Documentary Reader, vol. 3, Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1997 edn), 680–7.

4 François-Poncet, Fateful Years, 226–7; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 642–5.

5 G. E. R. Gedye, Fallen Bastions (London: Gollancz, 1939), 224–77, 281–99; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 646–52.

6 Carl Zuckmayer’s 1966 memoir, Als wär’s ein Stück von mir, cited in Hans Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, trans. Ute Stargardt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 20.

7 Doron Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews. The Jewish Administration of Holocaust Vienna, 1938–1945, trans. Nick Somers (London: Polity, 2011), 17–25.

8 Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 296–304; 19 March 1938, Shirer Diary, 100.

9 27 September 1938, Ruth Maier’s Diary. A Young Girl’s Life under Nazism, ed. Jan Erik Vold, trans. Jamie Bullock (London: Harvill Secker, 2009), 89–90; Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 308.

10  Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 309–10, 354–6. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 240–7.

11  Graml, Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich, 134–6, depicts the violence that accompanied the Anschluss and the increasing persecution of Jews in the Old Reich in early 1938 as ‘parallel’; compare to Hans Safrian, ‘Expediting Expropriation and Expulsion. The Impact of the “Vienna Model” on anti-Jewish policies in Nazi Germany, 1938’, HGS, 14:3 (2000), 390–414.

12  Mark Mazower, Hitler’s Empire. Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe (London: Allen Lane, 2008), 47–9; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 646–57.

13  Longerich, Himmler, 403–4; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 19–24.

14  22, 25 March 1938, Shirer Diary, 110–11; Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 307, 309–10.

15  SDHA Dept. II/112, report for January–March 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 292–3; Wildt, ‘Before the “Final Solution”’, 263–4 and Judenpolitik, 52–5; Leo Lauterbach to Executive of the WZO, 29 April 1938, Documents on the Holocaust, 92. Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 34–6.

16  Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 34–6, 40–6; Cesarani, Eichmann, 61–5.

17  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 647; Safrian, ‘Expediting Expropriation and Expulsion’, 390–4.

18  Safrian, ‘Expediting Expropriation and Expulsion’, 392–4.

19  Martin Dean, Robbing the Jews. The Confiscation of Jewish Property in the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 108–11.

20  Safrian, ‘Expediting Expropriation and Expulsion’, 392–4; compare, Götz Aly and Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation. Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction, trans. A. G. Blunden (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2002), 16–23.

21  Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 28–30, 46–7.

22  Ibid, 48–50.

23  Ibid, 50–2; cf. Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 31.

24  Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 31–4.

25  Margarete Neff-Jerome and Philip Flesch memoirs in Jewish Responses, vol. I, 279–81, 285–6; Zuckerman to Goldmann, 5 April 1938 and anonymous report (document 10-7), June 1938, in Jewish Responses, vol. I, 278, 282–5.

26  Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 305; JTA report, June 1938, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 285 for the estimated number of suicides.

27  12 March 1938, Shirer Diary, 104.

28  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 58–68, 72–8.

29  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 117–41, 142–7, 171–80.

30  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 101–2; Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 173–5.

31  McDonald Diaries, II, 122–3, 124; Arad, America, its Jews and the rise of Nazism, 195–7.

32  McDonald Diaries, II, 121. David Wyman, Paper Walls. America and the Refugee Crisis 1938–1941 (New York: Pantheon, 1995), 47–9.

33  Fest, Not Me, 76.

34  14 March 1938, Willy Cohn diary, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 277–8; 20, 30 March, 5 April 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 241–2.

35  Schleunes, Twisted Road, 218.

36  27 April 1938, Luise Solmitz diary, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 291; 29 June 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 249; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 128–34.

37  SDHA, Dept. II/112, July 1938 report, Secret Nazi Reports, 319–21; Bajohr, ‘Aryanization’ in Hamburg, 185–221 on the stampede in Hamburg and the fate of M. M. Warburg.

38  Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 121–4, 125–6, 128. For the fashion industry, see Guenther, Nazi Chic? Fashioning Women in the Third Reich, 158–65.

39  SDHA, Dept. II/112, March 1938 report, Secret Nazi Reports, 291–3; Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 121–3; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 260–5.

40  Barkai, From Boycott to Annihilation, 117; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 292.

41  District Governor of Upper and Central Franconia, February 1938 report, 9 March 1938; NSDAP District Leadership Königshofen-Hofheim, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 2 May and 30 May 1938; Secret Nazi Reports, 288, 299, 306.

42  CV Regional Office, Württemberg to CV HQ, 1 June 1938, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 295–6; District Governor of Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, March 1938 report, 9 April 1938; District Governor Palatinate, April 1938 report, 10 May 1938; Gendarmerie Hösbach, ‘Events in Goldbach, Special Operations Against Jews’, 19 April 1938; District Governor of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate, July 1938 report, 8 August 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 294–5, 296–7, 298–9, 324.

43  SDHA, Dept. II/112, April–May report, May 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 300–2.

44  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 576–7; Wachsmann, KL, 139–51.

45  Wünschmann, Before Auschwitz, 184–96.

46  Ibid, 168–84.

47  Hugh R. Wilson, ‘Demonstrations Against Jewish Shops’, 22 June 1938, Fremde Blicke, 484; SDHA, Dept. II/112, report, 1 July 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 306–7.

48  28 June 1938, Fromm Diary, 235–7.

49  Longerich, Holocaust, 102–5.

50  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 102–9; Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 182–6.

51  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 82–92; McDonald Diaries, II, 136, 139–40; 7 July 1938, Shirer Diary, 120.

52  Marrus, The Unwanted, 170–4.

53  SDHA, Dept. II/112, report, 1–31 August, 8 September 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 325–7; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 262–3.

54  Aristotle Kallis, Genocide and Fascism. The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe (London: Routledge, 2009), 87–138.

55  Radu Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania. The Destruction of Jews and Gypsies under the Antonescu Regime, 1940–1944 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000), xix–xx, 5–19; Jean Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2007), 9–12.

56  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 33–50.

57  14, 17, 25 January 1938, Emil Dorian, The Quality of Witness. A Romanian Diary 1837–1944, ed. Marguerite Doria, trans. Mara Soceanu Vamos (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1992), 13–19.

58  Nathaniel Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews 1920–1943 (Ramat Gan: Bar Ilan University Press, 1981), 25–31.

59  Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, 32–43. Zoltan Vagi, Laszlo Csosz and Gabor Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary. Evolution of a Genocide (Lanham MD: AltaMira Press, 2013), xxx–xxxviii, 1–2.

60  Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, 80–93.

61  Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 3–6.

62  Ibid, 6–9; Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, 114–38; Moshe Herczl, Christianity and the Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry, trans. Joel Lerner (New York: New York Universaity Press, 1991), 11–127; Yehuda Don, ‘Economic Implications of the Anti-Jewish Legislation’, in David Cesarani ed., Genocide and Rescue. The Holocaust in Hungary 1944 (Oxford: Berg, 1997), 47–76.

63  Michele Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy. From Equality to Persecution, trans. John and Anne C. Tedeschi (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 3–41, 66–7, 116–17.

64  David Kertzer, The Popes Against the Jews. The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism (New York: Knopf, 2001), 133–65, 213–36; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 42–53; Meir Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews. German-Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy 1922–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 10–52; 15 May 1934, McDonald Diaries, I, 393–4.

65  Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 96–121; Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews, 80–103, 107–52, attributes the official adoption of anti-Semitism to coordination with Nazi Germany.

66  6 September, 3 December 1937 and 20 April 1938, Count Galeazzo Ciano, Diary 1937–1943. The complete unabridged diaries of Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1936–1943, ed. and trans. Robert L. Miller and Stanislaus Pugliese (London: Phoenix Press, 2002), 6, 32, 83.

