Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Note: Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations
Abominable Snowman, 141
adaptation, 58
Aesop’s fable, The Crow and the Pitcher, 90–91, 90
affordances, 68, 69
agency, tests of, 241
Age of Empathy, The (de Waal), 134
aggression, redirecting, 181
AIDS epidemic, 161
Alex (parrot), 98–99, 100, 102–5, 109, 110, 113
Allen, Colin, 266
Allie (dolphin), 263
alligators, 94
altruism, 51, 67–68
Alzheimer’s disease, 220
Ambosli National Park, Kenya, 238
American Sign Language, 144
analogy, 74, 75, 83, 319, 320
anatomy, 39
anecdotes, 41–42, 67
Animal Awareness (Griffin), 22, 169
animal cognition, 10, 27, 161, 271
attitudes toward, 266–67
and human cognition, 5, 121, 157,
268
and language, 100–104, 113–14
research on, 48, 53, 60, 62, 63, 275
animal culture, 151–52, 175
animal psychology, 43–44
animals:
naming, 60, 170, 263–64
as “nonhuman models of human behavior,” 27–28
anthropic principle, 22–24
anthropocentrism, 162, 319
anthropodenial, 25, 319
Anthropoid Research Station, Tenerife, 63
anthropoids, 26
anthropomorphism, 24–26, 61, 66, 319
Ape and the Sushi Master, The (de Waal), 258
apes:
altruism of, 51, 67–68
American Sign Language taught to, 144
as anthropoids, 26
brains of, 267
cause and effect in, 107
common ancestor of humans and, 161
communication by, 99
compared to human children, 141–46, 145, 151, 152–53, 187, 192
cooperation among, 187–90, 197–98
empathy in, 132
evolution of humans and, 122
in eye-tracking study, 142
hand gestures of, 108–9
human-raised, 152
and imitation, 151–56, 161
intelligence in, 68
intentionality in, 68
interspecies interaction of, 141–42
kissing, 24–25, 24, 26
and mirrors, 49–50
new games invented by, 154–55
new patterns from preexisting knowledge, 68
planning by, 216
responses to death, 106
and self-control, 228
social abilities of, 141, 142
and theory of mind, 146
as thinking beings, 87
tickling, 25
tools fabricated by, 76–87, 77
tool use by, 76, 81, 126–27
Wernicke’s area of the brain in, 109
aphasia, 112
archerfish, 12
Archimedes, 64–65
arctoidea family, 32
Are You as Stupid as a Chimpanzee? (BBC), 127
Aristotle, 249
scala naturae, 12, 13, 22
armadillos, 75
arthropods, 252
Asimov, Isaac, 2
attention, 34, 150
auditory cortex, 11
Ayumu (chimpanzee), 119–20, 120, 121, 127–28, 129, 134, 152, 161
Babb, Stephanie, 211
baboons, social relationships in, 169, 177
Baerends, Gerard, 39, 56
Bailey (dolphin), 263
bats:
auditory cortex of, 11
echolocation of, 10, 75
Umwelt of, 9–11
wings of, 74
Beach, Frank, 57
Beck, Benjamin, 14–15, 78, 265
beewolves (digger wasps), 38, 62, 69
behavioral diversity, 51
behavioral evolution, 45
behaviorism, 30–31, 32, 33, 56–58, 238, 271, 319
decline of, 55
and ethology, 36–37, 41, 44
expectation in, 207
operant conditioning, 31, 36, 37, 99
and purposiveness, 207
rewards in, 207, 256, 257
and Skinner, 49, 50, 266
stimulus-response, 42, 154
behaviorists, as psychologists, 39
behaviors:
analogous, 75
inhibitions in, 222–23
innate, 40, 56
naturalistic, 174
purposeful, 213–15, 214
species-typical, 39–40, 60
spontaneous, 37–38
structure of, 39, 175
survival value of, 44
Bekoff, Marc, 266
Beran, Michael, 227–29
Betty (crow), 89–90
Bierens de Haan, Johan, 43–44
Bimba (chimpanzee), 186
BIOL (Bonding- and Identification-based Observational Learning), 155, 259, 319
Biologically prepared learning, see learning, biologically prepared
biology:
function vs. mechanism in, 73–74
utilitarian view of, 267
bipedalism, 120–21
birds:
brain studies of, 115, 267
food caching by, 98, 217–18, 225
intelligence of, 98–99
memory of, 211
and mirror image, 242, 244
referential signaling by, 108
self-restraint in, 225
theory of mind in, 146–48, 147
toolmaking by, 90
wings of, 75
birdsong:
duplicating behavior, 151
FoxP2 gene in, 109
body language, 131–32
body movements, imitation of, 159
Boesch, Christopher, 191, 192
bonobos:
bipedalism in, 120–21
future planning by, 216
in Hominoid family, 80–81, 120
and language, 110–11
and missing link, 161
problem solving by, 84
purposeful behavior in, 213–15, 214
sexuality of, 218
tool use by, 176
Borie (chimpanzee), 50, 194
