Five – Barbarossa: 1941

1 Gilbert, Holocaust, 154; see also Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 157–63, who asserts that ‘The plans to wage war against Russia were always in Hitler’s thoughts.’ Dawidowicz inverts the strategic dénoument by claiming that Hitler attacked Britain and France in order to clear the way for an attack on the USSR.

2 25, 26 July, 8 August 1940, Shirer Diary, 459–61, 467; Sydney B. Redecker, US Consul, ‘Political Report No. 2, Frankfurt-am-Main’, 16 January 1941 in Fremde Blicke, 554–6. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 386–90; Collingham, The Taste of War, 35.

3 13 July, 22, 31 July 1940, Halder Diary, 227, 230, 241–6; Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 26–42; Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 420–5; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 323–4; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 129–36.

4 Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 47–50; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 147–8; Collingham, The Taste of War, 36–7.

5 23 December 1940, Halder Diary, 309–10; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 57–9; Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 56–63, 123–39. Cf. K. J. Arnold and G. C. Lübbers, ‘The Meeting of the Staatssekretäre on 2 May 1941 and the Wehrmacht, A Document Up for Discussion’, Journal of Contemporary History, 42:4 (2007), 613–26.

6 14, 17, 30 March 1941, Halder Diary, 332–9, 345–6. David Stahel, Operation Barbarossa and Germany’s Defeat in the East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 33–95.

7 ‘Orders for Special Areas in Connection with Directive 21’, 19 May 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 375. Fritz, Ostkrieg, 65–70; Geoffrey P. Megargee, War of Annihilation. Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941 (Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 33–41. The best overview and analysis of the Russo-German war is Evan Mawdsley, Thunder in the East. The Nazi–Soviet War 1941–1945 (London: Arnold, 2007).

8 ‘Guidelines for the Treatment of Political Commissars’, 6 June 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 376–7. Felix Römer, ‘The Wehrmacht in the War of Ideologies. The Army and Hitler’s Criminal Orders on the Eastern Front’, in Alex J. Kay, Jeff Rutherford and David Stahel eds, Nazi Policy on the Eastern Front, 1941. Total War, Genocide and Radicalisation (Rochester NY: University of Rochester Press, 2012), 73–100; Wolfram Wette, The Wehrmacht. History, Myth, Reality, trans. Deborah Lucas Schneider (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 90–5.

9 Shlomo Aronson, Hitler, the Allies and the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 58–61; Beevor, The Second World War, 159; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 131–4, 187–9.

10  Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 96–114; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 213–14; Longerich, Holocaust, 179–81; Longerich, Himmler, 516–28; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 182–5.

11  Christian Ingrao, Believe and Destroy. Intellectuals in the SS War Machine, trans. Andrew Brown (London: Polity, 2013), 138–48; Helmut Langerbein, Hitler’s Death Squads. The Logic of Mass Murder (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University, 2004), 27–30.

12  Cf. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 224–34 and Longerich, Holocaust, 181–91.

13  Wildt, An Uncompromising Generation, 268–79; Yitzhak Arad, Shmuel Krakowski, Shmuel Spector eds, The Einsatzgruppen Reports (New York: Holocaust Library, 1982), x–xiii.

14  Ronald Headland, Messages of Murder. A Study of the Reports of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941–1945 (Toronto: Associated University Press, 1992), 27–36, 37–47; Longerich, Himmler, 520; Jürgen Matthäus, ‘Controlled Escalation: Himmler’s men in the Summer of 1941 and the Holocaust in the Occupied Soviet Territories’, HGS, 21:2 (2007), 218–42.

15  2 July 1941, Chief of the Sipo-SD to HSSPF, Documents on the Holocaust, 377–8 and a fuller version Noakes and Pridham eds, Nazism 1919–1945 (1997 edn.), vol. 3, 1091–2; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 227–8; Longerich, Himmler, 517–26; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 185–9. The idea for local pogroms may have come from Alfred Rosenberg.

16  Antony Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. II, 1881–1914 (Oxford: Littman Library, 2010), 3–86.

17  Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 240–96.

18  Shmuel Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews 1941–1944, trans. Jerzy Michalowicz, (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1990), 7–22; Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 376–94. On Bialystok, Sarah Bender, The Jews of Bialystok during World War II and the Holocaust (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2008), 18–88.

19  Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 205–38.

20  Andrew Ezergailis, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941–1944 (Riga: The Holocaust Institute of Latvia, 1996), 58–69; Bernhard Press, The Murder of the Jews in Latvia 1941–1945 (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2000), 3–23, 25–32.

21  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 22–34; Nachum Alport, The Destruction of Slonim Jewry, trans. Max Rosenfeld (New York: Holocaust Library, 1989), 9–10; Moty Stromer, Memoirs of an Unfortunate Person. The Diary of Moty Stromer, trans. Elinor Robinson (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2008), 30; Tom Segev, Simon Wiesenthal. His Life and Legends (London: Cape, 2010), 41–2. Henryk Grynberg, Children of Zion, trans. Jacqueline Mitchell (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1994), 55–117 offers a panorama of experiences under Soviet rule, the deportations and life in Siberian and central Asian camps.

22  Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 384–94, 399–411; Ben Cion Pinchuk, ‘Facing Hitler and Stalin. On the Subject of Jewish “Collaboration” in Soviet Occupied Eastern Poland, 1939–1941’, and Josef Litvak, ‘Jewish Refugees from Poland in the USSR, 1939–1946’, in Joshua D. Zimmerman ed., Contested Memories. Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2003), 61–8 and 123–50; Jan T. Gross, ‘The Jewish Community in the Soviet-Annexed Territories on the Eve of the Holocaust’, in Lucjan Dobroscycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock eds, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), 155–79.

23  Fritz, Ostkrieg, 77–91; Stahel, Operation Barbarossa, 153–86; for a summary of Einsatzgruppen operations, see Longerich, Holocaust, 195–206.

24  Chris Bellamy, Absolute War. Soviet Russia in the Second World War (London: Pan, 2007), 179–98.

25  30 June, 6, 18 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 10, 36. Konrad Kwiet, ‘Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941’, HGS, 12:1 (1998), 3–26. The ‘Operational Situational Reports’ of the Einsatzgruppen were dated and numbered sequentially, but each ‘sitrep’ summarized despatches from more than one EG or EK, often combined information from a few, and frequently covered several days if not longer. To avoid confusion and clutter only the date of a report will be given and it will usually only be tied to a specific unit if just one is mentioned.

26  30 June 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 1; 22 June, 7 July, 4 August 1941, Avraham Tory [Golub], Surviving the Holocaust. The Kovno Ghetto Diary, trans. Jerzy Michalowicz, ed. Martin Gilbert with Dina Porat (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), vii–xxiv, 3–5, 7–8, 23–8; ‘An appeal to the nations of the world. From the diary of Dr Victor Kutorga’ [1941], in Joshua Rubinstein and Ilya Altman eds, The Unknown Black Book. The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories, trans. Christopher Morris and Joshua Rubinstein (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 278–82.

27  Michael McQueen, ‘Nazi Policy Towards the Jews in the Reichskommissariat Ostland, June–December 1941’, in Zvi Gitelman ed., Bitter Legacy. Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 91–103; Christoph Dieckmann, ‘The Role of the Lithuanians in the Holocaust’, in Beate Kosmola and Feliks Tych eds, Facing the Nazi Genocide: Non-Jews and Jews in Europe (Berlin: Metropol, 2004), 149–68.

28  8, 10 July 1941, Tory Diary, 15–18.

29  Yitzhak Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 141–7.

30  13 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 22–3; 4–7, 9–10, 12, 20 July, Herman Kruk, The Last Days of the Jerusalem of Lithuania: Chronicles from the Vilna Ghetto and the Camps 1939–1944, trans. Barbara Harshav, ed. Benjamin Harshav (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 46–7, 50–1, 56–7, 60–1, 66, 70–2; 11 July 1941, Kazimierz Sakowicz, Ponary Diary 1941–1943, ed. Yitzhak Arad (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 11–13, 13–14.

31  11, 13–19, 23 July, Sakowicz Diary, 11–13, 13–14.

32  ‘Accounts of local inhabitants Nesta Miselevich, Veksler, and Yazhgur’, The Unknown Black Book, 301–3.

33  16 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 26–8; Ezergailis, The Holocaust in Latvia, 145–62, 173–86, 208–11.

34  16 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 26–8; Andrej Angrick and Peter Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga. Exploitation and Annihilation, 1941–1944, trans. Ray Brandon (New York: Berghahn, 2009), 65–7, 70; Ezergailis, The Holocaust in Latvia, 217–18. Max Kaufman survived and while in a camp for displaced persons in Germany wrote one of the first accounts of the destruction of the Latvian Jews, Die Vernichtung Der Juden Lettlands (Munich: Deutscher Verlag, 1947).

35  For the routes of the units, see Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 126–9.

36  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 150–2, 163–7; Bender, The Jews of Bialystok, 90–8; Edward B. Westerman, Hitler’s Police Battalions. Enforcing Racial War in the East (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2005), 171–7.

37  Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 421–4.

38  Jan T. Gross, Neighbors. The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 22–101; Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 64–7; cf. Longerich, Holocaust, 192–205. For debate about the methodology for investigating these events and interpreting them, see Antony Polonsky and Joanna B. Michlic eds, The Neighbors Respond. The Controversy Over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), esp. 209–385.

39  5 August 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 67–8; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 151–2; Hersh Smolar, ‘The History of the Minsk Ghetto’, in Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Grossman eds, The Black Book, trans. John Glad and James S. Levine (New York: Holocaust Library, 1981), 139–40; Barbara Epstein, The Minsk Ghetto 1941–1943. Jewish Resistance and Soviet Internationalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 77–87.

40  Einsatzgruppe B reports, 23, 24 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 42–4, 45–6. A long report on the ‘Jewish Question in the Byelorussian Territories’, transmitted to Berlin on 27 July 1941, reads as if it was the first time the Sipo-SD had paid serious attention to this issue, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 47–50.

41  3, 5, 6, 16 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 4, 8–9, 12, 31–3; Frank Golczewski, ‘Shades of Grey: Reflections on Jewish-Ukrainian and German-Ukrainian Relations in Galicia’, in Ray Brandon and Wendy Lower eds, The Shoah in Ukraine. History, Testimony, Memorialization (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 114–55; Simon Redlich, ‘Metropolitan Andreii Sheptyts’kyi and the Complexities of Ukrainian Jewish Relations’ in Gitelman ed., Bitter Legacy, 61–90.

42  L. Herts and Naftali Nacht, ‘The Murder of the Jews in Lvov’, The Black Book, 109; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 89–91; Renata Kessler ed., The Wartime Diary of Edmund Kessler, Lwow, Poland, 1942–1944 (Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2010), 33–7; David Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, trans. Jerzy Michalowicz (Amhurst MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990), 6–7.

43  6, 11 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 12, 19.

44  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 64–71, 72–100.

45  EG C report, 29 July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 55–7.

46  For the routes of the Einsatzgruppen units, see Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 126–9; Dennis Deletant, Hitler’s Forgotten Ally. Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania 1940–1944 (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 83–7.

47  Deletant, Hitler’s Forgotten Ally, 12–25; Jean Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 71–82 and The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 48–63.

48  Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 38–43; Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 71–82; 9 August 1940, Dorian Diary, 112–13.

49  Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 45–51; Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 69–86, 86–124; 25 June 1940, 10 January 1941, Dorian Diary, 99–100, 135–6.

50  Deletant, Hitler’s Forgotten Ally, 52–67; Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 127–32; 24 January, 2, 5 February, March 1941, Dorian Diary, 137–9, 140–4, 148–9.

51  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 148–70; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 111.

52  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 307–22; Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 445–56; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 63–90 and ‘The Holocaust in Romania: the Iasi Pogrom of June 1941’, Central European History 2:2 (1993), 119–48; 11, 13 August 1941, Dorian Diary, 166, 167.

53  11, 17, July 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 16–19, 34–5; Einsatzgruppe D report, 21 July 1941, cited in Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 108; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 90–108; Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 171–5; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 225–7, comments that the Romanians were ‘outperforming Otto Ohlendorf’s Einsatzgruppe D’.

54  Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 176–91; Dennis Deletant, ‘Transnistria and the Romanian Solution of the “Jewish Problem”’, in Brandon and Lower eds, The Shoah in Ukraine, 156–67.

55  Rakhil Fradis-Milner to Rakhil Kovnator, 25 September 1944, The Unknown Black Book, 157–61; EG D report, 23 August 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 105–6.

56  E. Grosberg statement, The Black Book, 92–3; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 111–42; Simon Geissbühler, ‘The Rape of Jewish Women and Girls During the First Phase of the Romanian Offensive in the East, July 1941. A Research Agenda and Preliminary Findings’, Holocaust Studies 19:1 (2013), 59–80.

57  Christa Schroeder, He was My Chief. The Memoirs of Adolf Hitler’s Secretary, trans. Geoffrey Brooks (London: Frontline Books, 2009), 89–90; 24, 30 June, 3, 8, July 1941, Halder Diary, 416–21, 437–8, 444–6, 501–4; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 82–111.

58  Jürgen Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa and the Onset of the Holocaust, June–December 1941’, in Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 265–7; Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 180–5.

59  Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder, 99–101; Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 277–84; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 96–101; Longerich, Holocaust, 239–40.

60  28 June 1941, Halder Diary, 429–31; Stahel, Operation Barbarossa, 160, 199, 254–7; Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army. Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 127–30.

61  10, 25 July 1941, Halder Diary, 463–5, 485; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 134–5; Stahel, Operation Barbarossa, 228–45.

62  Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 112–24; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 81–91, 116–34, 148–62, 182–93; Stahel, Operation Barbarossa, 209–300.

63  24 July, 22 August 1941, Halder Diary, 485, 514–15; Megargee, Inside Hitler’s High Command, 131–7; Stahel, Operation Barbarossa, 423–38.

64  David Stahel, Kiev 1941. Hitler’s Battle for Supremacy in the East (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); cf. Mawdsley, Thunder in the East, 69–74.

65  10 August, 13 September 1941, Halder Diary, 504–6, 529–35. David Stahel, ‘Radicalizing Warfare. Command and the Failure of Operation Barbarossa’, in Kay, Rutherford and Stahel eds, Nazi Policy on the Eastern Front, 1941, 19–44; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 405–20; Megargee, War of Annihilation, 57–71, 89–96, 108–15. Cf. Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 129–33, rejecting arguments that the food crisis or security were reasons for the escalation of killing and arguing that they merely served as pretexts.

66  3 October 1941, Halder War Diary, 545; Philip Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters. The SS and the Nazi Occupation of Europe (Washington DC: Potomac Books, 2008), 63.

67  Proclamation of OKW, 12 September 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 387; Stephen G. Fritz, Frontsoldaten, The German Soldier in World War II (Lexington KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), 199.

68  Longerich, Holocaust, 204–11, 214–18; Longerich, Himmler, 529–37; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 195–6, 197–201. Longerich, Holocaust, 181–2, argues that Himmler envisaged a three-phase, expanding deployment of killing units in line with operational possibilities, first, in the army rear areas, then in the Army Group rear areas, and finally the zones of civil administration. Christian Gerlach, Krieg, Ernärung, Völkermord. Deutsche Vernichtungspolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Zurich: Pendo, 2001), 11–78, sets out the case for planned measures to eliminate ‘useless eaters’.

69  Longerich, Holocaust, 218–31; Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 253–77. Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 261–2, suggests that the mass killing moved from a ‘utopian’ to a practical phase, but his own evidence of the severely technical approach to annihilating populations implies that both thinking and practice moved in the reverse direction.

70  Longerich, Holocaust, 239–40; Dieckmann, ‘The Role of the Lithuanians’, 157–61; Robert G. Waite, ‘“Reliable Local Residents”: Collaboration in Latvia, 1941–1945’, in Andris Caune et al. eds, Latvia in World War II (Riga: University of Latvia, 2000), 114–42.

71  Westerman, Hitler’s Police Battalions, 15–16, 68–87, 100–14, 185–91.

72  For contrasting explanations of how Germans could kill such vast numbers of Jews in cold blood, see Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (London: Little Brown, 1996), 181–280; Christopher R. Browning, Ordinary Men. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Collins, 1992); Westerman, Hitler’s Police Battalions. On the role of the German army, see Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann eds, War of Extermination. The German Military in World War II 1941–1944 (New York: Berghahn, 2000).

73  10, 12, 15, 22, 29 August, 23 September, 9 October, 14 November 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 82, 84, 88–9, 104–5, 114–16, 148–55, 177–9, 231–5; 3 October 1941, Halder War Diary, 545. See also Jeff Rutherford, Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front. The German Infantry’s War, 1941–1944 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 128–45.

74  Longerich, Holocaust, 242–7; cf. Waitman Wade Beorn, Marching Into Darkness. The Wehrmacht and the Holocaust in Belarus (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 92–118.

75  Fritz, Frontsoldaten, 55–6, 58–9, 195–7; Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 160–1. The samples quoted by Bartov are taken mainly from a collection published by the Germans in 1941, Deutsche Soldaten sehen die Sowjetunion, but his conclusions are confirmed by Fritz, who trawled through numerous field post collections and private archives. See also, Neitzel and Welzer, Soldaten. On Fighting, Killing and Dying. The Secret Second World War Tapes of German POWs, 34–6, 44–76, 142–9.

76  Fuchs to Madi, 3, 25 June, 5 July, 5 August 1941; Fuchs to his father, 4 August 1941, Letters of Karl Fuchs, 105, 110, 112, 118, 120. Fuchs was killed in the final lunge towards Moscow.

77  Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 130–1. Hannes Heer, ‘The Logic of Extermination: The Wehrmacht and the Anti-Partisan War’, in Heer and Naumann eds, War of Extermination, 92–126.

78  Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 290–3; Ingrao, Believe and Destroy, 161–200; Longerich, Himmler, 534–5. Eichmann’s comments were made to an ex-Nazi journalist in Buenos Aires in 1955 or 1956 and repeated to his interrogator after he was captured and taken to Israel to stand trial for his crimes in 1960: The Trial of Adolf Eichmann. Record of Proceedings in the District Court of Jerusalem, 9 vols (Jerusalem: Israel Ministry of Justice, 1992–5), vol. 7, 212–13.