67  15, 17 July 1938, Ciano Diary, 109–110; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 121–9.

68  20 April, 4 June 1938, Ciano Diary, 83, 99; Michele Sarfatti, ‘Characteristics and Objectives of the Anti-Jewish Racial Laws in Fascist Italy, 1938–1943’, in Joshua D. Zimmerman ed., Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 71–80.

69  6 October, 6, 28 November 1938, Ciano Diary, 139, 153, 161; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 129–57.

70  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 143–4; Iael Nidam-Orvieto, ‘The Impact of the Anti-Jewish Legislation on Everyday Life and the Response of Italian Jews, 1938–1943’, in Zimmerman ed., Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945, 158–81.

71  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 665–73.

72  28 June 1938, Fromm Diary, 237; 5 October 1938, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 96.

73  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 328; 18, 20 June 1938, Fromm Diary, 239–40.

74  24 August 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 255; 24, 25 August 1938, Luise Solmitz diary, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 329–30; François-Poncet, ‘Report on The Persecution of the Jews’, 9 August 1938, Fremde Blicke, 486–7.

75  SD Lower Division, Wiesbaden, 30 September 1938; SDHA, Dept. II/112, September report, 8 October 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 330.

76  SD District Office, Hanau, Dept. II/112, 23, 27 May 1938; SDHA, Dept. II 1, extract from daily information, 5 August 1938; District Governor of Upper and Central Franconia, August report, 7 September 1938; District Governor Palatinate, August 1938 report, 12 September 1938; District Governor Main Franconia, September 1938 report, 10 October 1938; District Governor Palatinate, October 1938 report, 9 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 303–4, 322, 323–4, 331–2, 338–9.

77  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 673–7.

78  ‘Taking Stock after Munich’, 8 October 1938 and ‘On the Record’, 29 October 1938, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 177–8. Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945. Nemesis (London: Allen Lane, 2000), 123–5.

79  2 October 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 257–8.

80  Geist to Messersmith, 28 October 1938, McDonald Diaries, II, 143–4.

81  12 July 1938, Klemperer Diaries, I, 250.

82  5 October 1938, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 95–8.

83  16 October 1938, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 98–9. Longerich, Holocaust, 108.

84  Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945, 1997 edn., vol. 3, 113–14.

85  Fritzsche, Life and Death in the Third Reich; Kühne, Belonging and Genocide.

86  SDHA, Dept. II/112, October report, 1 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 334–5, 335–6. Longerich, Holocaust, 109–10; Alan Steinweis, Kristallnacht 1938 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 16–17.

87  Jewish Responses, vol. I, 345–7. Broniatowski eventually managed to emigrate to the USA where he joined his sons.

88  Mally Dienemann diary, 1 November 1938, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 343–4; Yfat Weiss, ‘The “Emigration Effort” or “Repatriation”, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 360–70.

89  Polish consuls in Germany immediately alerted their Foreign Office to the deportations. Feliks Chiczewiski warned that the Germans were seeking the ‘total destruction’ of the Jews in Germany: Chiczewiski to Polish Foreign Ministry, 26 October 1938, Fremde Blick, 495; AJJDC report, 18 November 1938, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 348–9.

90  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 17–18. It is possible that Grynszpan was actually seeking out Rath, with whom he may have had a homosexual relationship.

91  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 21–2, 27–8, 38–9; Longerich, Goebbels, 391–400.

92  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 269–71.

93  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 39–43.

94  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 27–8; Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 59–71; Uwe Dietrich Adam, ‘How Spontaneous was the Pogrom?’, in Walter Pehle ed., November 1938, trans. William Templer (Oxford: Berg, 1991), 73–94. Compare Kulka and Jaeckel, ‘Introduction’, Secret Nazi Reports, liii–lvii and Longerich, Holocaust, 109–13, which depict the events as more purposeful, a continuity of previous Judenpolitik. Graml, Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich, 5–29.

95  Uwe Dietrich Adam, ‘How Spontaneous was the Pogrom?’, in Pehle ed., November 1938, 73–80; Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 48–53; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 172–4.

96  Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 136–7; Gilbert, Holocaust, 69–73, gives no explanation of how, as against why, the pogrom occurred. Compare the still serviceable account by Lionel Kochan, Pogrom. November 10, 1938 (London: André Deutsch, 1957) and Graml, Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich, 6–29.

97  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 77–8, drawing on testimonies given to the Central Information Office (Wiener Library); Merecki testimony in Uta Gerhardt and Thomas Karlauf eds, The Night of Broken Glass. Eyewitness Accounts of Kristallnacht, trans. Robert Simmons and Nick Somers (London: Polity, 2012), 36–52. See Confino, World Without Jews, 114–27, for the attack on Judaism.

98  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 74–6, 78; District Governor of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate, November 1938 report, 8 December 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 366–7.

99  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 78–82; Gestapo Office Dept. II/B2, Bielefeld, ‘Protest Operation Against Jews on 10 November 1938’, 26 November 1938; District Officer, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, ‘Actions Against the Jews’, 10 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 358–60, 377.

100  Gestapo Office Dept. II/B2, Bielefeld, report, 26 November 1938; Chief Public Prosecutor, Mossbach, report, 24 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 358, 384. Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair, 122–5. This is one reason for dispensing with the term Kristallnacht or Night of Broken Glass usually employed to name the events of 9–10 November.

101  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 117–18; Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 58.

102  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 278–9; Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 114–18.

103  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 64–7.

104  Ibid, 63–71.

105  Thomas Karlauf, ‘Introduction’ in The Night of Broken Glass, 11–13, and testimony of Hugo Moses, 19; Jewish Responses, vol. I, 331–6.

106  Rudolf Bing testimony in The Night of Broken Glass, 58–62.

107  Ibid, Hugo Moses testimony in ibid, 19–34.

108  10–12 November 1938, Luise Solmitz diary, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 352–3.

109  Toni Lessler memoir, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 354–5.

110  Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 57–9; Siegfried Merecki testimony in The Night of Broken Glass, 36–52.

111  11, 13 November 1938, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 99, 102–4.

112  Cesarani, Eichmann, 71; SDHA, II/1 report for 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 425–6.

113  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 99–101.

114  Ibid, 103, 127–30; Herbert Obenhaus, ‘The Germans: An Antisemitic People. The press campaign after 9 November 1938’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 147–80.

115  Circular received by the Bielefeld Gestapo Office Dept. II/B2, 14 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 343–8.

116  Minden city, report for 10 November 1938, 18 November and Minden District Governor, 5 December 1938; Lemgo, Mayor’s report on ‘The Operation Against the Jews’, 17 November 1938; Amt Borgentreich, Mayor’s report on ‘Operation Against the Jews on 10 November 1938’, 17 November 1938; Atteln, Mayor’s report, 17 November 1938; Secret Nazi Reports, 353 and 365, 356, 357–8, 368.

117  County Commissioner, Halle in Westphalia, report on ‘Operation Against Jews’, 18 November 1938; Bielefeld, Lord Mayor’s report on ‘Action Against the Jews on 9/10 November 1938’, 22 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 348–50, 350–2.

118  Bielefeld County Commissioner report on ‘Operation Against the Jews on 10 November 1938’, 18 November 1938; Bielefeld Stapostelle Dept. II/B2, ‘Protest Operation Against Jews on 10 November 1938’, 26 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 356, 358–60.

119  SD District Officer Kochem, November report, 25 November 1938; Muggendorf Gendarmerie, situation report, 26 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 361–2, 385.

120  Edwin C. Kemp, US consul, ‘Anti-Jewish Demonstration in Bremen’, 10 November 1938; Samuel W. Honaker, US consul general, Stuttgart, ‘Anti-Semitic Persecution in the Stuttgart Consular District, 12 November 1938; Hugh R. Wilson, ‘Pogrom in Berlin and Reich and Popular Reaction’, 16 November 1938, Fremde Blicke, 498, 504–5, 515.