Bovet, Dalila, 183
Boysen, Sarah, 228–29
brachiators, 14
brain:
and consciousness, 123–24
and future planning, 220–21
interconnectivity in, 123
and mental powers, 160
mirror neurons in, 159
neuron count in, 124, 160
primate expansion of, 176
sizes of, 123–24, 248, 267
brain studies, 114–15, 116, 117, 121, 267
Breuer, Thomas, 81
Brosnan, Sarah, 197, 227
Browning, Robert, 205
Bruck, Jason, 263
Bshary, Redouan, 198–200
Budongo Forest, Uganda, 180
Bugnyar, Thomas, 147–48
Bula (chimpanzee), 186
Burgers’ Zoo, Arnhem:
chimpanzee studies in, 53, 134, 167, 170–71, 175, 188
Great Escape from, 67
Burghardt, Gordon, 26
Bushmen, 79–80
Call, Josep, 54, 216
Callie (dog), 115–17, 116
Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness, The, 233–34
camouflage, 250–51
capuchin monkeys:
coalitions formed by, 178–79, 179
conformism in, 253–54
cooperation among, 186, 197
delayed gratification in, 224–25
face recognition in, 70–71, 129
headflagging by, 179–80
lab for, 59
and mirror image, 243
perspective taking by, 135, 138
reciprocity among, 175
and theory of mind, 138
tool use by, 82–86, 85
trial-and-error learning by, 84
Carpenter, Ray, 61
Cartesian view of animals, 4
Cashew (cat), 212
cats:
inhibitions in, 222
Köpfchengeben of, 21
and “law of effect,” 20–21, 20
punishment for behavior of, 56–57
cephalopods, 246, 252
cerebellum, 124, 160
Cheney, Dick, 72
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, China, 32
chest beating, 127
Chester Zoo, UK, 219
Chimpanzee Politics (de Waal), 168–69, 171, 175–76
chimpanzees:
affordances learned by, 68, 69
alliance formation by, 162, 171–72, 219
altruism of, 67–68
complex cognition of, 43
computer game competitions of, 161–62, 170
conflict resolution in, 184–85, 193, 195
conformism among, 252–57, 258, 259
conspecific approach in research with, 153–54
cooperation among, 187, 188–89, 188, 191, 193–95, 197–98, 200
delayed gratification in, 225
and emotions, 106
empathy in, 133
face recognition in, 18–19, 70, 75, 260–61
floating peanut task, 91–92
food deprivation tested on, 36
generosity of, 256
ghost box test of, 159
grapefruit experiment with, 53–54, 62
grooming of, 155, 257
hand gestures of, 108–9
haptic (touch) discrimination of, 34
HIV-1 resistance in, 161
in Hominoid family, 80–81, 120
insight in, 64, 64, 65
intentional signaling in, 137–38
kissing, 24–25, 24, 171
in lab settings, 142–43, 146
logic sought by, 54–55
memory in, 119–20, 120, 207–10
and mirror test, 48–50
and missing link, 161
perspective taking by, 136, 138–40, 148–49
political strategies of, 68, 172–73
problem solving by, 67–68, 84, 86, 87
reconciliation after fights, 174, 175
reputation of, 195
rivalries in, 162
self-awareness of, 48–50
and sexuality, 218, 221–22
social hierarchies, 168, 219, 221–22
social learning in, 155
social skills of, 165–74, 185, 218
status of, 162
stimulus equivalence in, 182–83
targeted helping by, 134
theory of mind in, 130–31, 146
toolkits of, 79, 87, 217
tool use by, 14, 63–64, 64, 77–80, 77, 81, 82, 84, 127, 257
traveling parties of, 172
trial-and-error learning by, 68
vocalizations by, 172, 180–81
in the wild vs. zoo-bred, 171, 173
Chimpita (chimpanzee), 111–12
“chimpocentrism,” 162
Chomsky, Noam, 99
cichlids, 39, 74
civilization, 151
Clark’s nutcrackers, 12, 69
Clay, Zanna, 214
Clayton, Nicky, 146–47, 211, 217
Clever Hans (horse), 45–48, 46, 53, 60, 109, 141, 144
Clever Hans Effect, 47–48, 109, 111, 141, 319
coalition formation, 167, 171, 178–79, 179
cognition, 319
animal and human, 5, 121, 157, 268
attention and motivation required in, 150
and brain size, 123–24
comparative, 27
complex, 43
embodied, 159–60, 320
evolutionary, see evolutionary cognition
function vs. mechanism in, 73–74, 158
and language, 102
and learning, 69, 271
and perception, 238
of primates, 11–12
pure, 271
representational mental strategy, 86–87
research on, 13, 34, 45–48, 59, 163, 265, 269–70, 272–73
ripple effects of, 69–70, 75–76, 93, 94, 108, 136, 320
social, 156
unitary theory sought in, 158
use of term, 10–11, 69
cognitive ethology, 26–27, 266, 319
cognitive evolution, 12, 21–22, 252
cognitive maps, 206