79  EG A reports, 10 August, 19 September 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 82, 138; ‘An Appeal to the Nations of the World’, from the diary of Dr Viktor Kuturga, The Unknown Black Book, 286.

80  4 August–1 October 1941, Tory Diary, 26–39.

81  EG A, 16 August 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 91; 8, 10 July, 4 August, Tory Diary, 15–18, 23–8; Dieckmann, ‘The Role of the Lithuanians’, 162–5; Dina Porat, ‘The Holocaust in Lithuania. Some Unique Aspects’, in David Cesarani ed., The Final Solution. Origins and Implementation (London: Routledge, 1994), 159–74.

82  28 October 1941, Tory Diary, 43–59.

83  5, 6, September, 1 October 1941, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 94–6, 122–3; Yitzhak Arad commentary in Sakowicz Diary, 22–7, 30–4, 43–5.

84  23–27 August, 2 September 1941, Sakowicz Diary, 13–14, 20–1, 27–9.

85  2 September, 25 October, 21 November 1941, Sakowicz Diary, 27–9, 34–6, 40.

86  4 September 1941, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 91–2.

87  5, 6, 16–17 September, 1 October, 22, 25, 31 December, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 94–6, 113–15, 122, 133–6, 149, 160.

88  Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 101–18; Gertrude Schneider, ‘The Two Ghettos in Riga, Latvia, 1941–43’, in Dobroscycki and Gurock eds, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 183–5; Martin Dean, ‘Seizure, Registration and Sale: the strange case of the German Administration of Jewish Moveable Property in Latvia (1941–1944)’, in Caune et al. eds., Latvia in World War II, 372–8.

89  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 148–9; ‘The story of Syoma Shpungin’, The Black Book, 347–8.

90  Sönke Neitzel ed., Tapping Hitler’s Generals. Transcripts of Secret Conversations, 1941–45 (Barnsley: Front Line Books, 2007), 204–5.

91  Bender, The Jews of Bialystok, 98–108.

92  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 155–6.

93  Alport, The Destruction of Slonim Jewry, 50–102.

94  ‘Report on the Course of the Action in the Pripet 27 July–11 August’, Documents on the Holocaust, 414–15.

95  Christian Gerlach, ‘German Economic Interests, Occupation Policy, and the Murder of the Jews in Belorussia, 1941/43’, in Ulrich Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies. Contemporary Perspectives and Controversies (New York: Berghahn, 2000), 210–39.

96  Ingrao, Believe and Destroy, 159; ‘Liquidation of the Jews in Mstislavl’, The Unknown Black Book, 274–5.

97  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 101–6.

98  Thomas Sandkühler, ‘Anti-Jewish Policy and the Murder of the Jews in the District of Galicia, 1941/42’, in Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies, 104–27; Andrej Angrick, ‘Annihilation and Labour: Jews and Thoroughfare IV in Central Ukraine’, in Brandon and Lower eds., The Shoah in Ukraine, 190–223.

99  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 223–8.

100  Ibid, 225–6; Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 34; Stromer, Memoirs, 67; Kessler Diary, 45, 50–52.

101  Stromer, Memoirs, 79, 83–4; Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 36–7.

102  19, 28 September 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 140, 174.

103  Vasily Grossman, ‘The Murder of the Jews in Berdichev’ and ‘In the Vinnitsa Region’ by R. Kovnator, The Black Book, 13–24, 28–32.

104  EG C reports, 28 September, 2, 27 October 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 164–5, 168, 210–13; Lev Ozerov, The Black Book, 3–12; Anatoly Podolsky, ‘The Tragic Fate of Ukrainian Jewish Women Under Nazi Occupation, 1941–1944’, in Hedgepath and Saidel eds, Sexual Violence, 93-107, esp. 98-100.

105  9 August 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 77–8; Wendy Lower, ‘Axis Collaboration, Operation Barbarossa and the Holocaust in the Ukraine’, in Kay, Rutherford and Stahel eds., Nazi Policy on the Eastern Front, 1941, 186–219; Wendy Lower, Nazi Empire Building and the Holocaust in the Ukraine (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 69–86; Shmuel Spector, ‘The Holocaust of the Ukrainian Jews’, in Gitelman ed., Bitter Legacy, 43–60.

106  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 181–4.

107  The experience was recorded by G. Munblit, The Black Book, 59–60.

108  16 January, 4 February 1942, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 289; ‘The Recollections of Engineer S S Krivoruchko’, The Unknown Black Book, 99–103.

109  ‘The Diary of Sara Gleykh’, edited by Ilya Ehrenburg, The Black Book, 70–6.

110  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 201–11.

111  7, 28, August, 11 September 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 76, 112–13, 128–9; Randolph Braham, The Politics of Genocide. The Holocaust in Hungary, 2 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994 edn), vol. 1, 207–14.

112  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 252–56; Dennis Deletant, ‘Transnistria and the Romanian Solution of the “Jewish Problem”’, in Brandon and Lower eds, The Shoah in Ukraine, 167–72.

113  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 186–91; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 142–75; Podolsky, ‘The Tragic Fate of Ukrainian Jewish Women’, 102–3.

114  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 201–16, 216–24.

115  Fradis-Milner, 25 September 1944, The Unknown Black Book, 158–9; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 195–212; Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 256–71.

116  26 October 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 209; ‘Odessa’, based on eye-witness reports collated by Vera Inber, The Black Book, 77–91; ‘The story of Anna Morguilis from Odessa’, The Unknown Black Book, 115–18; Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 280–2; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 177–82.

117  ‘Odessa’, based on eye-witness reports collated by Vera Inber, The Black Book, 85–6; ‘Recollections and verses of the schoolboy Lev Rozhetksy, April 4–August 16, 1944’, The Unknown Black Book, 121–32, also testimony from survivors Bogdanovska camp, collected in May 1944, The Unknown Black Book, 138–41; Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 282–88; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 182–93, 195–210.

118  Ancel, The Economic Destruction of Romanian Jewry, 290–306; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 187–92. On the role of the Selbstschutz see Eric Steinhart, The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 113–56.

119  Jäger Report, Documents on the Holocaust, 398–400; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 261, 274.

120  11 January 1942, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 268–9; Gerlach, ‘German Economic Interests’, 224; Dieter Pohl, ‘The Murder of Ukraine’s Jews under German Military Administration and in the Reich Commissariat Ukraine’, in Brandon and Lower eds, The Shoah in Ukraine, 43.

121  ‘Provisional Directive Concerning the Treatment of Jews’, 13 August 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 394–5; Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 283–7; Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 98–9; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 110–11.

122  Hinrich Lohse to Reich Minister for the Occupied Eastern Territories, 15 November 1941 and Otto Brautigan to Lohse, 18 December 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 394–5; Armaments Inspectorate Ukraine to Office of the Industrial Armaments Division, General Thomas, 2 December 1941, Documents on the Holocaust, 417–19; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 155–6, 158–62. Cf. Longerich, Holocaust, 231–2.

123  Michman, The Emergence of the Jewish Ghettos, 105–20.

124  EG C report, 12 September 1941, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 130–1; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 142.

125  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 75–7; Mordechai Altshuler, ‘Escape and Evacuation of Soviet Jews at the time of the Nazi Invasion: Policies and Realities’, in Dobroscycki and Gurock eds, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 77–104.

126  2–6 October, 11, 21, 23, 30 November, 4 December 1941, Halder Diary, 543–5, 562–3, 570–3, 577–9; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 135–65, 182–93.

127  11 August, 21 October 1940, Klemperer Diary, I, 336–7, 344; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 169, 172–8; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 216–17.

128  Kwiet, ‘Without Neighbours’, 117–48; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 209–10, 219–26, 228–9, 230–8.

129  Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 250–1; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 216–19.

130  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 193–7; Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, in Nicosia and Scrase eds, Jewish Life in Nazi Germany, 150–4; 8 July, 7 August, 6 October 1940, District Governor, Upper and Central Franconia; Cologne Emigration Office, reports for July–September 1940 and January–March 1942, Secret Nazi Reports, 500, 502, 506, 578; 27 July 1941, Klemperer Diary, I, 405; Leo Spitzer, Hotel Bolivia. The Culture of Memory in a Refuge from Nazism (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 112–22, 146–7; Heppner, Shanghai Refuge. A Memoir of the World War II Jewish Ghetto, 60–70.

131  2, 18 August, 20 November 1941, Von Hassell Diaries, 185–8, 191, 193, 200–1; 27 July, 2 September 1941, Klemperer Diary, I, 405, 409; Reck-Malleczewen, Diary of a Man in Despair, 141–2, 154–7.

132  Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 56, 85–6, 90–1, 99–100, 103–4.

133  Goebbels diary cited in Fritz, Ostkrieg, 121, 135–6; Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 56–7, 58–65, 74–5.

134  On Jud Süß: SD District Office, Bielefeld, 8, 15 October 1940 and RSHA Dept III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 28 November 1940; on Der ewige Jude, RSHA Dept III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 20 January 1941 and SD District Office, Höxter, ‘Film Programme’, 7 February 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 507, 511–12, 515–17; 10 December 1940, Klemperer Diary, I, 347–8; Thacker, Joseph Goebbels, 221–3, 225–6.

135  RSHA Dept III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 31 July 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 529–30; Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 138–9; Herf, The Jewish Enemy, 103–16; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 184–5.

136  NSDAP Gau Munich-Upper Bavaria Office for Racial Policy, report, 14 October 1940; SD Main District Office, Bielefeld, 30 November 1940 and 5 August 1941 report on ‘Mood Against the Jews’, Secret Nazi Reports, 509, 510, 532–3.

137  Thacker, Joseph Goebbels, 233–6; Longerich, Goebbels, 486–92; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 472–4; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 238–9, 251–6.

138  SD District Office, Bielefeld, report, 13 September; SD Office Minden, ‘Marking of the Jews’, 26 September; District Governor, Augsburg, report for September, 8 October; Gendarmerie, Urspringen, ‘Behaviour of the Jews in Urspringen’, 19 September; RSHA Dept III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 9 October 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 537, 539–40, 542–3, 547, 548–9; Leland B. Morris, US Embassy, to State Department, 30 September 1941, Fremde Blicke, 561–2.

139  17 January 1942, Klemperer Diary, II, 6; RSHA Dept III (SD), 9 October; SD District Office Paderborn, report, 11 October 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 548–9, 549; Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 143; Harry Flannery, Assignment to Berlin (New York: Knopf, 1942), 295–7; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 251–6.

140  Flannery, Assignment to Berlin, 143; 15 September 1941, Klemperer Diary, I, 410–11; Ruth Andreas-Friedrich, Berlin Underground, trans. Barrows Mussey (London: Latimer House, 1948), 65.

141  Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 476–81; Peter Witte, ‘Two Decisions Concerning the “Final Solution of the Jewish Question”: Deportations to Lodz and Mass Murder in Chelmno’, HGS, 9:3 (1995), 318–46; Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 285–94; Dan van der Vat, The Good Nazi. The Life and Lies of Albert Speer (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997), 95–6; Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 97–8; Mayor of Siegburg, ‘Consolidating the Jews in the City of Siegburg Together Under One Roof’, 4 June 1941; Mayor, Forschheim, report, 30 September, demanding relocation of Jews to outskirts; SD Bielefeld, 4 November; NSDAP Lübeck district leadership, ‘Report on the Prevailing Mood’, 10 November 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 526, 545–6, 551–2. Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries, 117–18; Collingham, The Taste of War, 157–64.

142  Witte, ‘Two Decisions Concerning the “Final Solution of the Jewish Question”’; Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 300–6; Cesarani, Eichmann, 95–7; Epstein, Model Nazi, 184–6; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 206.

143  Epstein, The Minsk Ghetto, 77–9; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 152–5; Smolar, ‘The History of the Minsk Ghetto’, The Black Book, 152–3.

144  Livia Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia & Moravia. Facing the Holocaust (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 123–8; Zdenek Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt (London: Edward Goldston, 1953), 13–14. See Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 201–5 for a more up-to-date interpretation of Heydrich’s decision to clear the Protectorate of Jews.

145  Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 131–48.

146  Major General Bruns, recorded 25 April 1945, Neitzel ed., Tapping Hitler’s Generals, 227–8.

147  Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 154–8.

148  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 492–4; Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 235–9; Jürgen Matthäus et al. eds, Jewish Responses to Persecution, vol. III, 1941–1942 (Lanham MD: AltaMira Press, 2013), 156–9; Ascher, A Community under Siege, 246–53.

149  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 392–8; Epstein, Model Nazi, 186–7; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 228; Gutman, ‘The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, xlviii; Ian Kershaw, ‘Improvised Genocide? The Emergence of “the Final Solution” in the Warthegau’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, vol. 2 (1992), 51–78; Patrick Montague, Chelmno and the Holocaust. The Story of Hitler’s First Death Camp (London: I. B. Tauris, 2012), 14–27, 50–65; 20 December 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 96–7.

150  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 374–88; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 217–18; Cesarani, Eichmann, 121–2.

151  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 241; Martin Dean, ‘The Development and Implementation of Nazi Denaturalization and Confiscation Policy up to the Eleventh decree to the Reich Citizenship Law’, HGS, 16:2 (2002), 217–42 and Robbing the Jews, 161–71, 222–43.

152  Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair, 179–89; Rabinovici, Eichmann’s Jews, 116–22; Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 138-40; 7 April 1942 District Governor, Upper and Central Franconia, Secret Nazi Reports, 580–1; Christian Goeschel, ‘Suicides of German Jews in the Third Reich’, German History, 25:1 (2007), 24–45.

153  Smith, Last Train From Berlin, 140; SD District Office Minden, report, 19 December 1941 and Party District Chief Göttingen, ‘Report to Göttingen Gestapo’, 19 December 1941, Secret Nazi Reports, 567, 570; 13 January 1942, Klemperer Diary, II, 5; 1 November 1941, Von Hassell Diaries, 201.

154  Grenville, Jews and Germans, 222–4.

155  Angerick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 101–11; Josef Katz, One Who Came Back. The Diary of a Jewish Survivor, trans. Hilda Reach (Takoma Park, MD: Dryad Press, 2006), 13–25.

156  Oskar Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto. Notebooks from Lodz, ed. Hanno Loewy, trans. Brigitte Goldstein (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2002), 4–11, 12–13.

157  Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 132–42; entry on November, 1, 4, 13 December 1941, 1–5 January 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 80–1, 85–6, 91–2, 93–4, 109–10.

158  Entry on November and 1, 2, 4, 13, 23–25 December 1941, 1–5 January 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 83, 85–7, 87–9, 91–2, 93–4, 99–100, 111–15; 16, 17, 19, 20 October 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 141–2; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 308–11.

159  Christian Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), 759–812.

160  23 June 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 105; 26 June, 9 December 1941, Berg Diary, 87, 111; 20 August, n.d. October 1941, January 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 197–202, 251–2, 254; 26–28 December 1941, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 116.

161  24 August 1941, Sierakowiak Diary, 121–3; 23–25 June, 26–28 December 1941, 6–9 January 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 62, 101, 116–19; ‘At the Paper Ressort’, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 235–48. Ressort was a corruption of Arbeitsressort – factory or workshop.

162  Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 220–2; Weissmann Klein, All But My Life, 36–54; 4, 10 July, 4 August, 16 September, 1 November, 12 December 1941, Diary of David Rubinowitz, 16–18, 20, 22, 24, 26.

163  Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 82–5, 221–3, 225–8, 238–9; 1, 12, 23 May, 22 June, 4 July, 18 October 1941, Czerniaków Diary, 228, 234, 240–1, 251, 254, 289–90.

164  21, 28 May, 3 June, 19 August, 21 November 1941, Czerniaków Diary, 239–40, 243, 245–6, 247, 268–9, 300–1; September 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 216–17. Cf. Raul Hilberg and Stanislaw Staron, ‘Introduction’, in Czerniaków Diary, 55–6.

165  23 August 1941, Czerniaków Diary, 271; 31 July 1941, Berg Diary, 80–3.

166  Mazor, The Vanished City, 120–1; 29 July 1941, Berg Diary, 75–6; 14 October 1941, Czerniaków Diary, 288.

167  October 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 222–3; 1, 27 July, 1 October 1941, Berg Diary, 69, 74, 96–8.

168  November 1941, Ringelblum Notes, 233–4; 22 November, 1 December 1941, Berg Diary, 107–10, 110–11.

169  5, 12, 15, 28 October, 4, 7 December 1941, Weiss Diary, 12–18, 18–22, 22–3, 30–1, 33–5.

170  7 December 1941 [entry undated, 9 December 1941], Weiss Diary, 35–9, 40–5.

171  [9–10 December, undated entries], 13, 14 [entry undated, 24] December 1942, Weiss Diary, 46–50, 50–6.

172  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 172–99.

173  15, 22 June, 8 July, 2 August 1941, Lambert Diary, 43–3, 43–50, 54–5, 61–5.

174  8 July 1941, Lambert Diary, 54–5; Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, 271–81.

175  Thomas Laub, ‘The development of German Policy in Occupied France, 1941, Against the background of the war in the East’, in Kay, Rutherford and Stahel eds, Nazi Policy on the Eastern Front, 1941, 281–313; Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 37–41; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 56–7, 207–9.

176  Ulrich Herbert, ‘The German Military Command in Paris and the Deportation of the French Jews’, in Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies, 128–62; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 209–10.

177  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 131–5; Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 81–102.

178  3 October, 30 November, 2, 11 December 1941, Lambert Diary, 71–2, 76–7, 77–9, 79–83.

179  Jean-Jacques Bernard, The Camp of Slow Death, trans. Edward Owen Marsh (London: Gollancz, 1945; originally published as Camp de la mort lente [Paris: Albin Michel, 1944]), 23, 41–2.

180  Moore, Victims and Survivors, 81–8; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 76–97; Dean, Robbing the Jews, 264–76.

181  Bernard Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue. Gertrude van Tijn and the Fate of the Dutch Jews (London: Harvard University Press, 2014), 102–10.