121  British consul, Frankfurt-am-Main, 16 November 1938; Smallbones to Ogilvie-Forbes, ‘Report on the Mistreatment of imprisoned Jews in the Konzentrationslager during the Nazi pogrom’, 24 December 1938, Fremde Blicke, 515–16, 523–4.

122  County Commissioner, Bielefeld, report on ‘Operation Against the Jews on 10 November 1938’, 18 November 1938; Mayor of Amt Neuhaus, report on ‘Operation Against Jews on 10 November 1938’, 17 November 1938; County Commissioner Höxter, ‘Operation Against the Jews’, 18 November 1938; Lippspringe, mayor’s report on ‘Operation Against Jews’, 17 November 1938; County Commissioner, Paderborn, report on ‘Operation Against the Jews on 10 November 1938’, 23 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 352, 354, 355, 356, 363, 371. See also, Kochem SD District Officer, November report, 25 November 1938; SD Upper Division West, Dept. II/112 Annual report for 1938; on arrest of clergy see District Governor, Upper and Central Franconia, report for November 1938, 8 December 1938 and Muggendorf Gendarmerie monthly report, 26 December 1938, 361–2, 366–7, 396–7, 408–10.

123  SD District Office, Gotha, report for October–December 1938; District Office Ebermannstadt, report for November 1938, 2 December 1938; District Court President, Trier, report for October–December 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 373–6, 386–7, 387–8.

124  County Commissioner, Halle in Westphalia, report on ‘Operation Against Jews’, 18 November 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 350–2. Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 82–5. Information on Baden-Baden from http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/kristallnacht/baden.asp

125  SDHA, Dept. II/112, November report, 7 December 1938; also NSDAP Main Office for Training, 18 January 1939 and SD Upper Division, North, Dept. II/112, report for 1938, 20 January 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 340–3, 368–9, 417–19.

126  25 November, 20 December 1938, Ulrich von Hassell, The Von Hassell Diaries 1938–1944, ed. Hugh Gibson (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1948), 20–1, 25.

127  Karl Fuchs to his parents, 23 November 1938 in Horst Fuchs Richardson ed. and trans., Your Loyal and Loving Son. The Letters of Tank Gunner Karl Fuchs, 1937–1941 (Washington DC: Brassey’s, 2003), 36.

128  Maschmann, Account Rendered, 51–2.

129  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 107–8; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 378–9. Philipp Flesch memoir, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 355–6.

130  Paul Martin Neurath, The Society of Terror. Inside the Dachau and Buchenwald Concentration Camps (Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2005), 123–5, 249–55.

131  Wünschmann, Before Auschwitz, 196–208.

132  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 112–14.

133  Karl Schwabe testimony in The Night of Broken Glass, 95–109.

134  Hans Reichmann memoir, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 359–63.

135  Hertha Nathorff testimony in The Night of Broken Glass, 148–64.

136  Mally Dienemann memoir in Jewish Responses, vol. I, 363–6. Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair, 129–31, 133–8.

137  SDHA II/1, report for 1938, Secret Nazi Reports, 419–31.

138  Steinweis, Kristallnacht, 103–7.

139  The only easily available printed sources for the conference are severely truncated and quite unrepresentative of the content or tone of the gathering: Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945, vol. 2, 558–60, 566 and Documents on the Holocaust, 108–15. For the full protocol (only part of which survived) see ‘Stenographic Report of the Conference on the Jewish Question at the Aviation Ministry on 12 November 1938; suppression of Jews from the German economy; seizure of insurance payments for the losses sustained by Jews on 10 November and other anti-Jewish measures’, http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/English34.pdf

140  For this and subsequent paragraphs, see ‘Stenographic Report of the Conference on the Jewish Question at the Aviation Ministry on 12 November 1938’.

141  The important, and usually overlooked, ramifications of the insurance question are lucidly set out in Gerald D. Feldman, Allianz and the German Insurance Business, 1933–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 190–205.

142  Feldman, Allianz, 205–28.

143  For this and subsequent paragraphs, see ‘Stenographic Report of the Conference on the Jewish Question at the Aviation Ministry on 12 November 1938’.

144  On Madagascar, see Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 146–57, 220–2.

145  Jonny Moser, ‘Depriving Jews of their Legal Rights in the Third Reich’, in Pehle ed., November 1938, 123–38; Wolf Gruner, ‘Public Welfare and the German Jews’ and Uwe Lohalm, ‘Local Administration and Nazi Anti-Jewish Policy’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of Antisemitism, 78–105, 109–46.

146  Dean, Robbing the Jews, 116, 119–20; Safrian, ‘Expediting Expropriation and Expulsion’, 390–414.

147  Special Report by the Mayor of Berlin, 5 January 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 403–5; Evans, The Third Reich In Power, 595–7.

148  Dean, Robbing the Jews, 126–7, 135–6; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 178–9.

149  Wolf Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis. Economic Needs and Racial Aims, 1938–1944, trans. Kathleen Dell’Orto (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 5–8.

150  NSDAP Reich Directorate Main Office for Municipal Policy, 15 January 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 367; Moser, ‘Depriving Jews of their Legal Rights’, 131.

151  Dean, Robbing the Jews, 135–6.

152  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 286–90; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 182–3.

153  Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 36–8; Beate Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration. The Reich Association of Jews in Germany, 1939–1945’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 149–69.

154  Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 48–56; London, Whitehall and the Jews, 105–6.

155  Susan Cohen, Rescue the Perishing. Eleanor Rathbone and the Refugees (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2010), 101–119; A. J. Sherman, Island Refuge. Britain and Refugees from the Third Reich, 1933–1939 (Ilford: Cass, 1994), 170–83.

156  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 99–101.

157  Sherman, Island Refuge, 183–5; London, Whitehall and the Jews, 108–11, 114–16; Shepherd, Wilfred Israel, 125–31, 145, 146–9.

158  Deborah E. Lipstadt, Beyond Belief. The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (New York: Free Press, 1986), 98–109; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 113–15.

159  Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 71, 125–8; Moffat diary, 29, 30 October, cited in McDonald Diaries, II, 145 and 146–7.

160  Wyman, Paper Walls, 75–98.

161  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 195–200, 202–3.

162  ‘A Model’, 12, 19, November 1938, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 186–94.

163  25, 27 November, 15 December 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 261–3, 268–71.

164  Heinz Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror (Pittsburgh: Rose Dog Books, 2008), 1–5, 11–15.

165  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 164–5, 174–7.

166  Ernest G. Heppner, Shanghai Refuge. A Memoir of the World War II Jewish Ghetto (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 3–18, 28–32.

167  Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 63–5, 82–5; Ehud Avriel, Open the Gates! A Personal Story of ‘Illegal’ Immigration to Israel (New York: Atheneum, 1975), 39–100.

168  3, 27 November, 9, 11 December 1938, 30 January, 1 February 1939, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 100–1, 106–7, 110–14, 123, 126–7.

169  Bentwich, They Found Refuge, 65–72.

170  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 111–28.

171  David Cesarani, ‘Introduction’ in Mark Jonathan Harris and Deborah Oppenheimer eds, Into the Arms of Strangers. Stories of the Kindertransport (London: Bloomsbury, 2000), 1–16.

172  Shepherd, Wilfred Israel, 146–9; Harris and Oppenheimer eds, Into the Arms of Strangers, 77–8, 99, 112–13, 119–22; Vera Gissing, Pearls of Childhood (London: Robson Books, 1988), 100–1; W. R. Chadwick, The Rescue of the Prague Refugees 1938/39 (Padstow: Troubador Publishing, 2010), 44–5; David Kranzler, Holocaust Hero. Solomon Schonfeld (Jersey City, NJ: Ktav, 2004), 50–7, 58–61.