cognitive ripple rule, see cognition, ripple effects of; ripple effects
Columbia Obstruction Method, 35
common ancestor, 161
communication:
geared to audience, 109–10
hand gestures, 108–9, 111
human skills in, 106
innate skills of, 108
interpretation of, 110
language, see language
nonverbal signals in, 106, 112, 131–32
unawareness of, 48
vocalizations, 172, 177, 178, 180–81, 262
comparability, 192
comparative psychology, 27, 28, 56, 58, 61, 271, 320
conditioning, 21
conflict resolution, 184–85, 193, 195
conformism, 252–59
conformist bias, 252, 253, 255, 259, 320
consciousness, 23, 123–24, 206, 228, 229, 233–34
conspecific approach, 152–54, 156, 159, 320
continuity, 124, 126, 221, 269, 274
convergent evolution, 74, 75, 83, 93, 109, 274, 319, 320
cooperation, 176, 186–201, 188
fishing cooperatives, 195–96
between ocean species, 198–200, 198
organization and scale, 196–97
cooperative pulling paradigm, 186–90, 192, 320
Copernicus, 268
cormorants, 226
corvids, 71–72, 92–93, 98, 136, 146–47, 147, 156, 244
courting, 21
coyotes, 75
crab-eating (long-tailed) macaques, 88
Crawford, Meredith, 186, 192
critical anthropomorphism, 26, 320
crocodiles, 94
Crow and the Pitcher, The (Aesop), 90–91, 90
crows:
complex cognition of, 43
face recognition in, 71–72
food caching by, 98
tool use by, 89–90, 90, 91, 93, 270, 274
Crystal, Jonathon, 211
Cullen, Esther, 31
cultural learning, 152–53
cultural transmission, 156
cultural variability, 268
culture, 48, 51, 52, 151–52, 153, 175, 253, 268, 320
Curmudgeon (capuchin monkey), 180
cuttlefish, 251–52
Dandy (chimpanzee), 62
Darwin, Charles, 1, 124, 158
on animal emotions, 4, 41, 96, 114
on continuity, 221, 269
and natural selection, 122, 123
Darwin-Wallace Theory, 122–23
death, 106
delayed gratification, 224–29, 320
Dickinson, Anthony, 211
digger wasps, 38, 62, 69
Dijkgraaf, Sven, 10
Diogenes, 125
displacement activity, 37, 226–29, 320
DNA studies, 120, 121
dognition, 114
dogs:
behaviors of, 30–31, 152
brain studies on, 115–17, 116
domestication of, 114, 149–50, 156
eye contact with, 150
imitation in, 156
and mirror test, 242
punishment for behavior of, 56–57
restraint in, 222
wild, 191
and wolves compared, 149–50, 156
dolphins:
brain size of, 123, 248
communication with, 99, 260
cooperation among, 189, 196
empathy in, 132
imitation in, 156
individual recognition by, 261–63
memory in, 263
self-recognition in, 243–44
shapes of, 75
signature whistles of, 262
targeted helping by, 133–34, 133
uncertainty response in, 230, 232
dual-gender signaling, 252
Dücker, Gerti, 245
ducklings, 32–33
Dunbar, Robin, 176
Eba (macaque), 52
echolocation, 10, 11, 12, 22, 75
ecological niche, 8, 320
Elephant Conservation Center, Thailand, 189
elephants:
brain size of, 123
complex cognition of, 43
cooperation between, 186, 189–90
embodied cognition in, 159–60
empathy in, 132
future orientation in, 205
listening, 237–40
mirror tests of, 17–18, 157, 235–36, 236
neurons in brain of, 124, 160
politics among, 201–3
self-recognition in, 243
tool use by, 15, 16
trunks of, 15
Umwelt of, 237
Eli (dog), 115–16, 117
Embodied cognition, see cognition, embodied
Emery, Nathan, 147
emotions, 41, 45, 96, 106, 114, 273
empathic perspective taking, 132–40
empathy, 61, 132–33, 176, 275
Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA), 45
episodic memory, 207–12, 229, 320
equivalence learning, 183
Estosha National Park, Namibia, 202
ethnic triumphalism, 127
ethologists, 9, 27, 39, 43, 45
ethology:
attacks on, 56
and behaviorism, 36–37, 41, 44
cognitive, 26–27, 157, 266
and comparative psychology, 58, 61
defined, 29, 320
and displacement activities, 37
and evolutionary cognition, 55, 60, 271–72
and fixed action patterns, 37
and innate releasers, 37
and instincts, 37
and morphology, 39
and spontaneous behavior, 37–38
study of species-typical characteristics, 37
evolution, 122–29
adaptation in, 58
behavioral, 45
and cognition, 58–59
common ancestor in, 161
continuing, 160–61
convergent, 75, 109, 274
early intimations of, 125
of Hominoids, 87, 122, 160–61
homology vs. analogy in, 74, 75, 83, 274
of language, 109
missing link in, 160–61
myths about, 83
and natural selection, 23, 122–23