182  Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece. The Experience of Occupation, 1941–1944 (London: Yale University Press, 1993), 235–8. On the military campaign, see Craig Stockings and Eleanor Hancock, Swastika over the Acropolis. Reinterpreting the Nazi Invasion of Greece in World War II (Leiden: Brill, 2013).

183  Leni Yahil, The Holocaust. The Fate of European Jewry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 349–52.

184  Menachem Shelach, ‘The Murder of the Jews in Serbia and the Serbian Uprising in July 1941’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 161–75; Walter Manoschek, ‘“Coming Along to Shoot Some Jews?” The Destruction of the Jews in Serbia’, in Heer and Naumann eds, War of Extermination, 39–52.

185  Matthäus, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, 294–307.

186  Collingham, The Taste of War, 164–70, 180–99, 199–205, 353–79; cf. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 538–45.

187  Longerich, Himmler, 542–6; Longerich, Holocaust, 260–71; Gerwarth, Hitler’s Hangman, 222–7; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 233.

188  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 185–90.

189  Kershaw, Fateful Decisions, 184–242, 298–330; For Hitler’s speech, see https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/hitler_declares_war.html

190  Thacker, Joseph Goebbels, 236–43; Longerich, Goebbels, 506–7 translates the entry slightly differently; Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 407–8.

191  Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution, 408–9; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 461–75, 484–7.

192  Longerich, Holocaust, 297–8; Longerich, Himmler, 551–3.

Six – Final Solution: 1942

1 Fritz, Ostkrieg, 199–215; Michael Jones, The Retreat. Hitler’s First Defeat (London: John Murray, 2009).

2 Fritz, Ostkrieg, 224–6, 226–30; Collingham, The Taste of War, 199–205.

3 Weinberg, A World At Arms, 408–11; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 230–6.

4 Mark Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting. Wannsee and the ‘Final Solution’ (London: Allen Lane, 2002), 55–9.

5 Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting, 60–4, 65–7. Yehoshua Büchler and Yehuda Bauer, ‘Document: A Preparatory Document for the Wannsee “Conference”’, HGS, 9:1 (1995), 121–9, reveal that the General Government was included in an attempt to bring the civil administration to heel. Cf. Christian Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), 759–812, arguing that the conference was originally called only to discuss the fate of Jews from the Greater Reich and Protectorate, but between 29 November and 8 January 1942 (when the revised invitations were sent out) mutated into a meeting to plan the fate of Jews across Europe.

6 Documents on the Holocaust, 249–53; for an alternative translation, see Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting, 108–11; cf. Cesarani, Eichmann, 112–14.

7 Cf. Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference’ and Longerich, Holocaust, 305–10.

8 Documents on the Holocaust, 253–6; Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting, 111–13.

9 Documents on the Holocaust, 257–60; Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting, 114–17.

10  Documents on the Holocaust, 260–1; Roseman, The Villa, The Lake, The Meeting, 117–18.

11  Cesarani, Eichmann, 114, 119–24; Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference’.

12  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 339–45; Wachsmann, KL, 292–4.

13  4 January 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 111–16.

14  Gutman, ‘The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, xlviii–liii; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 145–55; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 228–9.

15  Essay covering January–March 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 120–1, 124–5; Shmuel Krakowski, Chelmno. A Small Village in Europe. The First Nazi Mass Execution Camp (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009), 57–66.

16  17 January 1942, diary of Shlomo Frank, cited in Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 230–1.

17  Montague, Chelmno and the Holocaust, 66–72.

18  Ibid, 51–9, 76–85, 91–6.

19  Krakowski, Chelmno, 68–80.

20  Montague, Chelmno and the Holocaust, 96–113.

21  Ibid, 128–36.

22  Ibid, 76–82, 85–90; Krakowski, Chelmno, 183–91.

23  22–28 February 1942 and essay on the resettlement action, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 127–9.

24  21, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30 March 1942, Sierakowiak Diary, 149–50; Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 31–2; entry for March and 1 April 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 133–40, 140–4.

25  17 February 1942 and undated notes, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 14–16, 20–3, 24, 28–9; February 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 129–31, 133–5.

26  Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 161–6; Longerich, Himmler, 563–7; Longerich, Holocaust, 323.

27  Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 166–7; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 222–38.

28  16, 18, 21–24 April 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 147–50, 150–2; 19, 20, 23, 24 April 1942, Sierakowiak Diary, 155–7, 158; 19 April 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 34–5; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 38–9.

29  29–30 April, 1 May 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 153–8, 159; 1, 5 May 1942, Sierakowiak Diary, 161, 163; 4 May 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 39–41.

30  4, 6–7 May 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 160, 161–5; undated notes, 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 103–5.

31  7, 8, 12, 17 May 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 165–7, 170–2, 174–7.

32  On contradictory German policies, see Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 189–91; 12, 19, 23, 26 May 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 58–62.

33  18 May 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 177–81.

34  Montague, Chelmno and the Holocaust, 183–8.

35  Dieter Pohl, ‘The Murder of the Jews in the General Government’, in Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies, 86–7 and David Silberklang, Gates of Tears. The Holocaust in the Lublin District (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2013), 221–8, argue that a decision to murder masses of Jews was taken by Himmler and Odilo Globocnik in October 1941.

36  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 228–51; Thomas Sandkühler, ‘Anti-Jewish Policy and the Murder of the Jews in the District of Galicia, 1941/42’, in Herbert ed., National Socialist Extermination Policies, 104–27; cf. Bogdan Musial, ‘The Origins of Operation Reinhard’, Yad Vashem Studies, 28 (1999), 112–53 and Dieter Pohl, ‘Hans Krüger and the Murder of the Jews in the Stanislawow Region’, Yad Vashem Studies, 26 (1998), 239–64; Peter R. Black, ‘Auxiliaries for Operation Reinhard: Shedding Light on the Trawniki Training Camp Through Documents from Behind the Iron Curtain’, in David Bankier ed., Secret Intelligence and the Holocaust (New York: Enigma Books, 2006), 327–36, on the limited number of trained men actually available for ‘Operation Reinhard’ at the outset.

37  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 230–1, 260–79, 281–9.

38  Ibid, 286–7, 289–90.

39  Yitzhak Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka. The Operation Reinhard Death Camps (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 23–9.

40  Ibid, 68–74.

41  Ibid, 73; Robin O’Neill, ‘Belzec – The Forgotten Death Camp’, East European Jewish Affairs, 28:2 (1998–9), 49–62.

42  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 290–306; Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 383–9.

43  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 307–35; Longerich, Himmler, 563–7; Pohl, ‘The Murder of the Jews in the General Government’, 88–9.

44  Rudolf Reder, ‘Belzec’, trans. M M Rubel, Polin, 13 (2000), 268–89, here 271–5. Reder’s memoir was written in Polish with the assistance of Nella Rost, a researcher for the Jewish historical commissions that after the liberation of Poland collected evidence of crimes against the Jews. It was published in 1946 by the Jewish Historical Commission in Lwow.

45  Reder, ‘Belzec’, 280–8.

46  Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 43–4, 44–9; Esther Farbstein, Hidden Thunder. Perspectives on Faith, Halacha, and Leadership during the Holocaust, (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook, 2007), 187–200, on the typical refusal of rabbis to condone handing over Jews to the Germans even to save the lives of other Jews.

47  Stromer, Memoirs, 85; Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 50–6; Farbstein, Hidden Thunder. 327–41.

48  Stromer, Memoirs, 113.

49  Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary, 57–72; John-Paul Himka, ‘Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky and the Holocaust’, Polin, 26 (2014), 337–60.

50  Robert Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht. The German Campaigns of 1942 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 50–84, 85–114, 116–48; Hayward, Stopped at Stalingrad, 65–119; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 236–66.

51  Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 152–82, 223–58; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 266–97.

52  Longerich, Himmler, 557–61; Michael Thad Allen, The Business of Genocide. The SS, Slave Labour, and the Concentration Camps (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 154–64; Jens-Christian Wagner, ‘Work and extermination in the concentration camps’, in Jane Caplan and Nikolaus Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany. The New Histories (London: Routledge, 2010), 132–6, 139–41; Wachsmann, KL, 289–97, 393–403.

53  Longerich, Holocaust, 314–20; Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 257–9; Wachsmann, KL, 297–9, 306–25.

54  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 345–51; Longerich, Holocaust, 332–4; Longerich, Himmler, 568–71.

55  Longerich, Himmler, 572–3; Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 312–13; Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 259–61. Confusingly, the name of the operation was probably coined before the assassination of Heydrich and not even the Nazis used a uniform spelling: Witte and Tyas, ‘A New Document on the Deportation and Murder of Jews During “Einsatz Reinhardt” 1942’, 474–5.

56  Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 168–76, 221–5; Longerich, Holocaust, 341–4; Aly, Hitler’s Beneficiaries, 173–4; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 220–4.

57  Longerich, Himmler, 573–4; Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour Under the Nazis, 261–8.

58  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 30–6; Jules Schelvis, Sobibor. A History of a Nazi Death Camp, trans. Karin Dixon, ed. Bob Moore (Oxford: Berg, 2007), 23–39.

59  Testimony of Yacov Freidberg, session 64, 4 June 1961, The Trial of Adolf Eichmann, vol. III (Jerusalem: State of Israel Ministry of Justice, 1993), 1167–71; Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 75–80.

60  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 114–15; Rochelle G. Saidel, Mielec, Poland. The Shtetl that Became a Nazi Concentration Camp (Jerusalem: Geffen, 2012), 88–9.

61  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 123–4; Schelvis, Sobibor, 103–13; Freidberg, The Trial of Adolf Eichmann, vol. III, 1167.

62  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 123–4 and Appendix A, 390–1.

63  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 47–51.

64  31 January, 16 February, 13, 18 March, 1 April 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 320, 326, 335, 339; 10 April, 8 May 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 256–7, 261–4; 15 April, 8 May 1942, Berg Diary, 134–5, 145; 25, 30 May, 4 June 1942, Abraham Lewin, A Cup of Tears. A Diary of the Warsaw Ghetto, ed. Antony Polonsky, trans. Christopher Hutton (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), 96–7, 106–8, 118; Havi Ben-Sasson and Lea Preiss, ‘Twilight days: Missing Pages from Avraham Lewin’s Warsaw Ghetto Diary, May–July 1942’, Yad Vashem Studies, 33 (2005), 7–60, here entry 14 June 1942, 26; 3, 21 June 1942, Kaplan Diary, 286–7, 297–8. For Hitler’s 30 January 1942 speech see Max Domarus ed., Hitler Speeches and Proclamations 1932–1945, trans. Mary Fran Golbert (Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1990), digital version at http://www.pdfarchive.info/pdf/H/Hi/Hitler_Adolf_-_Hitler_Speeches_and_Proclamations.pdf, 2570-9.

65  8 May 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 260–1; 16 May 1942, Lewin Diary, 73–7; 21 June 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 368; 27 June, 2 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 302–3, 305–6.

66  26 June 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 301; 26 May, 2 June 1942, Lewin Diary, 95–6, 114; 6, 13 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 307–8, 312–14.

67  January 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 245–6; 23 May 1942, Kaplan Diary, 277–8; see also 30 May 1942, Lewin Diary, 106–8.

68  2 February 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 321; 18, 22 May, 9 June 1942, Lewin Diary, 77–8, 89, 125–8; 7 May 1942, Kaplan Diary, 267–8; 28 May 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 282.

69  30 May 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 288–9; Mazor, Vanished City, 41–3.

70  30 May 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 288; Mazor, Vanished City, 114–15; 4, 8, 14, 27 April 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 340–1; 27 February, 12 June 1942, Berg Diary, 128–30, 159.

71  20, 25 February 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 328, 330; 21 May 1942, Lewin Diary, 84.

72  Oral history interviews with Bartolomeo Fruterro, Michaelangelo Pattoglio, in Nuto Revelli ed., Mussolini’s Death March. Eyewitness Accounts of Italian Soldiers on the Eastern Front, trans. John Penuel (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013), 219–25, 239–61, here, 220 and 242–3.

73  2, 12, 13, 15 May, Czerniaków Diary, 349, 352–4; 8 May 1942, Berg Diary, 143–5; 13, 16, 19, 23 May 1942, Lewin Diary, 71–2, 80, 90; see also 14, 19 May 1942, Kaplan Diary, 271–2, 274–6.

74  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 122–32, 132–44, 144–5, 146–54; Daniel Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours: The Jewish Labour Bund in Poland 1939–1949 (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003), 44–55; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 659–72, 673–85.

75  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 680–1; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 162–7.

76  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 681–3; Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours, 90–6; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 170–6; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 170–5, 181–4.

77  17 April 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 342–5; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 683–5; Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours, 97–101; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 176–80.

78  26 June 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 295–6; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 657–72.

79  3, 13, 17 June, 11, 18, 19 July 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 362, 366–7, 378, 381–2; 15, 30 June 1942, Berg Diary, 149–50; 17, 18 July 1942, Hillel Seidman, The Warsaw Ghetto Diaries, trans. Yosef Israel (Jerusalem: Targum, 1997), 33–40, 44–8.

80  21 July 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 383–4; 21 July 1942, Seidman Diaries, 48–51.

81  22 July 1942, Czerniaków Diary, 384–5; 21 July 1942, Seidman Diaries, 52–3; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 212–13, 704–5.

82  July–December, Ringelblum Notes, 316; 26 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 323–5; 23, 24 July 1942, Seidman Diaries, 57–9, 60. See also Marcel Reich-Ranicki, The Author of Himself. The Life of Marcel Reich-Ranicki, trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001), 163–75.

83  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 698–700; 24 July 1942, Seidman Diaries, 60–2.

84  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 703–15; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 268–75. Adler, an administrative officer with the Order Service, is suspiciously vague about his activities during the period.

85  27, 29 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 325–7, 329–31; 24, 26 July, 23 August, 1942, Lewin Diary, 136–7, 138–9, 163–4; 23 July 1942, Seidman Diaries, 57–8.

86  22, 26 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 319–21, 323–5; 12, 24, 28 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 153–4, 163–4, 170.

87  27 July 1942, Kaplan Diary, 325–6; 28 July, 1, 9 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 140, 144–5, 150–1; 29 July, 27 August 1942, Seidman Diaries, 66–8, 84–6.

88  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 228–36; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 193–4; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 108–12; Marek Edelman, The Ghetto Fights (London: Bookmarks, 1990; first published in Polish in 1945, in English 1946), 55–6.

89  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 236–49; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 202–4, 218–22; Goldstein, The Stars Bear Witness, 118–19; 21 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 161–2.

90  7 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 76–9; 12 August 1942, Seidman Diaries, 75–8; 4 August 1942, Kaplan Diary, 337–8.

91  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 718–19; 10 August 1942, Seidman Diaries, 72–3; Szereszewska, Memoirs, 60–1, 96–7, 105.

92  18 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 159–60; Zylberberg, A Warsaw Diary, 67–70, 71–5.

93  Szpilman, The Pianist, 94–7, 98–107.

94  16, 19, 20 August, 11 September 1942, Lewin Diary, 157–8, 160–1, 176–9.

95  8 September 1942, Seidman Diaries, 113–17; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 727–30; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 221.

96  6, 9, 11, 28 August 1942, Lewin Diary, 148, 150–1, 152–3, 170–1; 2 September 1942, Seidman Diaries, 100–7.

97  For this and the following paragraph, see Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 37–43.

98  See also Witold Chrostowski, The Extermination Camp Treblinka (London: Valentine Mitchell, 2003), 24–54.

99  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 89–99; Longerich, Holocaust, 33.

100  Yankiel Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka (New York: American Representation of the Jewish Workers Union of Poland, 1944), 6–8; Eddie Weinstein, 17 Days in Treblinka. Daring to Resist, and Refusing to Die (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2008), 36–7.

101  Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 9–10; Weinstein, 17 Days in Treblinka, 39–62.

102  Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 11–55.

103  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 89–92, 119–20; Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 18.

104  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 127–8 and Appendix A, 392–7; the Höfle telegram was intercepted by British signals intelligence at Bletchley Park and decoded: Peter Witte and Stephen Tyas, ‘A New Document on the Deportation and Murder of Jews During “Einsatz Reinhardt” 1942’, HGS, 15:3 (2001), 468–86, here 469–70.

105  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 109–13; Chrostowski, The Extermination Camp Treblinka, 45–52.

106  Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 18–22; see also Oskar Strawczynski, ‘Ten Months in Treblinka (October 5, 1942 – August 2, 1943)’, in Israel Cymlich, Oskar Strawczynski, Escaping Hell in Treblinka (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2007), 127–86.

107  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 162–4; Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 22.

108  Chil Rajchman, Treblinka. A Survivor’s Memory 1942–1943, trans. Solon Beinfeld (London: Quercus, 2011), 43–6, 91.

109  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 254–6; Rajchman, Treblinka, 63–4; Wiernik, A Year in Treblinka, 22. In a memoir written in Czech soon after the war, Richard Glazar, Trap with a Green Fence. Survival in Treblinka, trans. Roslyn Theobald (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1995), 45–58, recalled how ‘stabilization’ allowed the prisoners to act collectively. Glazer was deported to Treblinka from Czechoslovakia in mid-October 1942.

110  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 251–73, 287–97.

111  Ibid, 251–2, 255–6; Epstein, The Minsk Ghetto, 104–6, 133–47; EG A report, 9 March 1942, Einsatzgruppen Reports, 307–8; ‘From the notes of the Partisan A Mikhail Grichanik’ and ‘Accounts of Perla Aginskaya and others’, The Unknown Black Book, 240, 245–6.

112  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 256–8; Alport, The Destruction of Slonim Jewry, 125–42, 156–70, 195–221, 244–54.

113  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 491–3, 505–10; Nechama Tec, Defiance. The Bielski Partisans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 40–93.

114  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 266–71; interview with Francesco Rossi in Revelli ed., Mussolini’s Death March, 315–16.