173  Excerpts from Hitler’s Speech to the First Greater German Reichstag, 30 January 1939, http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=2289

174  5, 24 February 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 281–2. Hans Mommsen, ‘Hitler’s Reichstag Speech, 30 January 1939’, History and Memory 9:1/2 (1997), 142–61; compare to Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 307–14, who reads the speech as a prophecy of extermination.

175  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 599, estimates 269,000 in December 1938 falling to 188,000 in May and 164,000 in September 1939. Discrepancies arise because the German authorities included part-Jews, roughly 25,000 foreign Jews and 20,000 Jewish converts to Christianity; compare to Avraham Barkai, ‘Exclusion and Persecution: 1933–1938’ in Meyer ed., Renewal and Destruction, 231–4. SD Upper Division Elbe II/112 report for 1938, 18 January 1939; for churchmen who persisted in associating with or defending Jews, SD District Office, Knochen, report for January 1939, 24 January 1939, and District Governor Upper and Central Franconia, February report, 7 March 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 410–16, 441–2, 445–6. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 1, 316–17.

176  NSDAP Cell, Herne, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 13 March 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 448–9. Also, SDHA, Dept. II/112, report for June 1939, 8 July 1939 and District Governor Palatinate, report for July, 10 August 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 458, 464.

177  SDHA, Dept. II/112, report, 15 June 1939 and report for June 1939, 8 July 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 454–5, 457–8.

178  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 565–70; Beate Meyer, ‘The Mixed Marriage: A Guarantee of Survival or a Reflection of German Society during the Nazi Regime?’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 54–77.

179  Doerry, My Wounded Heart, 86.

180  7 April 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 284–5; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 208; NSDAP branch Castrop-Rauxel, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 20 December 1938; SD Upper Division East, II/112, annual report for 1938, 13 January 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 395–6, 397–403.

181  Hedwig Jastrow, suicide note, 29 November 1939, Jewish Responses, vol. I, 369.

182  Gendarmerie, Bad Reichenhall, report, 15 December 1938; SD Lower Division Württemberg-Hohenzollern, report for January–March 1939, 1 April 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 393–4, 339–41.

183  Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 163–9.

184  Weiss Diary, 10.

185  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 681–6; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 58–62; Chad Bryant, Prague in Black. Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 28–36, 76–80.

186  ‘The Ides of March’, 25 March 1939, in Schwarzschild, Chronicle of a Downfall, 197–9; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 142–3; 7, 20 April 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 284–5, 286–7.

187  SDHA, II 1, report January–March 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 434–9; Bryant, Prague in Black, 50–2, 58, 82–4; Weiss Diary, 10–12.

188  SDHA, II 1, report January–March 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 436; Cesarani, Eichmann, 74.

189  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 142–53, 153–66; Pamela Shatzkes, Holocaust and Rescue. Impotent or Indifferent? Anglo-Jewry 1938–1945 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 57–63.

190  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 151–6; Wyman, Paper Walls, 52–6.

191  McDonald Diaries, II, 164–77.

192  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 136–8. One died of natural causes en route. Many were eventually murdered by the Nazis.

193  SDHA, II/112, report, 15 June, 8 July 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 454–5.

194  11, 17, 24 February, 4, 22, 29 March, 12 April, 1, 7, 30 June 1939, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 128–30, 130–1, 131–2, 133–6, 138–9, 144, 150–1, 151–4, 165.

195  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 689–705; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 166–8, 177–80, 186–96.

196  28 August 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 292–3; 26 August 1939, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 182–3.

197  Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 703.

198  Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 211–23.

199  1 September 1939, Weiss Diary, 12; 3 September 1939, Klemperer Diaries, I, 293–5. Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 224–5; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 703–4.

Four – War: 1939–1941

1 Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 190–7, 200–23; Anthony Beevor, The Second World War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2012), 24–38.

2 Herf, The Jewish Enemy, 5–9, 13, 61–2, 72–3; 4 October, 2 November, 31 December 1939, 9 January 1940, Shirer Diary, 230, 242, 271, 275.

3 Longerich, Holocaust, 132–5.

4 Alexandra Garbarini ed., Jewish Responses to Persecution, vol. II, 1938–1940 (Lanham MD: AltaMira Press, 2012), xxix–xxx.

5 Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 292–316. The comparative weakness of Germany is set out in David Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine (London: Penguin, 2011), 11–85.

6 Collingham, The Taste of War, 20–6, 26–30, 155–64; Götz Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries. Plunder, Racial War, and the Nazi Welfare State, trans. Jefferson Chase (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006) is the most extreme statement of this thesis.

7 Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army. Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 109–18; Wolfram Wette, The Wehrmacht. History, Myth, Reality, trans. Deborah Lucas Schneider (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 69–73, 76–9, 85–9.

8 Alexander Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland. Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2003), 221–2; Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer, Soldaten. On Fighting, Killing and Dying. The Secret Second World War Tapes of German POWs, trans. Jefferson Chase (London: Simon and Schuster, 2012), 34–8, 55.

9 2 August 1939, Franz Halder, The War Diary, 1939–1942, ed. Charles Burdick and Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988), 31–2; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 2–11; Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War (London, 2008), 4.

10  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 11–18, 36–57; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 136–8.

11  Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 148–54, depicts the opening weeks of war and the first anti-Jewish measures as ‘a guidepost in the chronology of the Final Solution. [It] testifies that a master plan for annihilating the Jews had already been conceived’; Gilbert, Holocaust, 88–9.

12  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, xiv.

13  Beevor, The Second World War, 24–38.

14  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 60–87; Wildt, An Uncompromising Generation, 217–41.

15  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 121–2, 158–61, 171–2, 191–208, 217–19; Neitzel and Welzer, Soldaten, 44–73.

16  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 90–115.

17  Ibid, 99–101, 103–7, 109–110.

18  10, 11 and 20 September 1939, Halder, War Diary, 52, 54–5, 59.

19  19 September 1939, Halder, War Diary, 57; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 116–17.

20  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 116–18; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 142–7.

21  Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (London: William Heinemann, 2004), 19–20, 72–80; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 153–85.

22  Antony Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 1914–2008 (Oxford: Littman Library, 2012), 59–66, 69–97, 98–149, 184–92.

23  Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 43–54, 66–97, 167–83. See also Celia Heller, On the Edge of Destruction: The Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994).

24  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 210.

25  Konrad H. Jarausch ed., Reluctant Accomplice. A Wehrmacht Soldier’s Letters from the Eastern Front (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011), 67–8, 89–90.

26  Abraham Katsh ed., Scroll of Agony. The Warsaw Diary of Chaim A. Kaplan (New York: Macmillan, 1965), 1 September 1939, 19–22; Wladyslaw Szpilman, The Pianist, trans. Anthea Bell (London: Gollancz, 1999 [first published in Polish as City of Death in 1946]), 35; Alan Edelson ed., The Diary of Dawid Sierakowiak, trans. Kamil Turowski (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), 26 August 1939, 29.

27  Shimon Huberband, Kiddush Hashem: Jewish Religious and Cultural Life in Poland During the Holocaust, trans. David Fishman, ed. Jeffrey Gurock and Robert Hirt (New York: Ktav, 1987), 2–10 September 1939, 7–32, 33–5, 37.

28  9, 10, 13 September 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 36–7, 38.

29  14–15 and 14–23 September 1939, Huberband, Kiddush Hashem, 39–54, and on beard cutting, 188–92.

30  1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10 October 1939, Kaplan Diary, 41–3, 45–6.

31  Helena Szereszewska, Memoirs (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 1997), 1–5.

32  4, 22, 25, 28 October 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 47, 54, 55, 55–6.