and Neo-Creationism, 122
evolutionary cognition, 21–22, 50, 61, 265–75, 320
comparative approach in, 200–201
and ethology, 55, 60, 271–72
learning theory, 271
The Mentality of Apes (Köhler), 65
scope of, 28, 158, 176–77
and time dimension, see time
and variation between species, 53, 200, 270
Evolution of Culture, The (White), 151
exceptionalism, 125–26
extraterrestrial civilizations, search for, 141
face recognition, 70–72
in apes and monkeys, 260, 274
in capuchin monkeys, 70–71, 129
in chimpanzees, 18–19, 70, 75, 260–61
in crows, 71–72
inversion effect in, 70
in sheep, 72
in wasps, 70, 72–73, 75, 274
facial expressions, human, 40
false-belief task, 148
fashion, use of term, 154–55
Figaro (Goffin’s cockatoo), 103
fish, 25
cooperation between, 198–200, 198
discus, 74, 75
and mirror image, 242
shapes of, 75
fission-fusion society, 262
fixed action patterns, 37
Flo (chimpanzee), 170
Foerder, Preston, 16
Fons (chimpanzee), 1
fox, 8
FoxP2 gene, 109
Franje (chimpanzee), 1, 2, 3, 213
Frankfurt, Harry, 223–24
Freud, Sigmund, 151
Frisch, Karl von, 11, 61
frontal lobes, 124
fruit flies, 162
function, 44, 320
interpretation of, 108
vs. mechanism, 73–74, 158
future planning, 212–21, 229
Galileo Galilei, 113
Gallup, Gordon, 48–49, 50, 240, 241, 265
Ganzheitsbetrachtung (holistic contemplation), 19–21, 61
Garcia, John, 57–58, 59, 270
Garcia Effect, 58, 320
Gardner, Allan, 144
Georgia (chimpanzee), 111, 130–31, 154
ghost box test, 159
gibbons, 13–15
as arboreal, 14–15
hands of, 14–15, 14, 157
tool use skills lacked by, 81
Gingrich, Newt, 169
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 125
goldfinches, 89
Goldfinch, The (Tartt), 89
Gombe Stream, 221
Goodall, Jane, 68, 78, 264
In the Shadow of Man, 169–70
goodbye, saying, 2–3
gorillas:
in Hominoid family, 80–81
in mirror test, 240
tool use by, 81–82
goslings, 37, 40
Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo, 79
Grande (chimpanzee), 64, 65
Grandin, Temple, 101
greeting, 2, 21, 25, 26
Greg (colleague), 115–16, 117
Griffin (parrot), 104, 225, 226
Griffin, Donald, 28, 104, 265
and cognitive ethology, 26–27, 157, 266
on consciousness, 23
on echolocation, 10, 11, 22
The Question of Animal Awareness, 22, 169
Guapo (capuchin monkey), 180
gulls, 37, 38
Gumert, Michael, 87–88
Hall, Katie, 130–31
Hampton, Robert, 230, 232–33
hands:
evolution of, 74
opposable thumbs, 75
of primates, 14–15, 14, 157
Hanlon, Roger, 250, 252
Happy (elephant), 18
Hare, Brian, 138
Harlow, Harry, 35
Harris’s hawks, 191
Hattori, Yuko, 135
Hauser, Marc, 121
headflagging, 179–80
hedgehogs, 75
Heisenberg, Werner, 7, 15
hello, saying, 2
hippocampus, 220–21
HIV-1 virus, 161
Hobbes, Thomas, 168
hominization, 122
Hominoid family, 80–81, 87, 120, 125, 127, 160–61, 241, 243
Homo faber, 78
homology, 74, 75, 83, 117, 221, 274, 321
honey badgers, 88–89
honeybees, 107
waggle dance of, 11
Hopkins, Bill, 137
Hopper, Lydia, 159
Horner, Victoria, 152–53, 156, 252
horses, 189
hostility, redirected, 181
Huffman, Michael, 154
human behavior:
displacement activity, 226–27
evolutionary approach to, 187
human children:
apes compared with, 141–46, 145, 151, 152–53, 187, 192
delayed gratification in, 224, 225–26, 227
empathic perspective taking, 135–36
generosity of, 256
self-awareness of, 242, 243
human cognition, and animal cognition, 5, 121, 157, 268
human exceptionalism, 124–29, 152
anthropocentralism, 162
and continuity, 221
moratorium on, 158–59, 163
scientists’ bias toward, 22, 141, 153, 157, 187–88, 192, 206, 241, 268
human hands, 14
human immunity, 161
human mind, and Wallace’s Problem, 122–23
human soul, 123
Hume, David, 268–69
Hume’s Touchstone, 269, 321
hunger reduction model, 35–36
hunter-gatherers, 274
hunters, teamwork among, 190, 191, 199–200
Hussein, Saddam, 203
hyenas, 186
iceberg metaphor, 125, 128, 132
ichthyosaurs (extinct marine reptiles), 75
IgNobel prize, 261
Imanishi, Kinji, 51, 60, 61, 258, 263–64, 275
imitation, 151–56
of body movements, 159
and conformist bias, 253, 255
conspecific, 152–54, 156
and culture, 151–52, 175
definition, 151
overimitation, 153, 321
redefining, to prove a biased theory, 152–53