115  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 172–87; Martin Dean, Collaboration in the Holocaust (Houndmills: Macmillan, 2000), 78–104; Martin Dean, ‘Soviet Ethnic Germans and the Holocaust in the Reich Commissariat Ukraine, 1941–1944’, in Brandon and Lower eds, The Shoah in Ukraine, 248–71.

116  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 189–206; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 263–73.

117  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 227–31; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 493–5; Yehuda Bauer, The Death of the Shtetl (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 66–7, 94–118, 122–51.

118  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 271–2.

119  Ibid, 283–91, 292–7; Klaus-Michael Mallman and Martin Cüppers, Nazi Palestine. The Plans for the Extermination of the Jews in Palestine, trans. Krista Smith (London: Enigma Books, 2010), 185–8. On the collaboration of Muslims in the USSR and more widely, see David Motadel, Islam and Nazi Germany’s War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), esp. 133-77.

120  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 274–83; Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 249–52.

121  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 283–5.

122  Robert Jan van Pelt, ‘A Site in Search of a Mission’, in Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 93–157; Wachsmann, KL, 289–314.

123  Sybille Steinbacher, Auschwitz. A History (London: Penguin, 2005), 22–44; Irena Strzelecka and Piotr Setkiewicz, ‘The Construction, Expansion and Development of the Camp and its Branches’, in Aleksander Lasik et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp, vol. 1, The Establishment and Organisation of the Camp, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2000), 63–80; Robert Jan van Pelt and Debórah Dwork, Auschwitz 1270 to the Present (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 163–96; Henryk Swiebocki, Auschwitz 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp, vol. IV, The Resistance Movement, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2000), 65–79.

124  Van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 168–71.

125  Steinbacher, Auschwitz, 45–51, 89–95; van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 197–211, 262–75; Wachsmann, KL, 295.

126  Dieter Pohl, ‘The Holocaust and the concentration camps’, in Caplan and Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany, 149–66, esp. 151–2, 154; Wachsmann, KL, 299–302.

127  Nikolaus Wachsmann, ‘The dynamics of destruction. The development of the concentration camps, 1933–1945’, and Jens-Christian Wagner, ‘Work and extermination in the concentration camps’, 17–43, esp. 29–31, and 127–48, esp. 132–5; Wachsmann, KL, 361–8, 393–410.

128  Pohl, ‘The Holocaust and the concentration camps’, 151–2; Wagner, ‘Work and extermination in the concentration camps’, 136–7, 139–41; Wachsmann, KL, 344–8, 474–9.

129  Eduard Niznansky, ‘Expropriation and Deportation of Jews in Slovakia’, in Kosmola and Tych eds, Facing the Nazi Genocide, 205–30.

130  Van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 300–1; Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, vol. 2 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985 edn), 718–30; Wachsmann, KL, 295–7; 26 March 1942, Danuta Czech, Auschwitz Chronicle 1939–1945 (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 148.

131  Franciszek Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp, vol. III, Mass Murder, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2000), 32–5; Longerich, Holocaust, 324–6.

132  30 March, 7, 24, 27 June, 19, 21 July 1942, Auschwitz Chronicle, 151, 176, 180, 187, 189, 200, 201; Herbert, ‘The German Military Command in Paris and the Deportation of the French Jews’, 143–4; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 88–90.

133  Irena Strzelecka, ‘Quarantine on Arrival’, Tadeusz Iwaszko, ‘The Housing, Clothing and Feeding of the Prisoners’ and Irena Strzelecka, ‘The Working Day for the Auschwitz Prisoners’, in Tadeusz Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp, vol. II, The Prisoners – Their Life and Work, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2000), 45–50, 51–64, 65–70; Steinbacher, Auschwitz, 29–40, 51–60.

134  Franciszek Piper, ‘The Exploitation of Prisoner Labor’, in Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. II, 71–136; Steinbacher, Auschwitz, 29–40, 51–60; Wachsmann, KL, 344–50.

135  Irena Strzelecka, ‘The Hospitals at Auschwitz Concentration Camp’, in Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. II, 291–346.

136  Irena Strzelecka, ‘Women in the Auschwitz Concentration Camp’ in Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. II, 177–200, here 185.

137  Strzelecka, ‘The Hospitals at Auschwitz Concentration Camp’, 347–56; Robert Jay Lifton and Amy Hackett, ‘Nazi Doctors’ and Irena Strzelecka, ‘Women’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 393–411, 301–16; Wachsmann, KL, 427–43.

138  Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 28–9; Longerich, Holocaust, 327–9.

139  Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 121–33; Wachsmann, KL, 299–314, 350–3.

140  Filip Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz. Three Years in the Gas Chamber, trans. and ed. Susanne Flatauer (Chicago: Ivan Dee, 1999 edn), 11–22. Müller first wrote up his experiences in 1946 and they were published in summary form in Ota Krauss and Erich Kulka, Továrna na smrt (Prague: Orbis, 1946), which appeared in English as The Death Factory, trans. Stephen Joly (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1966), 156–60. He expanded his testimony in the 1960s with the ‘literary collaboration’ of Helmut Freitag.

141  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 31–9.

142  Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 134–8.

143  Ibid, 138–40; Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 50–3.

144  Longerich, Holocaust, 320–2.

145  RSHA, Dept. III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 29 January 1942; SD District Office Höxter, ‘Store Hours for Selling to Jews’, 19 January 1942; RSHA, Dept. III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 2 February 1942, Secret Nazi Reports, 571–2, 572–3, 574–5.

146  2, 6 June, 19 August 1942, Klemperer Diary, II, 61–3, 84–5, 120–1.

147  Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 225, 254–5; Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, 168–9; SD District Office Minden, report, 21 February 1942, Secret Nazi Reports, 576; 23 May, 13, 21 November 1942, Klemperer Diary, II, 54, 157, 160–1; Doerry, My Wounded Heart, 95–8. See also, Beate Meyer, ‘The Mixed Marriage: A Guarantee of Survival or a Reflection of German Society during the Nazi Regime?’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 54–76.

148  Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, 155–62; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 239–40, 244; 25, 27 July 1942, Klemperer Diary, II, 102–3, 105.

149  Arnold Paucker and Konrad Kwiet, ‘Jewish Leadership and Jewish Resistance’, in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 381–2; 23 February, 9, 19 June 1942, Andreas-Friedrich, Berlin Underground, 68–9, 70, 71; 10 August 1942, Secret Nazi Reports, 601–2.

150  Zdenek Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, trans. K. Weisskopf (London: Goldston, 1953), 35–44, 247–50 for statistical summary; Livia Rothkirchen, ‘Gateway to Death: The Unique Character of Terezin (Theresienstadt)’, in Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia & Moravia, 233–47.

151  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 20–3; n.d., Weiss Diary, 56–7, 61–6.

152  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 17–24, 59–73.

153  Ibid, 24–8.

154  Norbert Troller, Theresienstadt. Hitler’s Gift To The Jews, trans. Susan Cernyak-Spatz, ed. Joel Shatzky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 8–17, 30–1, 34–5.

155  Troller, Theresienstadt, 34, 39–40, 44.

156  Weiss Diary, 63–4, 67–70; Troller, Theresienstadt, 77–8, 89–98, 118–24.

157  March–July 1942, 19, 23 July 1942, Philipp Manes, As if it were life. A WWII Diary from the Theresienstadt Ghetto, trans. Janet Foster, Ben Barkow and Klaus Leist, eds Ben Barkow and Klaus Leist (London: Palgrave, 2009), 1–5, 13–15, 19.

158  Manes Diary, 23–30, 40, 42–3.

159  Ibid, 44–52, 70–2.

160  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 48–50; Manes Diary, 64–8.

161  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 50–1; Weiss Diary, 72–3.

162  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 39–51.

163  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 116–18, 222–6; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 251–3. On Darquier de Pellepoix, see Carmen Callil, Bad Faith. A Forgotten History of Family and Fatherland (London: Cape, 2006).

164  Thomas J. Laub, After the Fall. German Policy in Occupied France 1940–1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 181–8; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 222–7.

165  Laub, After the Fall, 228–9.

166  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 228–9.

167  Ibid, 241–2.

168  Serge Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 271–81; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 97–102.

169  7, 8, 15 April, 1, 8, 9 June 1942, Hélène Berr, Journal, trans. David Bellos (London: MacLehose Press, 2008), 15–29, 48, 50–1, 53–5.

170  8 January, 11 February, 29 March 1942, Lambert Diary, 89–95, 100–5, 111–13; cf. Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 81–102.

171  24 June, 2, 6 July 1942, Berr Journal, 67–76, 84–5, 93.

172  15 July 1942, Berr Journal, 97.

173  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 248–9.

174  Adam Rayski, The Choice of the Jews Under Vichy. Between Submission and Resistance, trans. Will Sayers (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005), 88–95; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 104–8.

175  Rayski, The Choice of the Jews Under Vichy, 90; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 111–16.

176  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 112–13;

177  Testimony of Georges Wellers, session 32, 9 May 1961, The Trial of Adolf Eichmann, vol. II, 583–5.

178  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 260–2; cf. Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 109–29.

179  18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26 July 1942, Berr Journal, 98–110.

180  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 181–6, 246–9; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 270–2; Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 43–6; Donna F. Ryan, The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille. The Enforcement of Anti-Semitic Policies in Vichy France (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 79–107, 163–6. Olivier Philipponnat and Patrick Lienhardt, The Life of Irène Némirovsky 1903–1942, trans. Euan Cameron (London: Vintage, 2011), 1–5, 369–84

181  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 118–34.

182  21 July, 6 September, 4 October 1942, Lambert Diary, 127–8, 132–3, 134–7; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 288–91.

183  11 October 1942, Lambert Diary, 137–40; Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 109–29.

184  11 October 1942, Lambert Diary, 142–4.

185  Laub, After the Fall, 234–6; Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, 277–8; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 157–62; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 260–2.

186  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 270–82; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 292–302; Ryan, The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille, 169–71.

187  Renée Poznanski, ‘French Public Opinion and the Jews during World War II: Assumptions of the Clandestine Press’, in Kosmola and Tych eds, Facing the Nazi Genocide, 117–35, esp. 123–33 and her ‘The French Resistance: An Alternative Society for the Jews?’ in David Bankier and Yisrael Gutman eds, Nazi Europe and the Final Solution (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009), 411–34.

188  Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 277–8.

189  Maxime Steinberg, ‘The Jews in the Years 1940–1944: Three Strategies for Coping with a Tragedy’ and ‘The Judenpolitik in Belgium within the West European Context: Comparative Observations’, in Michman ed., Belgium and the Holocaust, 205–13, 353–62; Anne Somerhausen, Written in Darkness. A Belgian Woman’s Record of the Occupation 1940–1945 (New York: Knopf, 1946), 144–8.

190  24 November, 2 December 1942, Shaul Esh ed., Young Moshe’s Diary, trans. Hana’ar Moshe (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1979), 19–26, 30–1.

191  Pim Griffioen and Ron Zeller, ‘Comparing the Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, France and Belgium’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 55–91.

192  Maxime Steinberg, ‘The Trap of Legality: the Association of the Jews in Belgium’, in Yisrael Gutman and Cynthia Haft eds, Patterns of Jewish Leadership in Nazi Europe 1933–1945 (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1979), 353–76, esp. 353–68; Bob Moore, Survivors. Jewish Self-Help and Rescue in Nazi-Occupied Western Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 171–7; Somerhausen, Written in Darkness, 144–8. See also, Dan Michman, ‘Problematic National Identity, Outsiders and Persecution: Impact of the Gentile Population’s Attitude in Belgium on the Fate of the Jews in 1940–1944’ and Jean-Philippe Schreiber, ‘Belgium and the Jews under Nazi Rule: Behind the Myths’, in Bankier and Gutman eds, Nazi Europe and the Final Solution, 455–68 and 469–88.

193  Steinberg, ‘The Jews in the Years 1940–1944: Three Strategies for Coping with a Tragedy’, 347–50; Yahil, The Holocaust, 393–4; Longerich, Holocaust, 362–3.

194  Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue, 128–33; Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 18; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 118–37.

195  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 135–43; Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue, 138–40.

196  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 141; Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 22–3.

197  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 143–53, 158–64, 170–3; Guus Meershoek, ‘The Amsterdam Police and the persecution of the Jews’, Michael Berenbaum and Abraham Peck eds, The Holocaust in History, the Known, the Unknown, the Disputed, and the Reexamined (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1998), 284–300.

198  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 407–9, 415–28; Jacob Presser, ‘Introduction’, in Philip Mechanicus, Waiting for Death. A Diary, trans. Irene R. Gibbons (London: Calder and Boyars, 1968), 5–10.

199  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 164–9.

200  Ibid, 246–54, 264–77, 348–56; Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue, 141–2, 146–8.

201  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 378–84, 383–400; Van der Boom, ‘Ordinary Dutchmen and the Holocaust: A Summary of Findings’, 38–48.

202  Griffioen and Zeller, ‘Comparing the Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, France and Belgium’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 55–92; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 68–73, 357–71, 371–74.

203  Gerard Aalders, Nazi Looting. The Plunder of Dutch Jewry During the Second World War, trans. Arnold and Erica Pomerans (Oxford: Berg, 2004), 11–83, 104–63, 175–83, 185–201, 203–9.

204  Longerich, Holocaust, 370–2.

205  22 April, 8 June, 22 November 1941, 20 June 1942, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 324–5, 341, 373–4, 393–4.

206  27, 29 September 1942, Ruth Maier’s Diary, 405, 406–7.

207  Ibid, 411–12.

208  1, 4, 8–10 June; 2, 21, 23, July; 4 August 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 194, 199–200, 203, 217–18, 226, 236; 26 June, 22 July, 26 August 1942 Sierakowiak Diary, 189, 198, 210–11; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 196, 199–201.

209  25, 28 June, 2, 30, 31 July, 28 August 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 212, 214–15, 217–18, 232–4, 244–5; 11 August 1942 Sierakowiak Diary, 205.

210  27, 29, 30 May 1942 Sierakowiak Diary, 174, 176–7; 9 June, 6–8 August 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 69–70, 115.

211  20–21 May, 27 July, 28, 30 August 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 181–2, 231, 244–6; 27 July, 12, 27 August 1942, Sierakowiak Diary, 200, 205, 211.

212  4, 14 September 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 248–50, 250–8; 1–4 September 1942 Sierakowiak Diary, 212–18; 1–3 September 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 119–22; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 203–13.

213  Lucille Eichengreen, From Ashes to Life: My Memories of the Holocaust (San Francisco: Mercury House, 1994), 48–9; Avraham Cytryn, Youth Writing Behind the Walls. Notebooks from the Lodz Ghetto, ed. Su Newman, trans. Chaya Naor, (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2005), 247–50.

214  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 272–5.

215  1–12 September 1942, Zelkowicz, In Those Terrible Days, 251–349.

216  25 September, 5 November, 3 December 1942, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 261–2, 285, 296; September 1942, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 136–7; 21 November 1942, Sierakowiak Diary, 234.

217  Longerich, Holocaust, 363–5.

218  11 February, 10 March, 7 June 1942, Dorian Diary, 195, 199–200, 211–12; Ioanid, The Holocaust in Romania, 238-48; cf. Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 470–84.

219  Ancel, The History of the Holocaust in Romania, 486–99; Longerich, Holocaust, 365–6, 369–70.

220  Vagi, Csoz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 61–5; Longerich, Holocaust, 367, 371–2.

221  Longerich, Holocaust, 367–8, 370–1; Frederick Charny, The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution 1940–44 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), 35–84.

222  Longerich, Holocaust, 368, 372; Susan Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust. Persecution, Rescue and Survival (London: Peter Halban, 1987), 75–8

223  Max Hastings, Finest Years. Churchill as Warlord 1940–45 (London: Harper Press, 2009), 234–53, 295–8.

224  Cesarani, The Jewish Chronicle and Anglo-Jewry 1841–1991, 176–9; Richard Bolchover, British Jewry and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 8–10; Walter Laqueur, The Terrible Secret. Suppression of the Truth about Hitler’s Final Solution (London: Penguin, 1980), 67–76.

225  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 194–8; Leff, Buried by the Times, 140–58; Lipstadt, Beyond Belief, 159–73, 180–7.

226  Walter Laqueur and Richard Breitman, Breaking the Silence. The Secret Mission of Eduard Schulte, who brought the world news of the Final Solution (London: Bodley Head, 1986), 96–117, 123–34, 136–7.

227  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 349–59; Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 148–57.

228  Bernard Wasserstein, ‘Patterns of Jewish Leadership in Great Britain during the Nazi Era’, in Braham ed., Jewish Leadership during the Nazi Era, 29–43; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 199–201. For contrasting interpretations of the British-Jewish response, Meier Sompolinsky, Britain and the Holocaust. The Failure of Anglo-Jewish Leadership (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 1999), 55–75, Pamela Shatzkes, Holocaust and Rescue. Impotent or Indifferent? Anglo-Jewry 1938–1945 (London: Palgrave, 2002), 110–16 and Bolchover, British Jewry and the Holocaust, 54–73. On the USA, see Ne’eman Arad, America, its Jews and the rise of Nazism, 213–20.

229  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 202–4. For a critical appraisal of American Jewish responses and the administration, see David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews. America and the Holocaust 1941–1945 (New York: Pantheon, 1985 edn), 19–58.

230  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 204–6; cf. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 61–78.

231  17 December 1942, Hansard, Series 5, vol. 385, cols 2082–7; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 151–63.

Seven – Total War: 1943

1 15, 26 November, 11, 22 December 1942, 24 January 1943, Klemperer Diary, II, 157, 162, 166, 169, 184; 17 January 1943, Seidman Diaries, 409; 12 November 1942, 6 January 1943, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 409, 445; 29 November, 2, 18 December 1942, Lambert Diary, 152, 155, 158.

2 Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 267–88 and his The Wehrmacht Retreats. Fighting a Lost War, 1943 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2012), 4–40; Simon Ball, The Bitter Sea (London: Harper Press, 2009), 158–211; Douglas Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble. The North African Campaign and the Mediterranean in Campaigns in World War II (London: Cassell, 2004), 348–414.