33  Zygmunt Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation 1939–1944, trans. George Klukowski, ed. Andrew and Helen Klukowski (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 20 September, 14, 15 October 1939, 28–9, 40–1.

34  13 October 1939, Kaplan Diary, 49–50; 29 September 1939, Klukowski Diary, 33.

35  Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 237–40; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 79–81; Philip T. Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution. The Nazi Programme for Deporting Ethnic Poles, 1939–1941 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2007), 40–51.

36  Longerich, Himmler, 434–6; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 149–51; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 53, 60–2.

37  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 54–5.

38  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 52–7; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 28–35.

39  Catherine Epstein, Model Nazi. Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 125–35; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 58–61. In 1940, Silesia would be split into two: Lower Silesia, under Karl Hanke, and Upper Silesia, under Karl Bracht.

40  Longerich, Himmler, 437–8, 469–72; Wildt, An Uncompromising Generation, 160–72; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 13–14, 15–16, 23; Dieter Pohl, Von der ‘Judenpolitik’ zum Judenmord. Der Distrikts Lublin des Generalgouvernement 1939–1944 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993), 37–9.

41  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 92–4; Longerich, Himmler, 439–40.

42  20 September 1939, Halder, War Diary, 59; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 43–6.

43  For this and the following paragraphs, see Documents on the Holocaust, 173–8. The text and the translation differ from Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945, (1997 edn.), vol. 3, 1051–2.

44  Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland, 95–6; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 154–7.

45  Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 154–5; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 48; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 25–8; Dan Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos During the Holocaust, trans. L. J. Schramm (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 65–89.

46  Jonny Moser, ‘Nisko: The First Experiment in Deportation’, Simon Wiesenthal Centre Annual, 2 (1985), 1–30. For updated versions of these events, see also Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 51–2; Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 89–93.

47  Moser, ‘Nisko’, 10–30; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 52–6.

48  Cesarani, Eichmann, 80; Jewish Responses, vol. II, 316–18.

49  ‘The initial period of the deportations served as a preparatory or experimental phase for the mass deportations of Jews from Poland and from all of Europe to the extermination camps.’ Yahil, The Holocaust, 150–2; Gilbert, Holocaust, 93–4, describes the deportation as ‘a new policy’. Cf. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 36–43; Longerich, Himmler, 151–4.

50  Epstein, Model Nazi, 135–55.

51  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 63–85.

52  Ibid, 86–104.

53  Epstein, Model Nazi, 166–9; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 43–53.

54  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 52–3; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 63–4. For the evolution of the SD Jewish office, its structure, staffing and policies, see Yaacov Lozowick, Hitler’s Bureaucrats. The Nazi Security Police and the Banality of Evil, trans. Haim Watzman (New York: Continuum, 2002), esp. 10–73.

55  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 110–11, 113–19, 120–5; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 53–61.

56  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 130–2; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 61–5.

57  Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 170–2; Longerich, Himmler, 455–7; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 154–7.

58  Longerich, Holocaust, 148–52, 160–1; Yisrael Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw 1939–1943. Ghetto, Underground, Revolt, trans. Ina Friedman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 1–15; 1 December 1939, Kaplan Diary, 80.

59  Jewish Responses, vol. II, 146; Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 75–9.

60  Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 79–82.

61  18 November 1939, Czerniaków, 89; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 48–50; Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 83; Jewish Responses, vol. II, 388–9. See also Esther Farbstein, ‘A Close-up View of a Judenrat: the Memoirs of Pnina Weiss – Wife of a Member of the First Judenrat in Warsaw’, Yad Vashem Studies 33 (2005), 61–99.

62  21, 27 October 1939, Kaplan Diary, 55–6, 59, 80; Michael Zylberberg, A Warsaw Diary (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 1969), 20–2; S. L. Schneiderman ed., The Diary of Mary Berg (Oxford: Oneworld, 2006), 15 October, 3 November 1939, 9–11; 15, 16 November 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 62–3.

63  Epstein, Model Nazi, 231–3; Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries, 184–5.

64  21 November 1939, Kaplan Diary, 55–6; Barbara Engelking and Jacek Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto. A Guide to the Perished City, trans. Emma Harris (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 381–3.

65  21 November 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 64; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 143–4.

66  21 November, 16 December 1939, Kaplan Diary, 55–6, 87; 18 December 1939, Berg Diary, 13–14.

67  Isaiah Trunk, Judenrat. The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1996), 1–13, 21–5.

68  Trunk, Judenrat, 14–17, 29–35.

69  4 October 1939, Czerniaków Diary, 78; Bernard Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, trans. and ed. by Leonard Shatzkin (New York: Viking Press, 1949), 34–8. Goldstein’s memoir was first published in 1947 in Yiddish in New York with the title Finf Yor in Warshaver Getto (Five Years in the Warsaw Ghetto). Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 36–8.

70  16, 31 October 1939, 13 January, 10 February 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 84, 86, 107, 116; on financial matters, see 21 December 1939, 9, 16 January, 26 February, 16 March 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 101, 106, 108, 121. Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 21–7, 36–42; Jewish Responses, vol. II, 375–82.

71  Trunk, Judenrat, 43–8.

72  Jewish Responses, vol. II, 189–213; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 292–301.

73  16 November 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 63.

74  30 November, 11, 20 December 1939, 5 January 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 94, 98, 101, 105; Szpilman, The Pianist, 54; 30 November 1939, Kaplan Diary, 78; also 20 December 1939, Klukowski Diary, 62.

75  Jewish Responses, vol. II, 154–5; 27 November 1939, Kaplan Diary, 77; 1 November 1939, Klukowski Diary, 47; 28 November 1939, Sierakowiak Diary, 65–6; Szereszewska, Memoirs, 6, 10, 11; Yitzhak Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory. Chronicle of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, trans. and ed. Barbara Harshav (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 19–29.

76  Isaiah Trunk, Lodz Ghetto. A History, trans. and ed. by Robert Shapiro (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 9–10; Gordon J. Horowitz, Ghettostadt. Lodz and the Making of a Nazi City (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2008), 26–9; Epstein, Model Nazi, 169–70.

77  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 12–15; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 42–52.

78  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 15–16; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 34–42.

79  Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 16–20; Michael Unger ‘Introduction’ to Josef Zelkowitz, In Those Terrible Days. Writings from the Lodz Ghetto, trans. Naftali Greenwood, ed. Michael Unger (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2002), 20–1.

80  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 34–53; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 56–9.

81  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 83–4; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 64–7; Yisrael Gutman, ‘Introduction: The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, in Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, xli–xlii.

82  Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 84–9; Longerich, Holocaust, 166–7; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 171–2.

83  4, 20 April, 28 May 1939, David Rubinowitz, The Diary of David Rubinowitz, trans. Derek Bowman (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1981), 3–4; see also the memoir Renya Kulkielko, Escape from the Pit (New York: Sharon Books, 1947), 7–24.

84  Gerda Weissmann Klein, All But My Life (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995 [first published 1957]), 3–21; Sybille Steinbacher, ‘In the Shadow of Auschwitz. The Murder of the Jews of East Upper Silesia’, in Ulrich Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies. Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (New York: Berghahn, 2000), 291–2; Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 214–22.

85  Entry for January 1940 in Jacob Sloan ed. and trans., Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto. The Journal of Emmanuel Ringelblum (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), 7–13; 15, 25 March, 13, 16, 22 April 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 131–2, 140–1; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 145–7, 311–16.

86  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 412–13, 416–18.

87  Ibid, 459–77.

88  Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 41–4; 4, 14, 19, 30 December 1939, 5, 8 January, 21, 23 February, 9 March 1940, Kaplan Diary, 82, 86–7, 88, 93–4, 96–7, 100, 122–4.