selective, 153, 161, 321
survival value of, 255–56
true, 126, 151, 153, 322
without rewards, 154
Imo (macaque), 51–53
Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child (N. Kohts), 96
inferential reasoning, 54–55, 321
information seeking, 231–33, 231
infrasound, 238
inhibitions, 222–23
Inman, Alastair, 232–33
innate, definitions of, 40, 56
innate releasers, 37
In Search of Lost Time (Proust), 209–10, 212
insects, wings of, 74, 75
insight, 64–65, 64, 67, 68, 89, 91, 321
instincts, 37, 271
use of term, 56
intelligence, 321
generalized, 68, 88
and language, 110–11
use of term, 11
intelligence testing, 128
Intelligent Design, 122
intentionality, 68, 78, 222
intentional signaling, 137–38
In the Shadow of Man (Goodall), 169–70
introspection, 44
Itani, Junichiro, 60
Ivory Coast, 83
jackdaws, 8–9, 37, 39, 71, 98
Jakie (chimpanzee), 134
James, William, 226–27
Janik, Vincent, 263
Janmaat, Karline, 210
Japanese primatology, 51, 60–61
jays, 136, 146–47, 147, 211, 217–18
Jigokudani Monkey Park, Japan, 87
joint intentionality, 190–91, 190, 192,
194
Joni (chimpanzee), 96, 97
Kafka, Franz, Metamorphosis, 7, 13
Kalunde (chimpanzee), 172, 173
Kandula (elephant), 16–17, 16
Kanzi (bonobo), 109, 110–11, 113, 227
Katie (chimpanzee), 154
Kennedy, John F., 56
Khrushchev, Nikita, 56
killjoy account, 51, 321
King, Stephanie, 263
kissing, 24–25, 24, 26, 171
Kitcher, Philip, 223
kittiwakes, 31–32, 270
know-thy-animal rule, 53, 77, 321
Köhler, Wolfgang:
on animal cognition, 63, 64, 271
chimpanzee research of, 63–66, 64, 67, 68, 73, 76, 96, 154
and evolutionary cognition, 65
on future planning, 217
influence of, 113, 265, 271
The Mentality of Apes, 65
Kohts, Alexander Fiodorovich, 95–96
Kohts, Nadia, 95–98, 97, 103, 113, 265
Infant Chimpanzee and Human Child, 96
matching-to-sample research of, 96–97, 260
Kohts, Roody, 96
Koko (gorilla), 105–6, 109
Köpfchengeben (head giving), 21
Kortlandt, Adriaan, 226
Koshima Island, 51–53
Koyama, Nicola, 219
Krom (chimpanzee), 134
Kuif (chimpanzee), 3
Kummer, Hans, 59, 60, 169, 175, 265
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 96
language:
acquisition of, 99–102
and animal cognition, 100–104, 113–14
body language, 131–32
capacities underlying, 107–8
capacity for, 112–13
evolution of, 109
flexibility of, 106
and intelligence, 110–11
labeling of objects, 99
local dialects, 258
and memory, 212
and referential signaling, 107
roles of, 107–8
survival value of, 107
and theory of mind, 131–32
in thinking process, 101
Language Research Center, Atlanta, 227
laughter, 25
“law of effect,” 20–21, 20
Leah (gorilla), 81–82
Leakey, Louis, 78, 127
learning:
associative, 27, 200, 255, 266
BIOL, 155, 259
biologically prepared, 58, 113, 271, 319, 320
and cognition, 69, 271
equivalence, 183
evolutionary forces in, 59
inborn specializations, 32–33
role of, 69
social, 155, 256, 258
social traditions, 51–53, 77, 78–79
species-appropriate, 32
as tool, 69
trial-and-error, 21, 31, 66, 68, 84
vocal, 109
learning mechanism, 151
learning theory, 57–58, 271
Leavens, David, 137
Lehrman, Daniel, 55–56
Lethmate, Jürgen, 245
Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, 195
Linguistic Society of Paris, 109
Linnaeus, Carl, Systema Natura, 126
lions, 191
Lisala (bonobo), 213–15, 214, 217, 232
Living Links, 161
Liza (chimpanzee), 91–92
Loch Ness Monster, 141
Locke, John, 158
logic, 54–55
Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary, 213
Lolita (chimpanzee), 148–49
long-range future orientation, 205
Lorenz, Konrad, 6, 44, 275
and behavioral evolution, 40
and ethology, 38
on Ganzheitsbetrachtung, 19–20, 21, 61
jackdaws studied by, 37, 71, 259
Nobel Prize to, 61
as public lecturer, 38–39
Roah (raven) communicating with, 259–60, 263
waterfowl studies of, 27, 28, 37, 39, 40
Lovitz, Jon, 126
Lysenko, Trofim, 95–96
Maasai, 238–39
macaques:
conformism in, 256
hands of, 14
imitation by, 154
lab for, 59
memory task for, 230–31, 231
and perspective taking, 138
social relationships of, 177, 181
sweet potato washing by, 51–53, 52
tool use by, 87–88
macaw, 97, 97
Machiavelli, Niccolò, The Prince, 168, 176, 200
Madame Bee (chimpanzee), 68