3 Fritz, Ostkrieg, 303–26; Citino, Death of the Wehrmacht, 289–302 and The Wehrmacht Retreats, 31–74; Hayward, Stopped at Stalingrad, 227–310.

4 Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936, 550–5, 561–77; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 420–32; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 326–36.

5 Mallman and Cüppers, Nazi Palestine, 116–24, 167–84; Longerich, Holocaust, 390–6; Longerich, Himmler, 647–9, 662–3.

6 Longerich, Holocaust, 374.

7 Herf, The Jewish Enemy, 190–6; For the text of Goebbels’ speech, http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/hi369/reading/week8/goebbelstotal/

8 28 February, 7 March 1943, Andreas-Friedrich, Berlin Underground, 81–3; Longerich, Holocaust, 386. Nathan Stoltzfus, Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany (New York: Norton, 1996), casts the protest in a more idealistic light.

9 17 January, 28 February, 25 April 1943, 5 December 1944, Klemperer Diary, II, 182, 196, 206–9, 364; SD District Office Höxter, ‘Jew Hartwig Stein’, 27 February 1943, Secret Nazi Reports, 611; Grenville, The Jews and Germans, 251–2.

10  Doerry, My Wounded Heart, 97–112, 114–16, 121–3, 149–233, 241–9.

11  Lucie Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, trans. Susan Ray (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1995), 13–17, 21–2.

12  Meyer, ‘Between Self-Assurance and Forced Collaboration’, 159–61; Avraham Barkai, ‘The Final Chapter’, in Michael Meyer ed., German History in Modern Times, vol. 4, 378–88; 1 December 1942, Andreas-Friedrich, Berlin Underground, 76. See also Christian Dirks, ‘Snatchers: The Berlin Gestapo’s Jewish Informants’, in Beate Meyer, Hermann Simon and Chana Schütz eds, Jews in Nazi Berlin: From Kristallnacht to Liberation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 249–73 and Peter Wyden, Stella: One Woman’s True Tale of Evil, Betryal, and Survival in Hitler’s Germany (New York: Doubleday, 1992).

13  20 December 1942, Von Hassell Diaries, 249–50; SD District Office Schwabach, report for December 1942, 23 December 1942, Secret Nazi Reports, 607–8; Jeremy D. Harris, ‘Broadcasting the Massacres. An analysis of the BBC’s contemporary coverage of the Holocaust’, Yad Vashem Studies, 25 (1996), 65–98; Eric A. Johnson, Nazi Terror. The Gestapo, Jews and Ordinary Germans (London: John Murray, 1999), 444–57.

14  District Governor Swabia, report for May 1943, 10 June 1943, Secret Nazi Reports, 623; Herf, The Jewish Enemy, 201–9. Other mass graves were later discovered, bringing the total to 22,000.

15  RSHA, Dept. III (SD), ‘Reports from the Reich’, 19 April 1943; SD District Office Friedberg, III A4, ‘Mood and Situation’, 23 April; RSHA, Dept. III (SD), ‘Reports on Domestic Questions’, 26 July 1943; SD District Office Bad Neustadt, ‘General Mood and Situation’, 15 October 1943, Secret Nazi Reports, 615–17, 618–19, 629–30, 635; 15 May 1943, Von Hassell Diaries, 272.

16  Nick Stargardt, ‘Speaking in public about the murder of the Jews: What did the Holocaust mean to the Germans?’, in Christian Wiese and Paul Betts eds, Years of Persecution, Years of Extermination. Saul Friedländer and the Future of Holocaust Studies (London: Continuum, 2010), 133–55, esp. 140–9; cf. Richard Overy, The Bombing War. Europe 1939–1945 (London: Penguin, 2013), 289–301, 323–38, 447–8.

17  NSDAP Local Branch, Nuremberg-Maxfeld, ‘Ideological Situation Report’, 9 April 1943; SD District Office Friedberg, report, 14 May; Gendarmerie, Sandberg, general report, 28 June 1943; RSHA, Dept. III (SD), ‘Reports on Domestic Questions’, 8 July 1943; SD District Office Würzburg, ‘General Mood and Situation’, 3 August 1943; SD District Office Schweinfurt, ‘General Mood and Situation’, 6 September 1943, Secret Nazi Reports, 614–15, 628, 629, 631, 634.

18  SD Regional Division Halle/S. III C 4, ‘General Guidance of the Press’, 22 May 1943; NSDAP Party Chancellery II B4, ‘Extracts from Reports of Gau Head Offices and Other Offices’, 29 May 1943, Secret Nazi Reports, 622, 624–5.

19  Mallman and Cüppers, Nazi Palestine, 116–24, 154–66, 167–84.

20  Robert Satloff, Among the Righteous. Lost Stories from the Holocaust’s Long Reach Into Arab Lands (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 30–7, 57–61 and in general, see Michel Abitbol, The Jews of North Africa in World War II (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989).

21  Daniel Carpi, Between Mussolini and Hitler. The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1994), 195–9, 200–27.

22  Mallman and Cüppers, Nazi Palestine, 170–6, 184; Carpi, Between Mussolini and Hitler, 228–40.

23  Weinberg, A World at Arms, 431–8; Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats, 165–70; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 302–6; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 356–65.

24  1 February 1943, Lambert Diary, 163–9; Ryan, The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille, 1–9, 180–93; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 173.

25  18 May 1943, Lambert Diary, 180–8; Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 394–421.

26  Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, ix-xiii, 202. See also, Richard I. Cohen, The Burden of Conscience. French Jewry’s Response to the Holocaust (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 94–8, 173–8 and Rayski, The Choice of the Jews Under Vichy, 151–3, 230–1.

27  Cesarani, Eichmann, 144; Carpi, Between Mussolini and Hitler, 102–32, 136–63, 183–4; cf. Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 161.

28  Klarsfeld, ‘The Influence of the War on the Final Solution in France’, 278–80; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 178.

29  Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 174–5; Mary Felstiner, ‘Alois Brunner: “Eichmann’s Best Tool”’, Simon Wiesenthal Centre Annual, 3 (1986), 1–46.

30  11 February 1942, 18, 20 August 1943, Lambert Diary, 95, 197–9; for Lambert’s fate, see Richard I. Cohen, ‘Introduction’ in Lambert Diary, lxi–lxiv; Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution, 149–57; Cohen, The Burden of Conscience, 89–92, 128–30.

31  Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 15–22.

32  Steven M. Bowman, The Agony of Greek Jews 1940–1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009), 2, 28–9, 50–3; Andrew Apostolou, ‘“The Exception of Salonika”. Bystanders and collaborators in Northern Greece’, HGS, 14:2 (2000), 165–6; Mark Mazower, Salonica. City of Ghosts. Christians, Muslims and Jews 1430–1950 (London: Harper Collins, 2004), 421–4.

33  Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 150–4.

34  Mazower, Salonica, 421–4; Bowman, The Agony of Greek Jews, 59–62; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 154–7.

35  Mazower, Salonica, 424–33; Bowman, The Agony of Greek Jews, 62–6; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 157–62; Doctor Albert Menasche (Number 124,454), Birkenau (Auschwitz II). Memoirs of an Eye-Witness. How 72,000 Greek Jews Perished (New York: Albert Martin, 1947), 9–17.

36  Mazower, Salonica, 431–4; Bowman, The Agony of Greek Jews, 80–93; Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, vol. 2, 692–701; Menasche, Birkenau, 17; Marco Nahon, Birkenau. Camp of Death, trans. J. H. Bowers, ed. Steven Bowman (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), 21–9.

37  Mazower, Salonica, 434–42; Bowman, The Agony of Greek Jews, 138–54, 162–72.

38  Mazower, Salonica, 443–9; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 162–7.

39  Frederick B. Charney, The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution 1940–44 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), 69–100, 101–14, 122–8; cf. Tzvetan Todorov, The Fragility of Goodness. Why Bulgaria’s Jews Survived the Holocaust, trans. Arthur Denner (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999), 7–9.

40  Charney, The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 90–100, 142–57; Todorov, The Fragility of Goodness, 19–26, 27–40, and extract from the unpublished memoir by Dimitar Peshev, 137–83.

41  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 763; Longerich, Himmler, 664; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 277–9.

42  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 93–8, 396–9, 477–81, 749–53.

43  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 268–70, 273–4; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 275, 281–2.

44  5 October 1942, Lewin Diary, 187–8; 27 November 1942, 11 January 1943, Seidman Diaries 164–7, 209–10; 15 October 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 320–1.

45  16 October, 1 November, 29 December 1942, Lewin Diary, 189–90, 195–7, 232; 15 October 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 310–14, 329–32; 12 October 1942, Seidman Diaries, 152–7.

46  21 September 1942, Seidman Diaries, 128–30; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 282; 15 October 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 325; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 283–5, 301–2.

47  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 285–91; Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours, 104–5; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 757–62; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 244–55; 30 November, 9 December 1942, Seidman Diaries, 165–8, 175–9. On the Revisionist Zionist element, David Wdowinski, And We Are Not Saved (London: W. H. Allen, 1964), 81–2; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 293–7; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 762–3.

48  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 297–301; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 248–55; 30 November, 9 December 1942, Seidman Diaries, 165–8, 175–9.

49  10, 11, 13 January 1943, Seidman Diaries, 197–204, 210–14, 230–4; 14 December 1942, Ringelblum Notes, 338–44.

50  11 January 1943, Seidman Diaries, 210–14; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 278–80.

51  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 307–12; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 283–4, 285, 288.

52  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 763–6; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 285.

53  Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 297–301, 305–17.

54  Reicher, Country of Ash, 117–22.

55  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 766–75; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 317–20, 320–3, 350–4; Reicher, Country of Ash, 114–15; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 317; Simha Rotem (Kazik), Memoirs of a Warsaw Ghetto Fighter. The past within me, trans. and ed. Barbara Harshav (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 28–9.

56  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 336–46; Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 773; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 288, 292–5, 307–8.

57  Gunnar S. Paulsson, Secret City. The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 28–35, 78–90, 98–137; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 276–7.

58  Paulsson, Secret City, 147–59; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 276–7.

59  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 740–5; Paulsson, Secret City, 20–1, 147–59; Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours, 155–9; Szpilman, The Pianist, 126–35; Zylberberg, A Warsaw Diary, 82–4; Adler, In the Warsaw Ghetto, 315–30. Hillel Seidman also left at around this time.

60  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 775–82; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 344, 350–1; Rotem, Memoirs of a Warsaw Ghetto Fighter, 33–4; Marek Edelman, The Ghetto Fights (London: Bookmarks, 1990; first published in English, 1946), 75–6.

61  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 775–82; Rotem, Memoirs of a Warsaw Ghetto Fighter, 34; Moshe Arens, ‘The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: A Reappraisal’, Yad Vashem Studies, 33 (2005), 101–42.

62  Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 357.

63  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 779.

64  Rotem, Memoirs of a Warsaw Ghetto Fighter, 39–42, 162.

65  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 779–89.

66  Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 263–5, 382–4; Rotem, Memoirs of a Warsaw Ghetto Fighter, 168–9; Edelman, The Ghetto Fights, 84–5; Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 420–5.

67  Shmuel Krakowski, The War of the Doomed. Jewish Armed Resistance in Poland, 1942–1944, trans. Ora Blaustein (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1984), 161–216 and Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 365–92, for an overview of the uprising and estimation of casualties; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 382–403, 789–96.

68  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 401–15.

69  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 801–6.

70  David Cesarani, ‘British reactions to the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising’, in Daniel Grinberg ed., Fifty Years After. Papers from the Conference organized by the Jewish Historical Institute of Warsaw, 29–31 March 1993 (Warsaw: Jewish Historical Institute, 1994), 133–44; for the US response, see Lipstadt, Beyond Belief, 216–17.

71  Cohen, Rescue the Perishing, 173–4, 181–94; Louise London, ‘British Government Policy and Jewish Refugees 1933–45’, Patterns of Prejudice, 23:4 (1989), 35–43.

72  Cohen, Rescue the Perishing, 188–9; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 164–9.

73  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 217–18; cf. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 79–92.

74  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 218–25; cf. David S. Wyman and Rafael Medoff, A Race Against Death. Peter Bergson, America, and the Holocaust (New York: The New Press, 2002), 13–46.

75  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 220; McDonald Diaries, II, 310.

76  Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 169–80; Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 104–23; Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination, 182–90; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 224–5; McDonald Diaries, II, 305, 308–9.

77  Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 180–1.

78  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 226–7; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 181–3; Cohen, Rescue the Perishing, 194–8.

79  Blatman, For Our Freedom and Yours, 145–50; David Engel, Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-In-Exile and the Jews, 1943–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North California Press, 1993), 70–6.

80  Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 76–7, 81–9, 89–94. Cf. Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, arguing that the Polish government-in-exile was hamstrung by British resistance to publicizing the plight of Polish Jews and used its own channels to make the information available to those who wanted to use it.

81  Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David, 49–62, 64–9, 80–9, 110–36, 144–9. On the controversial question of Ben-Gurion’s attitude to rescue, see also Shabetai Teveth, Ben-Gurion and the Holocaust (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1995). Avriel, Open the Gates!, 123–73, recalls the tribulations and accomplishments of a key Zionist envoy.

82  Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 427–8; Longerich, Holocaust, 376–9.

83  Longerich, Holocaust, 379; Bender, The Jews of Bialystok, 221–4; Gruner, Jewish Forced Labour, 266–72; Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 390–3.

84  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 309–402.

85  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 250–1; Thaddeus Stabholz, Seven Hells, trans. Jacques and Hilda Grunblatt (New York: Holocaust Library, 1990), 29–89.

86  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 334–40; Longerich, Holocaust, 379.

87  Documents on the Holocaust, 335–41; for a more extensive version but a different translation see The Diary of Samuel Golfard and the Holocaust in Galicia, ed. Wendy Lower (Lanham MD: AltaMira Press, 2011), 101–6.

88  Documents on the Holocaust, 335–41; Claudia Koonz ‘On Reading a Document: SS-Man Katzmann’s “Solution of the Jewish Question in the District of Galicia”’, The Raul Hilberg Lecture, University of Vermont, 2 November 2005 at https://www.uvm.edu/~uvmchs/documents/KoonzHilbergLecture_002.pdf

89  26, 30 January 1943, The Diary of Samuel Golfard, 55, 72.

90  5, 14 April 1943, The Diary of Samuel Golfard, 89, 93 and Wendy Lower, ‘Introduction’, 28–47 and ‘Related Documents’, 123–35 in the same volume.

91  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 258–60; Bender, The Jews of Bialystok, 169–72, 185–92, 194.

92  Bender, The Jews of Bialystok, 155–69, 177–84, 193–203, 204–11.

93  Ibid, 252–69, 269–73.

94  Klein, All But My Life, 114–42, 145–52, 153–66; Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 431–4; Bella Gutterman, A Narrow Bridge to Life. Jewish Forced Labour and Survival in the Gross-Rosen Camp System, 1940–1945, trans. IBRT (New York: Berghahn, 2008), 51–2; Marc Buggeln, Slave Labour in Nazi Concentration Camps, trans. Paul Cohen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), esp. 83–139.

95  3 March, 8 April 1943, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 322, 333; Gutman, ‘The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, xlv; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 172–4; Epstein, Model Nazi, 257–67; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 234–37, 267–71.

96  Epstein, Model Nazi, 257–67; Gutman, ‘The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, xl–xlii; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 159–64; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 237–41.

97  13, 19 March, 21 April, 1, 7 August 1943, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 323–4, 325, 337, 355–7, 367.

98  20 February, 6, 8, 11 March 1943, Sierakowiak Diary, 250, 252, 253, 256–7, 263.

99  23 February, 30 April, 6, 26 May, 8–9 July 1943, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 159, 167 (undated essay), 187, 189, 191, 195.

100  10 April, 11 October, 25 October 1943, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 333–4, 395–7, 421–3; 20 April, 8 October, 28 December 1943, Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 185, 204, 241–3

101  Gutman, ‘The Distinctiveness of the Lodz Ghetto’, xlv–xlvi; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 248–54.

102  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 312–14; Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 278–80, 366–72.

103  Katz, One Who Came Back, 43–9, 65–79, 88–102; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 314–15; Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 336–46, 372–5.

104  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 321–2; Longerich, Holocaust, 383–4; Angrick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 379–90.

105  8 March, 12, 15, 17 September, 28 October, 28 December 1942; 25 February 1943, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 226–8, 356, 357, 360, 387–9, 439, 464.

106  5, 9 April 1943, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 500–2, 507–8; 4, 5 April 1943, Sakowicz Diary, 69–83; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 315–17.

107  Philip Friedman, Roads to Extinction, 372–7; Abraham H. Foxman, ‘The Resistance Movement in the Vilna Ghetto’, in Yuri Suhl ed., They Fought Back. The Story of the Jewish Resistance in Nazi Europe (New York: Schocken, 1967), 148–58.

108  1 July 1943, Vilna Ghetto Chronicles, 580; 24 September 1943, Sakowicz Diary, 118–19; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 318–19.

109  6, 11 October 1943, Sakowicz Diary, 127–9, 130–2.

110  January–December 1942, 4, 10 March, 19, 21 April, 8, 28 May 1943, Tory Diary, 65–89, 248–51, 299–302, 303–4, 324–6, 355–6; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 319.

111  Entry for 28 September 1943 and letter by Elchanan Elkes, 11 November 1943, Tory Diary, 481–6, 507.

112  Longerich, Holocaust, 382–5; Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 326–9.

113  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 165–9.

114  Chrostowski, The Extermination Camp Treblinka, 100; Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 219–22; Wiernik, A Year In Treblinka, 30–2; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 105–12, 127–9, 158–60; Glazar, Trap with a Green Fence, 69–76, 89–96.

115  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 171–2, 173–7; Wiernik, A Year In Treblinka, 26–8, 40–1; Rajchman, Treblinka, 69–78.

116  Wiernik, A Year In Treblinka, 35–8; Rajchman, Treblinka, 101–2; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 175–8; Glazar, Trap with a Green Fence, 111–12.