89  27 December 1939, 28 April 1940, Berg Diary, 14, 19–20.

90  Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 40–57, 62–6, 74–5; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 343–51; 10 March 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 130; 24 March, 23–30 April 1940, Huberband, Kiddush Hashem, 55–9; 24 April 1940, Kaplan Diary, 140–1.

91  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 23–4; 14 January 1940, Kaplan Diary, 101–2.

92  5 April 1940, 10 January 1941, Berg Diary, 17–18, 37; February, March, April 1940, Ringelblum Notes, 17, 20–1, 24, 34.

93  24, 26–8 March 1940, Czerniakow Diary, 131, 132–3; 10 January 1940, Berg Diary, 17; 28 March 1940, Kaplan Diary, 134–5; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 51–3; Emmanuel Ringelblum, Polish–Jewish Relations during the Second World War, trans. Dafna Allon et al., eds Joseph Kermish and Shmuel Krakowski (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1992), 49–53.

94  14 February, 18, 29, 30 March, 1, 2, 4, 9, 13 April, 10 May 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 117, 130, 134–6, 138, 140, 147–8; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 56–60; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 50–2; Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 83–4.

95  Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 202, 207–12; Luise Solmitz diary, 8 August 1939, Jewish Responses, vol. II, 100; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 51–2. See Bryan Mark Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2009).

96  Howard K. Smith, Last Train From Berlin (London: Cresset Press, 1942), 37–48; Ralph Getsinger, US vice-consul, ‘Hamburg After Two Months of War’, 10 November 1939, Fremde Blicke, 543–4; SD District Office, Worms, ‘Political Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 14 September 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 471–2; 10 September 1939, Klemperer Diary, I, 296–7.

97  Stapostelle, Cologne, ‘Allocation of Special Food Shops for Jews’, 29 September 1939; District Governor of Upper and Central Franconia, report for September 1939, 6 October 1939; District Governor of Lower Bavaria and Upper Palatinate, report for September 1939, 9 October 1939, Secret Nazi Reports, 472–3, 474–5; Konrad Kwiet, ‘Without Neighbours. Daily Living in Judenhäuser’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 117–48; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 209; 9 December 1939, Klemperer Diary, I, 307.

98  NSDAP District Leadership Kitzingen-Gerolzhofen, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 11 September 1939 and Sandberg Gendarmerie, report for September 1939, 28 September 1939; SD District Office, Bad Kissingen, report, 27 November 1939; District Governor Upper and Central Franconia, report for November 1939, 7 December 1939; RSHA, Office III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 10 April 1940, Secret Nazi Reports, 476–7, 483, 484, 495; 31 March 1940, Klemperer Diary, I, 316; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 212.

99  19, 29 April, 22, 26 May, 6 June 1940, Klemperer Diary, I, 317–18, 318–20, 324–6, 328.

100  NSDAP Munich District, Office for Racial Policy, ‘Activity Report’, 23 April 1940; Mayor, Bad Nauheim, ‘The Political Situation’, 22 May 1940, Mayor of Schwandorf, ‘Report for May’, 31 May 1940, Secret Nazi Reports, 497–8, 498–9; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 202; Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers.

101  SD Regional Division Leipzig, ‘Report on the Domestic Situation’, 13 October 1939; Emigration Consulting Office, Cologne, report for October–December 1939; District Governor of Upper and Central Franconia, ‘Report for March 1940’, 7 April 1940, Secret Nazi Reports, 479, 488–9, 493–4; 27 February 1940, Shirer Diary, 291–3; Grenville, Jews and Germans, 198–9; Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 82–5; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 83–9.

102  For the deep background, see Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Götz Aly, ‘Medicine against the Useless’, in Götz Aly, Peter Chroust, Christian Pross eds, Cleansing the Fatherland. Nazi Medicine and Racial Hygiene, trans. Belinda Cooper (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 22–98, for an overview.

103  Evans, The Third Reich at War, 75–93; Longerich, Holocaust, 135–41; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 252–61; Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance. ‘Euthanasia’ in Germany 1900–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 3–4, 93–111, 113–29, 130–45; Ulf Schmidt, Karl Brandt. The Nazi Doctor. Medicine and Power in the Third Reich (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), 117–33, 133–46.

104  Burleigh, Death and Deliverance, 145–61. In general, see Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide. From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995).

105  Schmidt, Karl Brandt, 146–53; Burleigh, Death and Deliverance, 162–80; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 93–101.

106  21 September, 25 November 1940, Shirer Diary, 512, 569–75; Paul M. Dutko, ‘Mysterious Deaths of Mental Patients from Leipzig Consular District and the Connections Therewith of the Black Guard (SS)’, 16 October 1940, Fremde Blicke, 552–3.

107  Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 214–15; Garbarini ed., Jewish Responses, vol. II, 11; 21 May, 2 November 1941, Klemperer Diary, I, 368–9, 423.

108  Beevor, The Second World War, calls the T-4 programme the ‘blueprint’ for genocide; Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide, 284, calls it ‘the model for the Final Solution’; Schmidt, Karl Brandt, 207–23, 233–49. Cf. Wachsmann, KL, 240–58 on 14f13.

109  Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors. Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2000 edn), 45–76, 134–9, 142–4; Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide, 21–2. Wachsmann, KL, 240–88, argues that the 14f13 programme and the mass execution of Soviet POWS in the concentration camps in 1941 was, however, a crucial stage in developing the techniques and the experienced personnel for carrying out genocide.

110  Letters dated 12, 15 November, 22 December 1939, Jarausch ed., Reluctant Accomplice, 103–5, 105–7, 109, 118–20.

111  Letters dated 31 March, 7 April 1940, Jarausch ed., Reluctant Accomplice, 176–9, 180.

112  Maschmann, Account Rendered, 50, 60, 62–6, 80–5.

113  19 October, 25 December 1939, 11 March 1940, Von Hassell Diaries, 75–7, 95, 114–15.

114  19 November 1939, 27 January 1940, Shirer Diary, 250, 285–6.

115  Russell Wallis, Britain, Germany and the Road to the Holocaust. British Attitudes towards Nazi Atrocities (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 204–6; David Cesarani, ‘The London Jewish Chronicle and the Holocaust’, in Robert Moses Shapiro ed., Why Didn’t The Press Shout. American and International Journalism During the Holocaust (New York: Yeshiva University Press, 2003), 180–1.

116  David Engel, In the Shadow of Auschwitz. The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Jews, 1939–1942 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 8, 52–3, 60–78; cf. E. Thomas Wood and Stanislaw Jankowski, Karski. How One Man Tried to Stop the Holocaust (New York, John Wiley, 1994), 44–55. Jan Karski, Story of a Secret State (London: Penguin 2012 edn), 101–35, recalls the mission but the account, originally written and published in 1944, was coy about details.

117  Ronald Zweig, Britain and Palestine During the Second World War (London: Boydell Press, 1986), 1–5.

118  Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945 (London: Leicester University Press, 1999 edn), 43–54; Dalia Ofer, Escaping the Holocaust. Illegal Immigration to the Land of Israel, 1939–1944 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 4–7, 128–44.

119  London, Whitehall and the Jews, 169–86; Leni and Peter Gillman, ‘Collar the Lot!’ How Britain Interned and Expelled its Wartime Refugees (London: Quartet, 1980), 23–68.

120  Michael Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 47–8 and generally, 50–1; Wallis, Britain, Germany and the Road to the Holocaust, 203–4; Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination, 123–6, 128–34. The level of censorship was even more extreme in the case of BBC German Service broadcasts to Germany, which at this time were virtually required by the Foreign Office to exclude any mention of Jews: see Stephanie Seul, ‘The Representation of the Holocaust in the British Propaganda Campaign directed at the German Public, 1938–1945’, Leo Baeck Year Book, 52 (2007), 267–306.