magic well, 11, 13, 22, 106, 250, 321
magpies, 244
Malcolm, Norman, 101
male superiority, 127
Mama (chimpanzee), 67, 68, 165, 166, 184–85
Man the Toolmaker (Oakley), 76
Marino, Lori, 243
Marks, Jonathan, 268
marmosets, brain studies of, 115
Martin, Chris, 161–62
Martin-Ordas, Gema, 208–9
Marzluff, John, 71–72
Mason, William, 87
Massen, Jorg, 200–201
matching-to-sample paradigm, 321, see also matching-to-sample (MTS) research
matching-to-sample (MTS) research, 19, 96–97, 260
mates, search for, 32
Mather, Jennifer, 249
Matsuzawa, Tetsuro, 80, 128, 259
Mayr, Ernst, 4
McComb, Karen, 238
mechanism vs. function, 73–74
memory:
autobiographical, 209–10
of birds, 211
of chimpanzees, 119–20, 120, 121, 207–10
and cognitive research, 163
of dolphins, 263
episodic, 207–12, 229
and human amnesics, 233
and language, 212
of monkeys, 205, 229, 230–31
of orangutans, 209
of rats, 163, 211
Mentality of Apes, The (Köhler), 65
mental time travel, 221, 321
Menzel, Charles, 138–40, 227
Menzel, Emil, 66–67, 138, 267
chimpanzee studies of, 67, 68, 169, 188
influence of, 147, 169, 265
and Theory of Mind, 131
metacognition, 229–34, 321
and consciousness, 229, 233–34
information seeking, 231–33, 231
and uncertainty response, 230–31, 231
Metamorphosis (Kafka), 7, 13
Mike (chimpanzee), 170
mindreading, 132, 135
miracles, 43
mirror-anesthesia hypothesis, 53
mirror mark test, 321, see also mirror tests, and elephants; mirror tests, in gorillas; mirror tests, and monkeys; mirror tests, visual mark test
mirror neurons, 159
mirror tests:
and birds, 242, 244
and chimpanzees, 48–50
and dogs, 242
and elephants, 17–18, 157, 235–36, 236
in gorillas, 240
and monkeys, 242, 243
and self-awareness, 240–42
visual mark test, 235–36, 236, 243–44
missing link, 160–61
Mito, Satsue, 51–52
modification, gradual, 43
mole, star-nosed, 8
mollusks, 245–52
monkeys:
communication by, 107–8
confirmism in, 256
cooperation in, 186
imitation in, 156
memory of, 205, 229, 230–31
neotropical, 83
and self-awareness, 240–41, 242
Moore, Bruce, 21
Morgan, Lloyd, 42
Morgan’s Canon, 42–43, 55, 321
morphology, 39
Morrell, Virginia, 128
Morris, Desmond, 222–23
The Naked Ape, 38
Morris Water Maze, 35
motivation, 34, 150
Mount Parnassus, 22
Mulcahy, Nicholas, 216
mutualism, 198–99
Nagel, Thomas, 9–11
Naked Ape, The (Morris), 38
Natasha (chimpanzee), 208
Natua (dolphin), 230
natural selection, 23, 122–23
nature-nurture dilemma, 150
Neanderthals, 127
Neisser, Ulric, 238
nematode worms, 162
Neo-Creationism, 122
neophobia, 254
neurogeography, 115
neuroscience, 268, 273–74
Ngamba Island, Uganda, 152
Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee), 99–100
Nishida, Toshisada, 171–73, 200
Nose (rhesus monkey), 257–58
nursing, mammalian, 74, 75
Oakley, Kenneth, Man the Toolmaker, 76
object permanence, 98, 321
Occam’s razor, 43
O’Connell, Caitlin, 202
octopuses, 246–52, 246
brain of, 248
camouflage in, 250–51
life cycle of, 249
mimicry in, 251
recognition test, 247–48
tool use by, 94
uniqueness of, 249
World Cup predictions by, 105
operant conditioning, 31, 36, 37, 99
opossums, opposable thumbs of, 75
orangutans:
as escape artists, 81
floating peanut task, 92
future planning by, 216, 219–20
in Hominoid family, 80–81
memory in, 209
problem solving by, 84
tool use by, 81
orcas, brain size of, 248
os intermaxillare, 125, 126
Osnabrück Zoo, Germany, 245
Osvath, Mathias, 215
otter, Asian small-clawed, 32
overimitation, see imitation, overimitation
“overlord” position, 178–79, 179
oxytocin, 150
Palin, Sarah, 162
pandas, giant, 32
pangolins, 75
Panzee (chimpanzee), 138–39, 228
Parr, Lisa, 18–19
parrots:
cooperation among, 186
counting abilities of, 103–4
delayed gratification in, 225
imitation in, 156
language in, 98–99, 100–105
toolmaking by, 103
Peony (chimpanzee), 143
Pepperberg, Irene, 98–99, 100, 103–4, 105, 113
Pepsi (elephant), 235, 243
perception, 238
percussive stone technology, 83
Perdue, Bonnie, 32
Perry, Susan, 178, 180, 253
perspective taking, 132–56, 321, 322
in birds, 147–48, 147
in chimpanzees, 136, 138–40, 148–49
false-belief task, 148
and self-identity, 241
tie to bodies, 159
Pfungst, Oskar, 46–48, 53, 144
phylogeny, 28