117  Wiernik, A Year In Treblinka, 44–6; Rajchman, Treblinka, 102–3; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 178–82; Glazar, Trap with a Green Fence, 137–45.

118  Wiernik, A Year In Treblinka, 44; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 179.

119  Rajchman, Treblinka, 106–11; Glazar, Trap with a Green Fence, 146–88; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 150–72, 224–63.

120  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 147–9; Jules Schevlis, Sobibor. A History of a Nazi Death Camp, trans. Karin Dixon (New York: Berg, 2007), 198–208, 216–20.

121  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 299–314.

122  Ibid, 315–21; Thomas Toivi Blatt, From the Ashes of Sobibor. A Story of Survival (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 139–44.

123  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 322–42; Blatt, From the Ashes of Sobibor, 145–53, 232–3.

124  Blatt, From the Ashes of Sobibor, 155–71, 173; A. Petzovsky [Alexander Peshersky], ‘The Outbreak in Sobivor’, in Meyer Barkai ed., The Fighting Ghettos (New York: Tower Books, 1962), 205–26. This anthology is an abbreviated translation of The Book of the Fighting Ghettos, edited by Yitzhak Zuckerman. On the survival of death camp escapees in general, see Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 342–8.

125  Jan Grabowski, Hunt for the Jews. Betrayal and Murder in German-Occupied Poland (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014), 1–4, 59–65, 134–48, and ‘Rural Society and the Jews in Hiding: Elders, Night Watchers, Firefighters, Hostages and Manhunts’, Yad Vashem Studies, 40 (2012), 49–74.

126  Grabowski, Hunt for the Jews, 63–86, 101–20, 137–48.

127  Gross with Gross, Golden Harvest, 50–4, 91–114; Grabowski, Hunt for the Jews, 101–20; Aleksandra Bánkowska, ‘Polish Partisan Formations during 1942–1944 in Jewish Testimonies’, Holocaust Studies and Materials (2008), 103–22; Alina Skibinska and Joanna Tokarska-Bakir, ‘“Barabasz” and the Jews: From the History of the “Wybraniecki” Home Army Partisan Detachment’, Holocaust Studies and Materials (2013), 13–78; Jerzy Mazurek, ‘“Jozek, what are you doing?” The Massacre of Jews Committed by the AK in the Village of Kosowice’, Holocaust Studies and Materials (2013), 405–32; Alina Skibinska with Jerzy Mazurek, ‘“Barwy Biale” on their way to Aid Fighting Warsaw: The Crimes of the Home Army against the Jews’, Holocaust Studies and Materials (2013), 433–80.

128  8 May, 8 August, 24 October, 17, 26 November 1942, 28 May 1943, Klukowski, Diary, 195–6, 209, 221, 225, 226–7, 256.

129  Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 257–326, 327–32, 356–61.

130  Longerich, Himmler, 666–7; Longerich, Holocaust, 382; Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 365–9; Pohl, Von der ‘Judenpolitik’ zum Judenmord, 166–71.

131  Silberklang, Gates of Tears, 403–9.

132  Ibid, 409–30, 432–3.

133  Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, 370–6; Caroline Sturdy-Colls, ‘Gone but not Forgotten: Archaeological Approaches to the Site of the former Treblinka Extermination Camp in Poland’, Holocaust Studies and Materials (2013), 253–89.

134  Van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 320–4 and central plates ‘Blueprints of Genocide’ and Jean-Claude Pressac with Robert Jan van Pelt, ‘The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 183–245. Cf. Michael Thad Allen, ‘The Devil in the Details: The Gas Chambers of Birkenau, October 1941’, HGS, 16:2 (2002), 189–216, arguing that several documents suggest the SS designers may have considered using the underground rooms for poison gas much earlier.

135  Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 144–68 and his ‘Gas Chambers and Crematoria’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 157–82.

136  Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 167–73.

137  Andrzej Strzelcki, ‘Plundering the Victims’ Property’, in Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. II, 137–65; Willliam Z. Slany, US and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen or Hidden by Germany During World War II. A Preliminary Study (Washington: US State Department, 1997), 162–5; Peter Hayes, From Cooperation to Complicity. Degussa in the Third Reich (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 181–4, 283–96; Wachsmann, KL, 376–81.

138  Kitty Hart, I am alive (London: Corgi Books, 1962), 69–70.

139  Andrzej Strzelcki, ‘The History, role and operation of the “Central Camp Sauna” in Auschwitz II-Birkenau’, in Teresa Swiebocka ed., The Architecture of Crime. The ‘Central Sauna’ in Auschwitz II-Birkenau, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, 2001), 11–16; Hart, I am alive, 40–1.

140  Strzelcki, ‘The History, role and operation of the “Central Camp Sauna”’, 24–9.

141  Nahon, Birkenau, 21–9, 30–2, 33–41.

142  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 29–31; Nahon, Birkenau, 45–6.

143  Piper, ‘The Exploitation of Prisoner Labour’, in Tadeusz Iwaszko et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. II, 89–98; Galia Glaser-Heled and Dan Bar-On, ‘Displaced: the memoir of Eliezer Gruenbaum at Birkenau – Translation and Commentary’, Shofar, 27:2 (2009), 1–23, here 6.

144  Danuta Czech, ‘The Auschwitz Prisoner Administration’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 362–78; Menasche, Birkenau, 17–58; Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 73–80; Nahon, Birkenau, 68–72; Wachsmann, KL, 499–521.

145  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 37–8; Nahon, Birkenau, 46–7; van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 262–8.

146  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 47–8.

147  Nahon, Birkenau, 42–3, 61–6; Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 43–6, 50–4; Irena Strzelecka, ‘Hospitals’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 379–92.

148  Strzelecka, ‘Hospitals’, Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 398–91; Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 65–6; Nahon, Birkenau, 95.

149  Irena Strzelecka, ‘Women’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 412–17; Krystyna Zywulska, I came back, trans. Krystyna Cenkalska (New York: Roy Publishers, 1951 [first published in Polish, 1946]), 22, 50, 68; Helen Tischauer interview by Dr David Boder, Feldafing, Germany, 23 September 1946 in Jürgen Matthäus ed., Approaching an Auschwitz Survivor. Holocaust Testimony and its Transformations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 124–8, 138, 145–6, 149–50.

150  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 100–1; Zywulska, I came back, 96–7; Ellen Ben-Sefer, ‘Forced Sterilization and Abortion as Sexual Abuse’, in Hedgepeth and Saidel eds, Sexual Violence Against Jewish Women, 150–73, esp. 160–4.

151  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 85–6; Zywulska, I came back, 61–2; Brigitte Halbmayr, ‘Sexualized Violence against Women during Nazi “Racial” Persecution in Hedgepeth and Saidel eds, Sexual Violence Against Jewish Women, 29–44, esp. 33–8.

152  Zywulska, I came back, 61, 107; Halbmayr, ‘Sexualized Violence’, 35.

153  Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, 415–51; Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats, 165–97.

154  Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, 452–62.

155  Ibid, 462–74; Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats, 241–54.

156  Porch, Hitler’s Mediterranean Gamble, 485–503, 507–12; Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats, 255–65.

157  Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 178–83.

158  Longerich, Himmler, 681–4; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 599.

159  Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 550–84; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 329–30, 336–53, 364–84; Citino, The Wehrmacht Retreats, 116–44, 212–37.

160  Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 472–6, 538; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 581–4, 588–9; Herf, The Jewish Enemy, 211–13; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 360–1.

161  Longerich, Himmler, 689–90, 694–5; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 603–6, 636–7; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 540–5; van der Vat, The Good Nazi, 164–9.

162  Longerich, Holocaust, 401–3.

163  Meir Michaelis, ‘Italian Policy up to the Armistice’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 283–300; Liliana Picciotto, ‘Statistical Tables on the Holocaust in Italy with an Insight into the Mechanics of the Deportations’, Yad Vashem Studies, 33 (2005), 307–46; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 161–74.

164  Luigi Fleischmann, From Fiume to Navelli. A Sixteen-Year-Old’s Narrative of the Fleischmann Family and Other Free Internees in Fascist Italy September 1943–June 1944 (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2007), 14–16, 19–20.

165  Liliana Picciotto, ‘The Shoah in Italy: Its History and Characteristics’, in Zimmerman ed., Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945, 210–14; Richard Breitman, ‘New Sources on the Holocaust in Italy’, HGS, 16:3 (2002), 402–14.

166  Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust, 101–37.

167  Ibid, 144–6, 154–65, 210–17 and Zuccotti, Under His Very Windows, The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 150–70, 202–99; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 559–69.

168  Picciotto, ‘The Shoah in Italy’, 214–21; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 187–96; Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust, 166–99.

169  8, 24 December 1943, 6 March 1944, Fleischmann, From Fiume to Navelli, 58–9, 78–80, 115–16; Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini’s Italy, 202–10

170  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 82–9, 167, 181–2.

171  Jackson, France 1940–1944, 230–1.

172  Poliakov’s reminiscences from his memoir, L’auberge des musiciens, quoted in Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 181–2.

173  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 164–6.

174  Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust, 76–8; Jonathan Steinberg, All or Nothing. The Axis and the Holocaust 1941–43 (London: Routledge, 1990), 131–4.

175  Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 250–3; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 181–5; 11 April 1944, Czech, Auschwitz Chronicle, 609.

176  Longerich, Himmler, 691–2; Zuccotti, The Italians and the Holocaust, 80–2; Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 252–6; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 185–8.

177  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 321–32, 336–51; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 550–5; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 157–65, 187–9; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 175–7.

178  25 August, 10, 28, October, 1 November 1943, Berr Journal, 155, 155–9, 186, 193–6.

179  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 238–46; Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 152–6.

180  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 227–31; Philip Hallie, Lest Innocent Blood be Shed (New York: Harper, 1994), 129–38; Caroline Moorhead, Village of Secrets: Defying the Nazis in Vichy France (London: Chatto and Windus, 2014), 141–50, 190–205, 218–21, 224–34.

181  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 351–5; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 260–78; Claude Lanzmann, The Patagonian Hare. A Memoir, trans. Frank Wynne (London: Atlantic Books, 2012), 91–111.

182  Longerich, Holocaust, 387–8; 13, 15 January 1943, Young Moshe’s Diary, 60–2; Marion Schreiber, The Twentieth Train, trans. Shaun Whiteside (London: Atlantic Books, 2004), 162–3, 170–1.

183  Schreiber, The Twentieth Train, 210–30; 7 March 1944, Anne Somerhausen, Written in Darkness. A Belgium Woman’s Record of the Occupation 1940–1945 (New York: Knopf, 1946), 261–2 (Somerhausen repeatedly muddles dates, which makes her ‘diary’ a less than reliable source).

184  Longerich, Holocaust, 387–8; Shaul Esh, ‘Introduction’, Young Moshe’s Diary, 6–8. Moshe’s sisters and a younger brother survived.

185  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 482–4; Moore, Victims and Survivors, 103–5; Griffioen and Zeller, ‘Comparing the Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, France and Belgium’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 72–4, 77–8.

186  Romijn, ‘The “Lesser Evil”’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 23–5; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 178–94, 202–13; Moore, Victims and Survivors, 104–5; Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue, 171–80.

187  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 195–202.

188  Ibid, 464–78; Marieke Meeuwnwoord, ‘The Holocaust in the Netherlands: new research of camp Vught’, in Romijn et al. eds, The Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands, 93–103; Robert Jan van Pelt, ‘Introduction’ to David Koker, At the Edge of the Abyss. A Concentration Camp Diary, 1943–1944, trans. Michiel Horn and John Irons (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2012), 58–9; Moore, Victims and Survivors, 101.

189  Van Pelt, ‘Introduction’ and 11, 22, 23, February, 23 March 1943, Koker, Diary, 23–42, 77–8, 105, 109, 152.

190  8, 9, 10 May 1943, Koker, Diary, 190–2.

191  23 May, 7 July, 16 August, 1, 30 September, 7 November 1943, Koker, Diary, 198–200, 221–2, 243, 251–3, 264, 281–2.

192  11, 15, 27 November 1943, Koker, Diary, 285–6, 289, 294–5.

193  Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 53–4, 57, 60–2, 65 (on the Vught transports).

194  29 May 1943, Mechanicus, Diary, 16–17.

195  1 June 1943, Mechanicus, Diary, 25–7.

196  3 June, 3 July, 4, 27 August 1943, Mechanicus, Diary, 29–33, 73–4, 112, 140.

197  14 September 1943, Mechanicus, Diary, 155–8.

198  Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 235–8, 529–35.

199  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 52–3, 88–95; Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia, 242–3; 14 January 1943, Weiss Diary, 77.

200  Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 122–31; Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia, 265–83; Joza Karas, Music in Terezin 1941–1945 (New York: Beaufort Books, 1988), 9–84, 93–161.

201  Ruth Bondy, Trapped. Essays on the History of the Czech Jews, 1939–1943 (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2008), 11–12.

202  Bondy, Trapped, 152–3, 156–9; Manes Diary, 112–15.

203  Bondy, Trapped, 159–69; Nili Keren, ‘The Family Camp’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 428–40; Otto Dov Kulka, Landscapes of the Metropolis of Death. Reflections on Memory and Imagination, trans. Ralph Mandel (London: Allen Lane, 2013), 18–19.

204  Kulka, Landscapes of the Metropolis of Death, 105–14; Bondy, Trapped, 152–5; Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia, 247–64; Cesarani, Eichmann, 136–7, 149–50.

205  Kulka, Landscapes of the Metropolis of Death, 30.

206  Bondy, Trapped, 175–6; Kulka, Landscapes of the Metropolis of Death, 30, 34.

207  Longerich, Himmler, 397–401; Vilhjálmur Örn Vilhjálmsson, ‘The King and the Star. Myths created during the Occupation of Denmark’, in M. B. Jensen and S. L. B. Jensen eds, Denmark and the Holocaust (Copenhagen: Institute for International Studies, 2003), 102–17.

208  Lone Rünits, ‘The Politics of Asylum in Denmark in the Wake of Kristallnacht –A Case Study’, in Jensen and Jensen eds, Denmark and the Holocaust, 14–32; Bo Lidegaard, Countrymen. The Untold Story of How Denmark’s Jews Escaped the Nazis (London: Atlantic Books, 2013), 12–13.

209  Lidegaard, Countrymen, 20–1; Collingham, The Taste of War, 175.

210  Lidegaard, Countrymen, 26–31.

211  Longerich, Holocaust, 397–401; Lidegaard, Countrymen, 31–45; Michael Mogenson, ‘October 1943 – the Rescue of the Danish Jews’, in Jensen and Jensen eds, Denmark and the Holocaust, 33–61, esp. 35–8.

212  Lidegaard, Countrymen, 80–93, 96–8.

213  Christian Leitz, Nazi Germany and Neutral Europe during the Second World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 49–84; Paul Levine, ‘Swedish neutrality during the Second World War: tactical success or moral compromise’, in Neville Wylie ed., European Neutrals and Non-Belligerents During the Second World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 304–30; Sven Nordlund, ‘“The War is Over – Now You Can Go Home!” Jewish Refugees and the Swedish Labour Market in the Shadow of the Holocaust’, in David Cesarani and Paul Levine eds, ‘Bystanders’ to the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 171–98.

214  From Indifference to Activism, Swedish Diplomacy and the Holocaust 1938–44 (Uppsala: Studia Historica Upsaliensia, 1998), 66–9, 92–5, 114–30, 134–43.

215  Mogenson, ‘October 1943’, 39–43, 47–9; Lidegaard, Countrymen, 111–13.

216  Mogenson, ‘October 1943’, 52–7; Lidegaard, Countrymen, 147–57.

217  Mogenson, ‘October 1943’, 43–6; Lidegaard, Countrymen, 127–39, 173–89.

218  Mogenson, ‘October 1943’, 50–1.

219  Longerich, Holocaust, 399.

220  Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 167–90; cf. Martin Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (London: Michael Joseph, 1981), 73, 85–7, 105, 155, 161.

221  Harris, ‘Broadcasting the Massacres. An analysis of the BBC’s contemporary coverage of the Holocaust’, 65–98; Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 200–13; cf. Engel, Facing a Holocaust, 31–43, 71–4, 76–7, 172–8.

222  Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 43–5; Tony Kushner, The Persistence of Prejudice. Antisemitism in British Society during the Second World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), 62–5, 82–5, 155–60; cf. Sompolinsky, Britain and the Holocaust, 119–41 and Shatzkes, Holocaust and Rescue, 134–43; Bolchover, British Jewry and the Holocaust, 83–143, on ideological differences within the community.

223  Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 143–56; Wyman and Medoff, A Race Against Death, 42–6; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 228–32.

224  Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews, 178–206; Wyman and Medoff, A Race Against Death, 46–9; Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 232–7.

225  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 237; London, Whitehall and the Jews, 231–4; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 291–7.

226  McDonald Diaries, II, 316–17; Ronald Zweig, ‘The War Refugee Board and American Intelligence’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 293–416; Richard Breitman, ‘Other Responses to the Holocaust’, in Richard Breitman et al. eds, US Intelligence and the Nazis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 45–64, esp. 58–64.

Eight – The Last Phase: 1944–1945

1 Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 615, 624–5.

2 Gerhard Weinberg, ‘German plans for victory, 1944–1945’, in his Germany, Hitler and World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 274–86; cf. Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 609–15.

3 Hitler’s 30 January 1944 speech at https://archive.org/stream/TheCompleteHitler-SpeechesAndProclamations-MaxDomarus/TheCompleteHitler-1932–1945-Vol1–4_djvu.txt

4 Weinberg, A World At Arms, 671–73; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 624–5; Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 61–9; István Móscy, ‘Hungary’s Failed Strategic Surrender: Secret Wartime Negotiations with Britain’, in Nándor Dreisziger ed., Hungary in an Age of Total War (1938–1948), (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 86–106; Cesarani, Eichmann, 160–2.

5 Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 636–7.

6 Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 624–8; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 381–9, 396–7, 421–6.