121  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 162–75; Zucker, In Search of Refuge, 99–102, 130–1, 151–5, 165–6.

122  Lurel Leff, Buried by the Times. The Holocaust and America’s Most Important Newspaper (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 59–74; Lipstadt, Beyond Belief, 136–49.

123  Bernard Wasserstein, ‘Patterns of Jewish Leadership in Great Britain’, in Randolf Braham ed., Jewish Leadership During the Nazi Era: Patterns of Behavior in the Free World (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 29–34.

124  Jewish Responses, vol. II, 190–2, 200.

125  Dina Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David. The Zionist Leadership in Palestine and the Holocaust, 1939–1945 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 5–16, 17–22.

126  Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 334–66; 30 October, 12 November, 31 December 1939, 22 January, 27 February, 4 March, 1, 4 April 1940, Shirer Diary, 241, 248, 271, 280–1, 291–2, 294–5, 323; Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen, Diary of a Man in Despair, trans. Paul Rubens (London: Duckbacks, 2000), 131.

127  10 May 1939, Shirer Diary, 331–5; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 283–300.

128  Hugo Melvin, Manstein. Hitler’s Greatest General (London: Phoenix, 2010), 132–55; Karl-Heinz Frieser, The Blitzkrieg Legend (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2012), 60–99.

129  Frieser, The Blitzkrieg Legend, 102–314.

130  Longerich, Himmler, 458–61, 490–8; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 174. Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, Dunkirk. Fight to the Last Man (London: Penguin, 2007), 293–315, 345–61.

131  Rafael Scheck, Hitler’s African Victims. The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); cf. Clarence Lusane, Hitler’s Black Victims. The Historical Experience of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans and African Americans in the Nazi Era (New York: Routledge, 2003). For a brief, balanced overview, see Michael Burleigh and Wolfgang Wipperman, The Racial State. Germany 1933–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 128–30.

132  Frieser, The Blitzkrieg Legend, 12–59, 255–60.

133  Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 100–110; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 373–97.

134  Julian Jackson, France 1940–1944. The Dark Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 126–36; Robert Gildea, Marianne in Chains. In Search of the German Occupation, 1940–1945 (London: Macmillan, 2002), 43–64.

135  Jackson, France 1940–1944, 142–54; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 67–9; Jewish Responses, vol. II, xxxi–xxxiii.

136  Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945 (1997 edn.), vol. 3, 932–4; Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution, 139–40; Longerich, Himmler, 508.

137  Documents on the Holocaust, 216–18; Longerich, Holocaust, 161–4; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 81–2.

138  Cesarani, Eichmann, 84–7; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 178–81.

139  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 86–9; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 213; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 81–2, 103; Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, 154–5; 7 July 1940, Klemperer Diary, I, 331–2; 17 July 1940, Shirer Diary, 451.

140  Götz Aly, ‘Final Solution’. Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews (London: Arnold, 1999), 92; 1 July 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 169.

141  Longerich, Holocaust, 171–3; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 182–3; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 213–14; Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, 154–5; Jewish Responses, vol. II, 333–43.

142  Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 11–53.

143  Horst Boog, ‘The Luftwaffe Assault’, in Paul Addison and Jeremy A. Crang eds, The Burning Blue. A New History of the Battle of Britain (London: Pimlico, 2000), 39–54; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 87–92.

144  Gillman, ‘Collar the Lot!’, 69–89.

145  Gillman, ‘Collar the Lot!’, 91–114, 131–45, 147–59, 161–7; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 77–83; Tony Kushner, ‘Clubland, Cricket Tests and Alien Internment, 1939–40’, in David Cesarani and Tony Kushner eds, The Internment of Aliens in Twentieth Century Britain (London: Cass, 1993), 79–101.

146  Louise Burletson, ‘The State, Internment and Public Criticism in the Second World War’, in Cesarani and Kushner eds, The Internment of Aliens, 101–24. For contemporary criticism, see François Lafitte, The Internment of Aliens (London: Libris, 1988) first published in September 1940.

147  For the experience of internees see Miriam Kochan, Britain’s Internees in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1983) and Cesarani and Kushner eds, The Internment of Aliens, 147–66, 188–241.

148  David Cesarani, Arthur Koestler. The Homeless Mind (London: Heinemann, 1998), 156–60; Arthur Koestler, Scum of the Earth (New York: Macmillan, 1941), 96, 107–8.

149  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 240–59, 316.

150  Ibid, 259–63; Cesarani, Arthur Koestler, 159–63; Renée Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, trans. Nathan Bracher (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 2001), 56–9; Michael R. Marrus and Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York: Schocken, 1983), 112–14, 161–4.

151  Léon Poliakov, L’Auberge des musiciens (Paris: Mazarine, 1981), 79; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 26.

152  2, 15 July 1940, Lambert Diary, 3–6, 6–10, which also contains a vivid description of the flight south from Paris.

153  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 3–4; Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 323–38.

154  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 3–21, 34–54; Jacques Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution. Communal Response and Internal Conflicts, 1940–1944 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 16.

155  2, 19 October 1940, Lambert Diary, 21, 22–3.

156  Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 35–7; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 42–6.

157  Susan Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 38–50; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 66–8. Irène Némirovsky, Suite Française, trans. Sandra Smith (London: Chatto and Windus, 2006), 6–156 dramatizes the exodus which she witnessed.

158  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 65–75; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 50–2, 66–8; Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 331–9, 342–5; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 165–73.

159  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 78–83; Jackson, France 1940–1944, 170–1; Talbot Imlay and Martin Horn, The Politics of Industrial Collaboration during World War II. Ford France, Vichy and Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 53–8; Lynn H. Nicholas, The Rape of Europa, The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (London: Papermac, 1994), 119–40.

160  Caron, Uneasy Asylum, 331–9.

161  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 51–7, 60–1; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 31–42; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 101–2.

162  Serge Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 271–91.

163  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 96–100; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 68–74.

164  Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 17–26; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 105–18; 24 February 1941, Lambert Diary, 28–9.

165  Lieven Saerens, ‘Antwerp’s Attitude Towards the Jews from 1918 to 1940 and Its Implications for the Period of Occupation’, and Maxime Steinberg, ‘The Judenpolitik in Belgium Within the West European Context: Comparative Observations’, in Dan Michman ed., Belgium and the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1998), 159–67, 200–8.

166  Steinberg, ‘The Judenpolitik in Belgium’, 200–1.

167  Bob Moore, Victims and Survivors. The Nazi Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands 1940–1945 (London: Arnold, 1997), 20–8.

168  Jacob Presser, Ashes in the Wind. The Destruction of Dutch Jewry, trans. Arnold Pomerans (London: Souvenir Press, 2010 edn), 4–6.

169  Peter Romijn, ‘The “Lesser Evil” – the case of the Dutch local authorities and the Holocaust’, in Peter Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Vossiuspers, 2012), 13–26.

170  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 7–32.

171  Ibid, 33–45.

172  Jos Scheren, ‘Aryanization, Market Vendors, and Peddlers in Amsterdam’, HGS, 14:3 (2000), 415–29; Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 95–101; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 47–50.

173  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 50–7; Moore, Victims and Survivors, 63–73.

174  Bart van der Boom, ‘Ordinary Dutchmen and the Holocaust: a summary of findings’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 29–52, esp. 36–9.

175  9 April, 10, 15, 27 May, 17, 22 June 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 138, 148, 150, 154, 161, 164; 4, 16 May 1940, Ringelblum Notes, 37, 40; 9, 11 April, 10 May, 14 June, 6 July 1940, Kaplan Diary, 138–9, 150–1, 162–3, 170; 20 May, 16 June 1940, Berg Diary, 20.

176  Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 87.