Piaget, Jean, 102
Piak Nam Yai Island, 87–88
pigeons:
behavioral training of, 66, 73, 244
and brain size, 267
extrapolation of test results to other species, 53, 73
and memory, 163, 233
and Skinner, 37, 49, 50, 59, 266
Planet Earth, 22–23
planning, 1, 2, 3, 26
Plato, 125
Plooij, Frans, 221
Plotnik, Joshua, 17, 18, 189, 235
politics, 68, 172–73, 201–3
Polynesia (African gray parrot), 100
porcupines, 75
power, drive for, 168–69, 172, 200
prefrontal cortex, 160
Premack, Ann, 54
Premack, David, 54, 121, 153
Primate Research Institute (PRI), Kyoto University, 119
primates:
brain expansion of, 176
chest beating by, 127
cognition of, 11–12
hands of, 14
imitation without rewards for, 154
intelligence of, 88
matrilineal order in, 177–78
as neophobic, 254
opposable thumbs of, 75
Prince, The (Machiavelli), 168, 176, 200
Prior, Helmut, 244
problem solving, 65–66, 67–68, 84, 86, 87
proof-in-the-pudding experiment, 192–93, 194
Proust, Marcel, In Search of Lost Time, 209–10, 212
Pulpo Paul (octopus), 105
purposiveness, 206–7
Pushinka (dog), 56
Pygmalion effect, 321, see also Pygmalion, Pygmalion leading
Pygmalion, Pygmalion leading, 144
rabbits, 31
Raby, Caroline, 217
raccoons, 37
racism, 123
rats, 53, 57, 266
brains of, 220–21
domesticating, 55
learning experiment on, 56–58, 270
memory in, 163, 211
in Morris Water Maze, 35
uncertainty response of, 230
ravens, 147–48, 183–84, 200–201, 259–60
Reagan, Ronald, 112
reciprocity, 175, 186
reconciliation, 26, 174, 175
referential signaling, 107–8
Reinette (chimpanzee), 130–31
reinforcement, 31
Reiss, Diana, 16, 243
representational mental strategy, 86–87
research:
alternative theories in, 266
on ape-child comparisons, 141–46, 145, 151, 152–53, 187, 192
cherry-picking the data in, 153
in cognition, 13, 34, 45–48, 59, 163, 265, 269–70, 272–73
conspecific approach in, 152, 153–54, 156
controlled experiments, 174
critical distance maintained in, 61
ethics in, 36
expectations in, 157
fieldwork alone, 173–74, 180, 254
fieldwork and captive combined, 174–75
generalizability of, 163
human-controlled vs. natural behavior in, 36–37
hunger reduction model, 35–36
impossibility of proving a negative, 140–41, 143, 157–58
keeping in the background, 156
matching to sample (MTS), 19, 96–97, 260
methodology in, 129, 143, 152, 192, 219
pair-wise testing, 192
proof-in-the-pudding experiment, 192–93, 194
in psychology lab, 142
quality of life issues in, 59
species-appropriate, 15, 17, 18, 37, 50, 60, 269
testing under duress, 35
on theory of mind, 146–47
variation in outcome in, 129
on wild and semiwild creatures, 114, 254
respect, 35
rewards, 207, 256, 257
rhesus monkeys:
conformism in, 256, 257–58
haptic (touch) discrimination of, 34
and mirror tests, 242
social relationships of, 183
Rico (border collie), 48
Rio (sea lion), 183
ripple effects, 69–70, 75–76, 93, 94, 108, 136, 320
Rita (chimpanzee), 194
Roah (raven), 259–60, 263
Roberta (capuchin monkey), 86
Romanes, George, 41
rooks, 176, 186
Rowena (ape), 49–50
Sacks, Oliver, 112
Sadie (chimpanzee), 54
saltationist view, 43
Santino (chimpanzee), 215
Sanz, Crickette, 79
Saturday Night Live, 126
Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 110–11
scala naturae, 12, 13, 22, 157, 321
Schaik, Carel van, 220
Schusterman, Ronald, 181–82
scientists:
arrogance of, 50–53, 66, 127
bias toward human exceptionalism, 22, 141, 153, 157, 187–88, 192, 206, 241, 268
crossover scholars, 58–59
resentments among, 73
rivalries among, 92
semantics as distraction to, 55
skepticism of, 3–4, 5–6, 41, 43, 55, 76–77, 103, 109, 265–66
slayers, 266–67
sea lions, 183
SEALs, 116
sea otters, 88
selective imitation, see imitation, selective
self-awareness, 48–50, 240–43, 321–22
self-control, 226–29
self-fulfilling prophecy, 144, 146
self-recognition, 11, 243–44
Sheba (chimpanzee), 228–29
Sheehan, Michael, 73
sheep, face recognition in, 72
Sherman (chimpanzee), 228
Shettleworth, Sara, 58–59, 232, 265
siamangs, 177
signature whistles, 322, see also dolphins, signature whistles of; dolphins, individual recognition by
Skinner, B. F., 27, 36, 37, 49, 50, 59
Skinner box, 35, 117, 266
Skinnerian behaviorism, 66