7 Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews, 181–2, asserted that ‘The Final Solution had top priority, even at a time of military exigencies.’ Cf. Christian Gerlach, ‘The decision making process for the deportation of Hungarian Jews’, in Judit Molnár ed., The Holocaust in Hungary in A European Perspective (Budapest: Balassi Kiadó, 2005), 473–81, a summary of the thesis presented in Christian Gerlach and Götz Aly, Das letze Kapitel: Realpolitik, Ideologie und der Mord an den ungarischen Juden 1944/45 (Stuttgart: dva, 2002).

8 Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, xli-xlii, 368–9.

9 Ibid, 1–22; László Karsai, ‘Anti-Jewish laws and decrees in Hungary, 1920–1944’ and László Csosz, ‘Agrarian reform and race protection: the implementation of the Fourth Jewish Law’, in Molnár ed., The Holocaust in Hungary, 143–66 and 180–97; Yehuda Don, ‘Economic Implications of the Anti-Jewish Laws in Hungary’, in Cesarani ed., Genocide and Rescue. The Holocaust in Hungary 1944, 47–76.

10  Robert Rozett, Conscripted Slaves. Hungarian Jewish Forced Labourers on the Eastern Front during the Second World War (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2014), 44–9, 61–2, 72–88, 120–4, 143–50, and on massacres, 158–63.

11  Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 36–46.

12  Cesarani, Eichmann, 159–63.

13  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 406–18, 421–6, 558–60.

14  Ibid, 421–6.

15  Cesarani, Eichmann, 166.

16  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 510–14, 515–28, 548–53; Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 72–3; Ronald Zweig, The Gold Train. The Destruction of the Jews and the Second World War’s Most Terrible Robbery (London: Penguin, 2000), 27–36, 51–61.

17  Cesarani, Eichmann, 164–6.

18  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 527–8; Cesarani, Eichmann, 166–7.

19  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 662–6; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 196–204.

20  Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 76–9; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 583–652, 688–704, vol. 2, 711–33, 755–80.

21  Tim Cole, Holocaust City. The Making of a Jewish Ghetto (London: Routledge, 2002), 70–80, 81–91, 91–100.

22  Hedi Fried, The Road to Auschwitz. Fragments of a Life, trans. Michael Meyer (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 56–7; Bela Zsolt, Nine Suitcases, trans. Ladislaus Löb (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004, first published in Hungarian 1946–7), 9–10.

23  Zsolt, Nine Suitcases, 31, 37.

24  Fried, The Road to Auschwitz, 72–3, 75–6.

25  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 604–5, 664–8; Cesarani, Eichmann, 168–9.

26  Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 199–202; Cesarani, Eichmann, 171–2.

27  Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 104–11; Cesarani, Eichmann, 170, 172.

28  Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 1, 671–3, vol. 2, 773–4, 778–9.

29  Fried, The Road to Auschwitz, 75–6, 79; Simone Gigliotti, The Train Journey. Transit, Captivity and Witnessing the Holocaust (London: Berghahn, 2009), 78–85, 97–116. See also, Olga Lengyel, Five Chimneys (New York: Ziff-Davis Publishing, 1947), 15–19.

30  Fried, The Road to Auschwitz, 38; Zsolt, Nine Suitcases, ix; Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 243–8, cf. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 613–15, on the vexed question of what Hungarian Jews knew and what they could have known.

31  Yehuda Bauer, Jews for Sale? Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 202–11; Cesarani, Eichmann, 180–2.

32  Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 67–101; Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David, 174–88.

33  Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David, 49–71, 111–26; Tuvia Friling, ‘Istanbul 1942–1945: The Kollek–Avriel and Berman–Ofner networks’, in Bankier ed., Secret Intelligence and the Holocaust, 105–56; Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 120–43.

34  Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 160–3; Cesarani, Eichmann, 173–5.

35  Longerich, Himmler, 707–11; Shlomo Aronson, Hitler, the Allies, and the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 227–89.

36  Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 162–71, 172–93; Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David, 188–211; Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 223–34; Shlomo Aronson, ‘OSS X-2 and Rescue Efforts During the Holocaust’, in Bankier ed., Secret Intelligence and the Holocaust, 65–104.

37  Ladislaus Löb, Dealing with Satan. Kasztner’s Daring Rescue Mission (London: Jonathan Cape, 2008), 74–93, 96–120; Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 197–200.

38  Löb, Dealing with Satan, 93–6; Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 200–1.

39  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 262–72; Ruth Gruber, Haven. The Dramatic Story of 1,000 World War II Refugees and How They Came to America (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000 edn).

40  Breitman and Lichtman, FDR and the Jews, 272–5; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 2, 861–82; Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 232–8; Robert Rozett, ‘International Interventions: The Role of Diplomats in Attempts to Rescue Jews in Hungary’, in Randolph Braham and Scott Miller eds, The Nazis’ Last Victims. The Holocaust in Hungary (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1998) 137–52; Paul A. Levine, Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest. Myth, History and Holocaust (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2010), 101–249 and 133–4 on the dual role of the WRB representative in Stockholm as an OSS agent, a connection that may ultimately have compromised Wallenberg’s status.

41  Weinberg, A World at Arms, 686–95, 703–16; Martin Blumenson, The Duel for France, 1944 (New York: DaCapo Press, 1963), 1–166; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 405–21.

42  Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 134–45; Cesarani, Eichmann, 184–5.

43  Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 234–41; Cesarani, Eichmann, 187–9.

44  Randolph Braham, ‘Hungarian Jews’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 456–68

45  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 123–33; van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 337–40; Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 214–16, 219–20.

46  Fried, Fragments of a Life, 79–82.

47  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 63, 80–5; Menasche, Birkenau, 68–76.

48  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 133–43; Zywulska, I came back, 163–81; see also Alter Feinsilber deposition in Jadwiga Bezwínská and Danuta Czech eds, Amidst a Nightmare of Crime. Manuscripts of Prisoners in Cremation Squads Found at Auschwitz, trans. Krystyna Michalik (New York: Howard Fertig, 1973), 56.

49  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 138–9.

50  Fried, Fragments of a Life, 82–8, 102–15.

51  Pohl, ‘The Holocaust and the concentration camps’, in Caplan and Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany, 158–9; Gutterman, A Narrow Bridge to Life, 29–37.

52  Wachsmann, KL, 444–61, 464–71 and summary in ‘The dynamics of destruction, in Caplan and Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany, 31–4; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 426; Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 627–34.

53  Allen, The Business of Genocide, 208–32; Wachsmann, KL, 444–58; Gretchen Schaft and Gerhard Zeidler, Commemorating Hell. The Public Memory of Mittlebau-Dora (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011), 19–34.

54  Gutterman, A Narrow Bridge to Life, 77–8, 97–9, 119–30.

55  Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 332–5; Jackson, France. The Dark Years, 529–36; Longerich, Holocaust, 403–4.

56  Longerich, Himmler, 693–4; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 190–4, 199–202.

57  13 December 1943, 24 January, 1 February 1944, letter written 8 March 1944, Berr Journal, 228–31, 246, 252, 263–4 and ‘Afterword’ by Mariette Job, 271–3.

58  17, 20, 25 January 1943, Berg Diary, 208, 212–13.

59  Engelking and Leociak, The Warsaw Ghetto, 745–8; Yitzhak Katzenelson, Vittel Diary [22.5.43–16.9.43], trans. Myer Cohen (Tel Aviv: Ghetto Fighters House, 1964), 25–31, 43–5; 1 March 1944, Berg Diary, 244. Two trainloads of passport holders from the Hotel Polski went to the exchange camp at Bergen-Belsen.

60  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 443–6; Ryan, The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseille, 194–203; Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 197–9; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 178–9; for analysis of the final wave of killings in France and the leading role of Alois Brunner, see Tal Bruttmann, La logique des bourreaux 1943–1944 (Paris: Hachette, 2006).

61  Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews, 201–2.

62  3 February 1944, Koker, Diary, 331–2 and van Pelt ‘Epilogue: The Final Year’, 336–46; Gutterman, A Narrow Bridge to Life, 97–109.

63  Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 85–100; 23 November, 10 December 1943, 16, 25 February 1944, Mechanicus, Diary, 195–6, 205, 255–6, 263–4 and Presser’s ‘Introduction’, 12; Wasserstein, The Ambiguity of Virtue, 202–12.

64  Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 85–100, 129–71; 4 October 1944, Weiss Diary, 117–33; Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt, 145–67.

65  Jean-Claude Favez, The Red Cross and the Holocaust, trans. John and Beryl Fletcher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 22–43, 54–72, 83–91.

66  24 April, 23 May, June 1944 (all dates are approximate), Manes Diary, 144–5, 153–5, 170–6; Weiss Diary, 88, 94, 101–2; Favez, The Red Cross and the Holocaust, 43–4, 73–4; Rothkirchen, The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia, 256–7.

67  April, 30 September 1944 (approximate dates), Manes Diary, 233, 240–1; 17, 28 September 1944, Weiss Diary, 106–15.

68  Fritz, Ostkrieg, 429–33.

69  Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 329–33; Daniel Blatman, The Death Marches. The Final Phase of Nazi Genocide, trans. Chaya Galai (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 57–64; cf. Wachsmann, KL, 543–53, arguing that the evacuations were consistently brutal.

70  Katz, One Who Came Back, 132–54, 163–80.

71  9 January 1945, Tory, Surviving the Holocaust, 509–19; Angerick and Klein, The ‘Final Solution’ in Riga, 405–14.

72  Epstein, Model Nazi, 263–4.

73  8, 11, 14, 18, 28, February, 6, 7 March 1944, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 444–7, 448–9, 452, 454–6, 463, 468–70; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 250–4; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 268–76.

74  16–19, 24, 26, 30 June, 8, 13 July 1944, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 503–11, 514–15, 515–17, 518, 522, 524–5; Montague, Chelmno and the Holocaust, 149–50.

75  17, 23, 25, 30 July 1944, Lodz Ghetto Chronicle, 527–8, 532, 534, 536; Rosenfeld, In the Beginning was the Ghetto, 280–1; Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 394–9; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 282–96.

76  Trunk, Lodz Ghetto, 261–9; Horowitz, Ghettostadt, 296–8.

77  Krakowski, Chelmno, 193–207.

78  Evans, The Third Reich at War, 630–46; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 698–705; Ian Kershaw, The End. Hitler’s Germany, 1944–45 (London: Allen Lane, 2011), 26–53, 144–5; Christof Dipper, ‘20 July and the “Jewish Question”’ in Bankier ed., Probing the Depths of German Antisemitism, 463–78, but cf. Joachim Fest, Plotting Hitler’s Death. The German Resistance to Hitler 1939–1945, trans. Bruce Little (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996), 239–40, 326–7; Ulrich von Hassell was arrested on 28 July 1944 and executed on 8 September 1944, Von Hassell Diaries, 325–8; 21 July 1944, Reck-Malleczewen, Diary of a Man in Despair, 216–18.

79  Traudl Junge, Until the Final Hour. Hitler’s Last Secretary, ed. Melissa Müller, trans. Anthea Bell (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2003), 134.

80  Field Post Inspection Office Army Group North, ‘Report for September 1944’, 5 October 1944, and SD Stuttgart Office Dept III C4, ‘Report on the Leadership’, 6 November 1944, Secret Nazi Reports, 652, 656; 20 August, 5 September 1944, 14 January 1945, Klemperer Diary, II, 321, 338, 375.

81  Weinberg, A World at Arms, 751–2, 755–7; Fritz, Ostkrieg, 422–9; Evans, The Third Reich at War, 65; Kershaw, The End, 60–75, 79–80; cf. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, 627–40.

82  Weinberg, A World at Arms, 697–702, 760–5; Blumenson, The Duel for France, 367–408; Robin Neillands, The Battle for the Rhine 1944 (London: Cassell, 2005) and Lloyd Clark, Crossing the Rhine. Breaking Into Nazi Germany 1944 and 1945 – The Greatest Airborne Battles in History (New York: Grove Press, 2008), 1–235, explain Allied misadventures.

83  Norman Davies, Rising ‘44. ‘The Battle for Warsaw’ (London: Pan, 2004), 403; Weinberg, A World at Arms, 703–13, 759–60; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 528–44; Willenberg, Revolt in Treblinka, 224–45; Paulsson, Hidden City, 165–83, 187–9, 189–96; Grabowski, Hunt for the Jews, 130–4.

84  Braham, Politics of Genocide, vol. 2, 947–56; Vagi, Csosz and Kadar eds, The Holocaust in Hungary, 147–60; Cesarani, Eichmann, 189–90.

85  Cole, Holocaust City, 201–4; Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 219–21; Cesarani, Eichmann, 190–5; Krisztián Ungváry, The Battle for Budapest. 100 Days in World War II (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 236–52.

86  László Karsai, ‘The Last Phase of the Hungarian Holocaust: The Szálasi regime and the Jews’, in Braham and Miller eds, The Nazis’ Last Victims, 103–16; on the dire conditions and the rescue efforts of diplomats, Levine, Raoul Wallenberg in Budapest, 290–368.

87  Longerich, Holocaust, 404–5; Blood, Hitler’s Bandit Hunters, 269–70; Mawdsley, Thunder in the East, 352–5.

88  Yahil, The Holocaust, 523–4; Safrian, Eichmann’s Men, 207–8.

89  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 110–23; Alfred Wetzler, Escape from Hell. The True Story of the Auschwitz Protocol, trans. Ewald Osers, ed. Péter Várnan (New York: Berghahn, 2007), 99–190 is a dramatized rendering of the escape.

90  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 110–23; the protocol is reproduced in Wetzler, Escape from Hell, 235–75; Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 229–48; Miroslav Karny, ‘The Vrba and Wetzler Report’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 553–68.

91  Fleming, Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship of the Holocaust, 248–51; Porat, The Blue and the Yellow Stars of David, 212–20; Cesarani, Arthur Koestler, 222–5.

92  Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 279–89; Overy, The Bombing War, 366–8, 583–5; see Michael J. Neufeld and Michael Berenbaum eds, The Bombing of Auschwitz (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), for essays evaluating the contemporary evidence, assessing the conduct of the chief historical actors, and arriving at widely diverging conclusions.

93  Hermann Langbein, Against All Hope. Resistance in the Nazi Concentration Camps 1938–1945 (New York: Continuum, 1994), 284–8; Swiebocki, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. IV, 245–52.

94  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 143–7, 152–60; testimony of Salman Lewental, in Bezwínská and Czech eds, Amidst a Nightmare of Crime, 162–70; Feinsilber deposition, 65–7.

95  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 160–3; Andrzej Strzelcki, ‘The Liquidation of the Camp’, in Danuta Czech et al. eds, Auschwitz 1940–1945. Central Issues in the History of the Camp, vol. V, Epilogue, trans. William Brand (Oswieçim: Auschwitz State Museum, 2000), 16–20; Wachsmann, KL, 537–41.

96  Van Pelt and Dwork, Auschwitz, 340; Piper, Auschwitz 1940–1945, vol. III, 205–31 and his essay ‘The Number of Victims’, in Gutman and Berenbaum eds, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, 61–76.

97  Hitler’s New Year message 1945 in Patrick Romane ed., The Essential Hitler (Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 2007), 416–26; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 792–3; 5, 14 January 1945, Klemperer Diary, II, 373–4, 375.

98  Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 756–61; Fritz, Ostkreig, 439–49, 459–69; Richard Bessel, Germany 1945. From War to Peace (London: Simon and Schuster, 2009), 15–47.

99  Blatman, The Death Marches, 51–7.

100  Ibid, 368–88.

101  Ibid, 250–61, 388–405, 407–27; Wachsmann, KL, 585–6, argues that the purpose of the forced marches was not annihilatory, that neither Jews nor other prisoners were intended to die in such vast numbers.

102  Gilbert, Holocaust, 769–77; cf. Yahil, The Holocaust, 526–7; Blatman, The Death Marches, 136–7.

103  Pohl, ‘The Holocaust and the concentration camps’, in Caplan and Wachsmann eds, Concentration Camps in Nazi Germany, 159–60; Schaft and Zeidler, Commemorating Hell. The Public Memory of Mittlebau-Dora, 25–38; Gutterman, A Narrow Bridge to Life, 77–8, 97–9, 119–30.

104  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 165–6; Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 116–26; Daniel Blatman, ‘The Death Marches, January–May 1945: Who Was Responsible for What?’, Yad Vashem Studies 28 (2000), 155–202, esp. 161–74 on the evacuation of Auschwitz.

105  Müller, Eyewitness Auschwitz, 165–71.

106  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 126–9.

107  Nahon, Birkenau. Camp of Death, 109–16; Blatman, ‘The Death Marches’, 174–9 on the evacuation of Stutthof.

108  Katz, One Who Came Back, 195–210.

109  Hesdörffer, Twelve Years of Nazi Terror, 207–24.

110  Blatman, The Death Marches, 117–25.

111  Ibid, 272–342.

112  Longerich, Holocaust, 414–18; Wachsmann, KL, 576–95.

113  David Cesarani, ‘A Brief History of Bergen-Belsen’, in Suzanne Bardgett and David Cesarani eds, Belsen 1945. New Historical Perspectives (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006), 13–21; Christine Lattek, ‘Bergen-Belsen: From “Privileged” Camp to Death Camp’, in Jo Reilly et al. eds, Belsen in History and Memory (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 37–51, esp. 43–52; Ruth Zariz, ‘Exchange of Populations as a Means of Jewish Salvation’, in Cohen, Cochavi, Gelber eds, The Shoah and the War, 405–16.

114  14 August 1944, Abel J. Herzberg, Between Two Streams. A Diary from Bergen-Belsen, trans. Jack Santcross (London: Tauris Parke, 2008), 11; Habbo Knoch and Marlis Buchholz et al. eds, Bergen-Belsen (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2010).

115  Lattek, ‘Bergen-Belsen’, 52–5; Wachsmann, KL, 454–5.

116  18 August, 17, 23 September, 8 November 1944, Herzberg, Between Two Streams, 18–19, 100–1, 110, 160; Carol Ann Lee, Roses from the Earth. The Biography of Anne Frank (London: Viking, 1999), 179–84.

117  16 March 1945, Herzberg, Between Two Streams, 202; Lattek, ‘Bergen-Belsen’, 55–9; Wachsmann, KL, 565–8.