177  Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 65–80; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 87–92; Weinberg, A World at Arms, 179–86.

178  Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 65–90, 259–63; Alex J. Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder. Political and Economic Planning for German Occupation in the Soviet Union, 1940–41 (New York, Berghahn, 2006), 26–38.

179  Fritz, Ostkrieg. Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East, 35–52.

180  Longerich, Holocaust, 173–6; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 99–101; Cesarani, Eichmann, 89. The newly discovered diary of Alfred Rosenberg supports the contention that the Madagascar solution was superseded by the prospect of conquests in the east. See entry for 28 March 1941, http://collections.ushmm.org/view/2001.62.14?page=505 I am grateful to Jürgen Matthäus for bringing this to my notice and allowing me to see the MS of the forthcoming publication, Jürgen Matthäus and Frank Bajohr eds, The Political Diary of Alfred Rosenberg and the Onset of the Holocaust (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2015).

181  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 112–14; Wildt, An Uncompromising Generation, 264–7.

182  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 49, 148–59, 168–9; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 116–20; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 92–102; Unger, ‘Introduction’ to Josef Zelkowitz, In Those Terrible Days, 23–4, 33; Epstein, Model Nazi, 178–80.

183  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 70–1, 323-4; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 70–4.

184  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 40–2, 70–2.

185  Ibid, 65–7, 172–4.

186  Ibid, 104–7.

187  Ibid, 107–17.

188  Ibid, 198–223.

189  Ibid, 58–60.

190  Ibid, 298–303.

191  Unger, ‘Introduction’ to Josef Zelkowitz, In Those Terrible Days, 24–5; Gutman, ‘Introduction: The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, in Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, xliv–li; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 304–8, 325–33.

192  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 54–8, 84–7; 27 April 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 83–4.

193  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 334–42.

194  Ibid, 342–9.

195  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 348–9; Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 76–84, quote on 80.

196  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 303–5, 349–55; Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 129–39, quote on 131.

197  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 303–5, 355–7; Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 135.

198  12, 14, 15, 19 January 1941, Lucjan Dobroszycki ed., The Chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto 1941–1944, trans. Richard Lourie, Joachim Neugroschel et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984), ix–xvii, 4–5, 8–9, 10, 12.

199  23, 24, 30 January, 6, 8 March 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 14–16, 20, 31, 33; Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 205–32.

200  10 April, 7 June 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 44–5, 59–60; 16 April, 3 May 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 80, 86; Gutman, ‘Introduction: The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, in Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, xliv–xlv; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 129–31.

201  1, 26 March, 22 July 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 22–4, 37, 65–6; 6, 7, 11 April, 16, 31 May, 23 August 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 77, 79, 91–2, 96–7, 121; Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 140, 191–3.

202  4 March, 4 August 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 28–9, 72; 27, 30 April, 10 May, Sierakowiak Diary, 83–4, 85, 88–9.

203  6 June 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 98; 5, 10–24 March 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 30, 35; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 131–2.

204  1, 16 July, 9, 19 August, 3, 14, 30 September 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 169, 174, 181–3, 193, 197, 203; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 48–55, 57–61.

205  The ghetto decree was actually published on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish ritual calendar, 12 October 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 206; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 39–40, 62–75.

206  12, 13, 14, 18–20 October 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 206–7, 208–9; Szereszewska, Memoirs, 14, 18–19, 27, 32; 12 July 1940, Berg Diary, 31–3.

207  Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 64; 20 November 1940, Berg Diary, 28–9.

208  Stanislaw Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto 1940–1943. An Account of a Witness, trans. Sara Philip (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1982), 31–6; 2 November 1940, Berg Diary, 27; 15 September, 10, 14, 17, 22 October, 17, 19 November 1940, Kaplan Diary, 195–6, 209–13, 225–6. See also 19 November 1940, Ringelblum Notes, 86–7, on the shock of being closed in.

209  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 66–72, 113; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 33–6.

210  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 380–406

211  20, 25 November 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 218–19, 220; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 33–6, 149–59, 367–9.

212  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 80–3; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 159–61. 27 October 1940, Kaplan Diary, 215–16; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 14, 69–70; 26 April 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 164–5; 12, 20 February, 4 November 1940, Czerniakow Diary, 117, 119–20, 212–13.

213  3, 4 September 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 193, 205; 29 August, 14 September 1940, Kaplan Diary, 19–91, 194–5. Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 143–7, 149–59.

214  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 86–94; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 190–213, 445.

215  22 December 1940, Berg Diary, 32–4; 21 December 1940, Kaplan Diary, 234; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 7–8, 23–5, 26–8, 44–8, 50–3.

216  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 218–28; Huberband, Kiddush Hashem, 136–40.

217  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 407–11, 412–19, 419–31.

218  Ibid, 446–59.

219  2 November, 16 December 1940, Kaplan Diary, 229–30, 232–3; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 94; see also, 15 December 1940, 12 June 1941, Berg Diary, 30–2, 64–5.

220  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 62–5, 109–10; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 233–42, 280–92.

221  16 August, 11 September 1940, Berg Diary, 23–7; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 71–2, 85–6; Michel Mazor, The Vanished City, trans. David Jacobson (New York: Maresilio, 1993), 157–65; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 102–6; Samuel D. Kassow, Who Will Write Our History? Emanuel Ringelblum, the Warsaw Ghetto, and the Oyneg Shabas Archive (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2007), 90–106, 112-28; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 258–76, 292–300.

222  Zylberberg, A Warsaw Diary, 23–5; 17 February, 4 April 1941, Berg Diary, 40–1, 45–6; 15, 23, 25 September, 5 October 1940, 15 February 1941, Kaplan Diary, 195–6, 198–200, 204–5, 242; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 243–50, 317–29, 343–59, 440–1.

223  Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 83–5; 20 February 1941, Kaplan Diary, 244–5; 2 January, 9, 20 April 1941, Berg Diary, 35–6, 46–7, 48–53; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 263–6; 27 February 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 132; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 530–9; Katarzyna Person, Assimilated Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto, 1940–1943 (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2014), 100–33.

224  2, 25 October, 26 December 1940, 19 February 1941, Kaplan Diary, 202–3, 214–15, 234–6, 244; 17 April 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 154–5; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 641–6.

225  Huberband, Kiddush Hashem, 193–8, 207–10; Kassow, Who Will Write Our History?, 165–9.

226  24 December 1940, 11 December 1941, Berg Diary, 34, 111–13; 9 January 1941, Kaplan Diary, 237; 27 July 1941, Czerniaków Diary, 262–3; mid-September 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 215–16; Zylberberg, A Warsaw Diary, 48–9. Person, Assimilated Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto, 38–48; Peter Dembowski, Christians in the Warsaw Ghetto. An Epitaph for the Unremembered (Chicago: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).

227  September 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 215–16; Edward Reicher, Country of Ash. A Jewish Doctor in Poland, 1939–1945, trans. Magda Bogin (New York: Bellevue, 2013), 63–4; 5 November 1940, Kaplan Diary, 220–1; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 53–4.

228  1, 28 July 1940, Czerniaków Diary, 168–9, 178; 10 March, 6, 17 April 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 135–6, 146, 156; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 107–10, 114.

229  20 May 1941, Berg Diary, 51–2; Szpilman, The Pianist, 13–14, 16–17.

230  31 July 1941, Berg Diary, 81–2; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 68, 256–7; 5 January 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 12–21; Reicher, Country of Ash, 69–78; Kassow, Who Will Write Our History?, 239–59.

232  Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 253, 257–8; 18 March, 26 April 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 141, 159–61.

232  12 June 1941, Berg Diary, 59–60; Mazor, The Vanished City, 15; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 311–16.

233  28 February, 11 May, 26, 30 August 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 129, 174, 197, 205–6; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 80.