Slocombe, Katie, 180
Smith, Adam, 132
Smith, David, 230
snow monkeys, 87
social brain hypothesis, 176, 322
social hierarchies, 167–77, 181, 183–84, 219, 221–22
social learning, 155, 256, 258
social networks, 176
social perceptions, research on, 68
social problem, solution to, 67
social skills, 165–74, 185, 218
“allegiance fickleness,” 173
coalition formation, 167, 171, 178–79
conformism, 256
deal making, 171–72, 175
reciprocity, 175, 186
research topics in, 176
triadic awareness, 171, 175, 177–85
Sociobiology (Wilson), 187
Socko (chimpanzee), 146, 207–8
species, variation between, 53, 200, 270
spiders, 252
spoon test, 213
squirrels, 12, 216
Stalin, Joseph, 95
status reversals, 202
Steward (chimpanzee), 213
sticklebacks, 29–30, 38
stimulus equivalence, 181–83
stimulus-response, 42, 154
Stoffel (honey badger), 89
stress, as testing tool, 35
Stuttard, Susan, 21
subjectivism, 44
submission, 202
Suchak, Malini, 193
Sultan (chimpanzee), 63–64, 65, 68, 76
Suma (orangutan), 245, 245
sushi masters, 258–59
swallows, barn, 23
sweet potato washing, 51–53, 52
Systema Natura (Linnaeus), 126
Taï National Park, Ivory Coast, 191, 210
targeted helping, 133–34, 133, 241, 322
Tartt, Donna, The Goldfinch, 89
Taylor, Alex, 93
teamwork, 190–91
Terrace, Herbert, 99, 109
theory of mind, 126, 130–32, 134, 138, 146–48, 322
theriomorphic, 39
Think Elephants International, 18, 235
thinking:
abstract thought, 5
before acting, 84
and language, 101
use of term, 65
Thorndike, Edward, 20, 21
thumb, opposable, 14
Tibbetts, Elizabeth, 73
tick, eyeless, 7–8
tickling, 25
Tietê Ecological Park, Brazil, 82
tigers, Tasmanian, 75
time, 205–34
delayed gratification, 224–26, 229
and displacement activities, 226–29
and expectation, 207
and future planning, 212–21, 229
and intentionality, 222
long-range future orientation, 205
and memory, 205, 207–12, 229
and metacognition, 229–33
Timmermans, Paul, 33
Tinbergen, Niko, 39, 56, 61–62
on animal cognition, 62
and ethology, 29–30, 38, 40–41, 43–44
Four Whys of, 44
Tinklepaugh, Otto, 207
Tolman, Edward, 206–7, 230, 232, 265
Tomasello, Michael, 187, 192
toolkits, 78–79, 87, 217
tool use:
by alligators, 94
by apes, 76, 81, 126–27
of body appendages, 88, 94
in captive species, 176
by capuchin monkeys, 82–86, 85
by chimpanzees, 14, 63–64, 64, 77–80, 77, 81, 82, 84, 127, 257
by crocodiles, 94
by crows, 89–90, 90, 91, 93, 270, 274
definition of, 78
by elephants, 15, 16
and fabrication, 76–87, 77
by gorillas, 81–82
hunting weapons, 80
by macaques, 87–88
by an octopus, 94
by orangutans, 81
by sea otters, 88
triadic awareness, 171, 175, 177–85, 322
trial-and-error learning, 21, 31, 66, 68, 84
triok, long-fingered, 75
true imitation, see imitation, true
Tulving, Endel, 211, 213, 215, 217, 233
Twain, Mark, 13
Uexküll, Jakob von, 7–9, 13, 28, 275
ultrasound, 10
Umwelt (worldview), 7–13, 15, 61, 237, 267, 271, 322
uncertainty response, 230–31, 231
unconditioned responses, 21
uniqueness claims, 126, 128, 158, 192
utilitarianism, 122, 267
van de Waal, Erica, 254–55
vervet monkeys, 107, 255
Visalberghi, Elisabetta, 84–85, 86
visual perspective taking, 138
vocal learning, 109
waggle dance, 11
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 122–23, 268
Wallace’s Problem, 122–23
Washoe (chimpanzee), 105, 109, 113
wasps:
brains of, 73
face recognition in, 70, 72–73, 75, 274
Weaver, Ann, 261
Wernicke’s area of the brain, 109
whales:
brain size of, 123, 248
cooperation among, 190–91, 190, 196
echolocation of, 75
lobtail technique of, 254
Wheeler, William Morton, 37
White, Leslie, The Evolution of Culture, 151
Whiten, Andrew, 152, 153, 254–55
wildebeest, 223
will, and self-control, 226–27
Williams, Robin, 105
Wilson, E. O., 13
Sociobiology, 187
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 9
wolves:
compared with dogs, 149–50, 156
conspecific research with, 152, 156
human-raised, 150
imitation in, 156
teamwork among, 191
Yamakoshi, Gen, 77
Yerkes, Robert, 65–66, 96, 111–12, 113, 143, 185, 265
Yerkes Field Station, 148, 189, 193
Yerkes Primate Center, 36, 137–38, 185–86, 213
Yeroen (chimpanzee), 165–67, 170, 172
zebra fish, 162
Zuberbühler, Klaus, 180