118  Fried, The Road to Auschwitz, 157–8.

119  Ibid, 160; Richard Breitman, ‘Himmler and Bergen-Belsen’, in Reilly et al. eds, Belsen in History and Memory, 72–84, esp. 80–81; Ben Shephard, After Daybreak. The Liberation of Belsen, 1945 (London: Cape, 2005), 7–8.

120  Paul Kemp ed., The Relief of Belsen, April 1945. Eyewitness Accounts (London: Imperial War Museum, 1991), 10, 13–15.

121  Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 223–9; Longerich, Himmler, 708–11; Wachsmann, KL, 572–6.

122  Longerich, Himmler, 724–31; Sune Persson, Escape from the Third Reich, trans. Graham Long (Barnsley: Skyhorse, 2009), 28–30, 33–45, 58–62, 75–100.

123  Bauer, Jews for Sale?, 241–50; Persson, Escape from the Third Reich, 139–48, 174–81, 187–8, 206–15.

124  Longerich, Himmler, 728–31; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 817–18; Richard Breitman, ‘Nazi Espionage: The Abwehr and SD Foreign Intelligence’, in Breitman et al. eds, US Intelligence and the Nazis, 93–120, esp. 110–11; Persson, Escape from the Third Reich, 246–9.

125  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 462–73; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 550–7.

126  Dan Stone, The Liberation of the Camps: The End of the Holocaust and Its Aftermath (London: Yale University Press, 2015), 18–21. For a rudimentary overview see John Bridgman, The End of the Holocaust and the Liberation of the Camps (London: Batsford, 1990).

127  Hart, I shall survive, 90–121.

128  Nahon, Birkenau, 109–17.

129  Adelsberger, Auschwitz. A Doctor’s Story, 128–31.

130  October 1944–January 1945, 1–5 May 1944, Weiss Dairy, 143–63, 164–76.

131  19, 22–27 February, 28 April, 6 May 1945, Klemperer Diary, II, 389–96, 398–9, 452, 455.

Epilogue

1 Documents on the Holocaust, 162; Kershaw, Hitler 1936–1945, 821–3, 826–8; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, vol. 2, 656. Translations vary between publications.

2 Kershaw, The End, 360–71. For the death throes of the Third Reich, see David Stafford, Endgame 1945. Victory, Retribution, Liberation (London: Little Brown, 2007) and Richard Bessel, Germany 1945 (London: Simon and Schuster, 2009).

3 Stone, Liberation, 105–27; William I. Hitchcock, Liberation. Europe 1945 (London: Faber and Faber, 2008), 215–80.

4 Alex Grobman, Rekindling the Flame. American Chaplains and the Survivors of European Jewry, 1944–1945 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993), 55–61, 65–70, 89–110; Isaac Levy, Witness to Evil. Bergen-Belsen 1945 (London: Peter Halban, 1995), 16–35, 44–63, for the activities of the Senior Jewish Chaplain to the British Liberation Army.

5 Jacques Vernant, The Refugee in the Post-War World (London: Allen and Unwin, 1953), 30–3; Leonard Dinnerstein, America and the Survivors of the Holocaust (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 5–8; London, Whitehall and the Jews, 255–63; David Cesarani, ‘Great Britain’, in David Wyman ed., The World Reacts to the Holocaust (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 614–17. For an overview of the DP question in general see Mark Wyman, Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945–1951 (Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1986).

6 Angelika Königseder and Juliane Wetzel, Waiting for Hope. Jewish Displaced Persons in Post-World War II Germany, trans. John Broadwin (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2001), 15–30; Dinnerstein, America and the Survivors of the Holocaust, 9–38; Stone, Liberation, 127–36.

7 Appendix B, Dinnerstein, America and the Survivors of the Holocaust, 291–305.

8 Königseder and Wetzel, Waiting for Hope, 61.

9 Margarete Myers Feinstein, ‘Jewish Observance in Amalek’s Shadow: Mourning, Marriage, and Birth Rituals among Displaced Persons in Germany’, in Patt and Berkowitz eds, ‘We Are Here’. New Approaches to Jewish Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany, 257–88; Gabriel Finder and Judith Cohen, ‘Memento Mori: Photographs from the Grave’, in Gabriel Finder et al. eds, Polin, vol. 20, Making Holocaust Memory (Portland, OR: Littman Library, 2008), 3–54. For an overview of the Jewish DP experience, see Margarete Myers Feinstein, Holocaust Survivors in Postwar Germany (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

10  Königseder and Wetzel, Waiting for Hope, 130–41; Feinstein, Holocaust Survivors, 238–48; Gabriel Finder and Laura Jockusch, ‘Introduction’, in Gabriel Finder and Laura Jockusch eds, Jewish Honor Courts: Revenge, Retribution, and Reconciliation in Europe and Israel After the Holocaust (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014), 2–7 and in the same volume the separate studies by David Engel, ‘Why Punish Collaborators?’, 29–48; Laura Jockusch, ‘Rehabilitating the Past. Jewish Honor Courts in Allied-Occupied Germany’, 49–82; Gabriel Finder, ‘Judenrat on Trial. Postwar Polish Jewry Sits in Judgment on its Wartime Leadership’, 83–106; Simon Perego, ‘Jurys d’honneur. The Stakes and Limits of Purges Among Jews in France After the Liberation’, 137–64; Helga Embacher, ‘Viennese Jewish Functionaries on Trial. Accusations, Defense Strategies and Hidden Agendas’, 165–96; Katarzyna Person, ‘Jews Accusing Jews. Denunciations of Alleged Collaborators in Jewish Honor Courts’, 225–46.

11  Natalia Aleksiun, ‘The Central Jewish Historical Commission in Poland, 1944–1947’, in Finder et al. eds, Polin, vol. 20, 74–97; Laura Jockusch, Collect and Record! Jewish Holocaust Documentation in Early Postwar Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 89–120.

12  Jockusch, Collect and Record!, 50–74, 121–59, 160–84. The early, and too often overlooked, research and documentation activity is captured in CDJC, Les Juifs en Europe (1939–1945). Rapports Présentés à la Première Conférence Européenne des Commissions Historiques et des Centres de Documentation Juifs (Paris: Éditions du Centre, 1949).

13  Hagit Lavsky, New Beginnings. Holocaust Survivors in Bergen-Belsen and the British Zone in Germany, 1945–1950 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2002), 51–60, 66–77; Königseder and Wetzel, Waiting for Hope, 161–210; Feinstein, Holocaust Survivors, 240–1.

14  Eva Kolinsky, After the Holocaust: Jewish Survivors in Germany after 1945 (London: Pimlico, 2004), 151–69; Jay Geller, Jews in Post-Holocaust Germany, 1945–1953 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 18–49; Michael Brenner, After the Holocaust: Rebuilding Jewish Lives in Postwar Germany, trans. Barbara Harshav (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 42–9, 52–4, 67–90.

15  Königseder and Wetzel, Waiting for Hope, 83–90; Alex Grobman, Battling for Souls. The Vaad Hatzala Rescue Committee in Post-war Europe (Jersey City, NJ: Ktav, 2004), 68–202; Frank Stern, ‘The Historic Triangle: Occupiers, Germans and Jews in Postwar Germany’ and Constantin Goschler, ‘The Attitude towards Jews in Bavaria after the Second World War’, in Robert G. Moeller ed., West Germany Under Construction. Politics, Society, and Culture in the Adenauer Era (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997), 199–230 and 231–50.

16  Antony Polonsky, The Jews in Poland and Russia, vol. III, 603–8, 624–52; Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska, Patterns of Return. Survivors’ Postwar Journeys to Poland (Washington, DC: US Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2007); Alina Skibinska, ‘The Return of Jewish Holocaust Survivors and the Reaction of the Polish Population’ and Andrzej Zbikowski, ‘The Post-War Wave of Pogroms and Killings’, in Feliks Tych and Monika Adamczyk-Garbowska eds, Jewish Presence and Absence. The Aftermath of the Holocaust in Poland, 1944-2010, trans. Grzegorz and Jessica Taylor Kucia (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2014), 25–66 and 67–94. See also Gross with Gross, Golden Harvest, for continuities between wartime and post-war.

17  Bogner, At the Mercy of Strangers, 186–206, 216–18, 227–86; Gafny, Dividing Hearts: The Removal of Jewish Children from Gentile Families in Poland in the Immediate Post Holocaust Years, 81–272.

18  Jan Tomasz Gross, Fear: Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz: An Essay in Historical Interpretation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 34–191; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 654–66; Natalia Aleksiun, ‘The Polish Catholic Church and the Jewish Question in Poland, 1944–48’, Yad Vashem Studies, 33, (2005), 143–70.

19  Zvi Mankowitz, Life Between Memory and Hope: The Survivors of the Holocaust in Occupied Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 139–41; Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 650; Zorach Warhaftig, Uprooted: Jewish Refugees and Displaced Persons after Liberation (New York: American Jewish Congress, 1946), 39.

20  Stone, Liberation, 180–7; Arieh J. Kochavi, Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States, and Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 60–72, 78–80.

21  For a personal account of the Cyprus camps by the leading AJJDC relief worker, see Morris Laub, Last Barrier to Freedom: Internment of Jewish Holocaust Survivors on Cyprus, 1946–1949 (Berkeley, CA: Judah Magnes Museum, 1985).

22  For the conflict in Palestine, see David Cesarani, Major Farran’s Hat. Murder, Scandal and Britain’s War against Jewish Terrorism, 1945–1948 (London: Heinemann, 2009); Tom Segev, 1949. The First Israelis (New York: Henry Holt, 1998), 95–116. One in every three Jews in Israel in 1949 was born in Europe.

23  Dinnerstein, America and the Survivors of the Holocaust, 119–253.

24  Pieter Lagrou, ‘Return to a Vanished World. European Societies and the Remnants of their Jewish Communities, 1945–1947’, in David Bankier ed., The Jews are Coming Back. The return of the Jews to their countries of origin after WW II (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2005), 1–24. See also, Pieter Lagrou, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945–1965 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 251–87.

25  Poznanski, Jews in France during World War II, 462–73.

26  Renée Poznanski, ‘French Apprehensions, Jewish Expectations: From a Social Imaginary to a Political Practice’ and Patrick Weil, ‘The return of the Jews in the nationality or in the territory of France (1943–1973)’, in Bankier ed., The Jews are Coming Back, 25–57 and 57–71.

27  Jockusch, Collect and Record!, 46–74; Poznanski, ‘French Apprehensions, Jewish Expectations’.

28  Frank Caestecker, ‘The Reintegration of Jewish Survivors into Belgian Society, 1943–1947’, in Bankier ed., The Jews are Coming Back, 72–107; Rudi van Doorslaer, ‘The Expropriation of Jewish Property and Restitution in Belgium’, in Dean, Goschler and Ther eds, Robbery and Restitution. The Conflict over Jewish Property in Europe (New York: Berghahn, 2007), 155–70.

29  Moore, Victims and Survivors, 238–44; Dienke Hondius, ‘Bitter Homecoming. The Return and Reception of Dutch and Stateless Jews in the Netherlands’, in Bankier ed., The Jews are Coming Back, 108–36, and Return. Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism, trans. David Colmer (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 45–112.

30  J. S. Fishman, ‘The Reconstruction of the Dutch Jewish Community and its Implications for the Writing of Contemporary Jewish History’, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, 45 (1978), 67–101; Diane L. Wolf, Beyond Anne Frank. Hidden Children and Postwar Families in Holland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 111–21.

31  Moore, Victims and Survivors, 244–9; Ido de Haan, ‘An Unresolved Controversy: The Jewish Honour Court in the Netherlands, 1946–50’, in Jockusch and Finder eds, Jewish Honor Courts, 107–36; Presser, Ashes in the Wind, 264–77.

32  Revenge features in the early recordings made by David Boder. They can be accessed at the ‘Voices of the Holocaust’ project: http://voices.iit.edu/interviewee?doc=piskorzB. On Boder, see Alan Rosen, The Wonder of Their Voices. The 1946 Holocaust Interviews of David Boder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010). Zuckerman, A Surplus of Memory, 630–4; Mankowitz, Life Between Memory and Hope, 235–42.

33  David Cesarani, ‘The International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg: British Perspectives’, in H. R. Reginbogin and C. J. M. Safferling eds, Die Nürnburger Prozesse. Völkerstrafrecht seit 1945 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 2006), 31–8; Donald Bloxham, Genocide on Trial. War Crimes, Trials and the Formation of Holocaust History and Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 97–101.

34  Arieh Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg. Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998) narrates the tortured decision-making process from 1942 to 1945 and see also his ‘The Role of Genocide in the Preparations for the Nuremberg Trials’, in David Bankier and Dan Michman eds, Holocaust and Justice. Representation and Historiography of the Holocaust in Post-War Trials (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2010), 59–80.

35  Boaz Cohen, ‘Dr Jacob Robinson, the Insitute of Jewish Affairs and the Elusive Jewish Voice in Nuremberg’, in Bankier and Michman eds, Holocaust and Justice, 81–100.

36  Michael Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial 1945–1946. A Documentary History (New York: Bedford/St Martin’s, 1997), 185–215; László Karsai and Judit Molnár eds, The Kastzner Report. The Report of the Budapest Jewish Rescue Committee, 1943–1945 (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2013), 55–322; Christian Delage, ‘The Judicial Construction of the Genocide of the Jews at Nuremberg: Witnesses on the Stand and the Screen’, in Bankier and Michman eds, Holocaust and Justice, 101–13; Bruce M. Stave and Michele Palmer with Leslie Frank Present, Witnesses to Nuremberg. An Oral History of American Participants at the War Crimes Trials (New York: Twayne, 1998), 22.

37  For the fate of the Jews in the IMT verdict see The Judgment of Nuremberg 1946 (London: The Stationery Office, 1999, first published 1946), 123–31; Shirli Gilbert, ‘“We Long for a Home”. Songs and Survival among Jewish Displaced Persons’, in Patt and Berkowitz eds, ‘We Are Here’, 289–307. For contrasting interpretations of the IMT’s impact on how the public and historians came to understand the fate of the Jews, compare Bloxham, Genocide on Trial and Michael Marrus, ‘The Holocaust at Nuremberg’, Yad Vashem Studies, 26 (1998), 5–42.

38  Ludi, Reparations for Nazi Victims in Postwar Europe, 1–31; Ronald Zweig, German Reparations and the Jewish World: A History of the Claims Conference (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), 3–5; Nana Sagi, German Reparations: A History of the Negotiations (London: Macmillan, 1986), 14–38.

39  Geller, Jews in Post-Holocaust Germany, 55–9, 60–5.

40  Ilaria Pavan, ‘Indifference and Forgetting: Italy and its Jewish Community, 1938–1970’, in Dean, Goschler and Ther eds, Robbery and Restitution, 155–70; Guri Schwarz, After Mussolini. Jewish Life and Jewish Memories in Post-Fascist Italy (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2012), 3–13 and 113–41, on the shaping of the historical record to meet contemporary political needs.

41  Stephen Wood and Ian Locke, ‘“Ex-Enemy Jews”: the Fate of the Assets of Holocaust Victims and Survivors in Britain’, in Avi Beker ed., The Plunder of Jewish Property during the Holocaust (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 209–26; David Cesarani, ‘Jewish Victims of the Holocaust and Swiss Banks’, Dimensions, 191 (1997), 3–6.

42  Stone, Liberation, 195–201; Regula Ludi, ‘“Why Switzerland?” Remarks on a Neutral’s Role in the Nazi Program of Robbery and Allied Postwar Restitution Policy’, in Dean, Goschler and Ther eds, Robbery and Restitution, 182–210. For the stuttering American effort at reparation, see Slany, US and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore. The emerging Cold War is narrated with its impact on retribution in Tony Judt, Postwar. A History of Europe Since 1945 (London: Heinemann, 2005), 41–62, 100–53,.

43  Jeffrey Herf, Divided Memory. The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 69–105; Jeffrey M. Peck, ‘Germany’, in Wyman ed., World Reacts to the Holocaust, 447–72; Geller, Jews in Post-Holocaust Germany, 91–122; Laura Jockusch, ‘“Rehabilitating the Past?” Jewish Honor Courts in Allied-Occupied Germany’ in Jockusch and Finder eds, Jewish Honor Courts, 49–82.

44  Livia Rothkirchen, ‘Czechoslovakia’, in Wyman ed., World Reacts to the Holocaust, 172–5; Yehoshua Büchler, ‘Reconstruction Efforts in Hostile Surroundings – Slovaks and Jews after World War II’, in Bankier ed., The Jews Are Coming Back, 257–76.

45  Kinga Fromjimovics, ‘Different Interpretations of Reconstruction: The AJDC and the WJC in Hungary after the Holocaust’, in Bankier ed., The Jews Are Coming Back, 277–92; Braham, The Politics of Genocide, vol. 2, 1301–17, 1317–32; Judit Molnár, ‘Gendarmes Before the People’s Court’ and Agnes Peresztegi, ‘Reparation and Compensation in Hungary, 1945–2003’, in Molnár ed., The Holocaust in Hungary, 677–84 and 648–64.

46  Jean Ancel, ‘“The New Invasion” – The Return of Survivors from Transnistria’, in Bankier ed., The Jews Are Coming Back, 231–56; Tuvia Friling, Radu Ioanid, Mihail E. Ionescu, eds, Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust In Romania (Iasi: Polirom, 2005), 313–32.

47  Yaacov Ro’i, ‘The Reconstruction of Jewish Communities in the USSR, 1944–1947’, in Bankier ed., The Jews Are Coming Back, 186–205; John Garrard and Carol Garrard, The Bones of Berdichev. The Life and Fate of Vasily Grossman (New York: Free Press, 1996), 177–92, 195–200; Ilya Altman, ‘The History and Fate of The Black Book and The Unknown Black Book’, in Rubenstein and Altman eds, The Unknown Black Book, xix–xxxix; Zvi Gittelman, ‘Soviet Reactions to the Holocaust, 1945–1991’, in Dobroscycki and Gurock eds, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union, 3–27.