Source Material (for future research)
By reflecting on past events, we can gain a better understanding how we have become what we are. Using the tourism terminology, we can say that it is the way for better understanding of the essence of tourism movements and tourism industry. As an area of human activity, tourism has a history extending back to the early eighteenth century. So is the case with tourism knowledge or tourism theory. In this context this chapter covers the period from the initial stages of scientific research on tourism until the end of the twentieth century. Specifically the purpose of this chapter is to provide a series of reflections on aspects of the development of tourism knowledge in order not to avoid or forget the importance of any development stages the tourism theory was going through.
Some Basic Introductory Theoretical Issues
In all the historical texts on tourism, theorists have faced a number of questions at the very beginning of their work. Without resolving at least part of these questions, it is difficult to talk about any topic related to tourism. As a notion, tourism appeared and became a subject of discussion after tourist traffic had already been recorded in many areas and countries, and much after the time that people had started displaying an interest in travelling for hedonistic reasons. In this process, the word ‘tourist’ appeared earlier than ‘tourism’, and this shows that the sequence of events concerning the phenomenon of tourism and its theoretical explanation was different from what we would expect. Naturally, there is also the question about the time period where we should search for the roots of tourism and from when it would be theoretically correct to discuss it, as this will temporally define the period that this chapter deals with. Regardless of which period we choose, it would not be right to exclude the periods and theoretical works which precede the phenomenon of so-called modern tourism. According to recent research and opinion, theorists mainly agree that the period of modern tourism began with Thomas Cook’s first organised journey in 1841, an event which the World Tourism Organisation also used when deciding on 1991 as the 150th anniversary of world tourism. Of course, there are those who disagree. Among them, the majority see the beginning of tourism in the Grand Tour.
It seems reasonable to conclude that the periods that preceded these events can only be considered as the forerunners of tourism, or as phenomena similar to tourism, so the theoretical views and works that appeared in those periods should be seen and accepted in that context too. Because of the number and serious nature of the works published in this period, we simply have to include them in a historical retrospective of tourism theory, and even more so on account of their content. The seriousness of arguments which speak in favour of the first thesis convinced me that the Grand Tour was only one of the phases in which phenomena similar to tourism started to appear, but one which, according to today’s views of the modern tourism phenomenon, cannot be considered as tourism.
In this context, an overview of the phenomena related to tourism and the theory on tourism would be presented in two basic chapters: the first one deals with the phenomena similar to tourism and their accompanying theoretical works, while the second treats the unique tourism phenomenon, from the first instances of organised travel until the end of the twentieth century. In both cases, the development of tourism and tourism theory underwent different phases in these long periods, which, although not the focus of this work, will be included as a general framework for the particular works and the theses they proposed. In fact, without briefly looking at the phenomena and events in their social, political, economic and other relevant contexts, it is difficult to talk about the topics that tourism theory is interested in, and it is especially difficult to understand the true meaning of the theoretical views from different periods and different parts of the world.
However, the following has to be said too. An obsession of almost everybody in today’s world is to be the first, the biggest, the best. This seems to be true of the entire world and all human activities, including science. When it comes to human sciences the situation is somewhat more complicated, as it is usually difficult to be certain when and where a scientific opinion first appeared or when and where a scientific paper of some kind was published. The large-scale production, or more precisely, the hyper production of scientific and quasi-scientific works on world tourism makes the search for truth even more complicated. But, it is important to make a record of the people who were among the first, if not the very first, to discuss and write about tourism. All the work that followed is only the deepening, supplementing and correcting of the same subject matter. That work is equally valuable and original, and can bring the same kind of fame to those involved in it, and who search for arguments in order to correct other people’s views. This overview will deal only with the works published in the form of expert books. It is not the intention to underestimate the value of papers published in professional journals, but they are so numerous that it was impossible to cover them fully, especially in this initial historical analysis of tourism theory. There were a large number of such papers published over the last decades of the twentieth century that were particularly significant for the development of scientific research and for the theory of tourism. However, their most important ideas were later published in book form, and it was through that medium that they have found their way into the list of works and authors relevant to this chapter.
It is the whole truth that science does not tolerate alibis. Referring to ‘certain’ or ‘unforeseen’ circumstances means searching for an alibi for one’s work, and suggests an inability to explore a phenomenon objectively or fully. However, consciously not accepting such a risk, it would mean something even less acceptable: scientific arrogance. We are referring to the period entitled ‘the period of scientific flourishing’ in this historical overview, from the 1980s to the beginning of the twenty-first century. It has become impossible to follow present-day mass scientific production, when several thousand titles are published every calendar year worldwide. Still, it is certainly possible to discover the pioneers of tourism theory and give them their rightful place in the history of scientific thought on tourism. Also, while it is easier to follow the events in one’s own geographical vicinity, that too is becoming increasingly difficult, if not impossible. So, the scientists listed here are not a complete overview of present-day world tourism theory. I chose to follow my own subjective criteria and I mention only those authors and works which I believe have created a milestone in world tourism theory, without intending to belittle the scientific efforts and results of thousands of other scientists who deal with and explore different aspects of world tourism.
The aim of this chapter is not to discuss the periodisation of tourism and tourism science. However, in a historical overview such as this, where some kind of periodisation of the phenomenon in question is required, it is essential to touch upon the basic assumptions from which the sequence of relevant events is to be analysed. In their writing about different periods in the development of tourism and scientific tourism thought, different authors have used various starting points. Periodisation has consequently always been based on the independent and subjective attitudes of particular authors, and this initial attitude was usually different for each of them, especially as the conditions in which they lived and worked were not the same everywhere. They often had a different scientific background as well. This explains the differences in the attempts to come up with a single, universally accepted and well-argumented overview of the entire era of world tourism.
However, the chronology of events itself is not as important for the understanding of tourism as the explanations of the chronology and the events themselves, including their geographical, political or economic context. The periodisation of tourism becomes meaningful only when we look at the development of tourism in its context, and explore the interaction of different interconnected factors. This then allows us to determine both our own level of development and the level of tourism development. This overview of the history of tourism theory was based on some main criteria where two groups prevailed: the chronology of events; and, for the last period (because of the large-scale scientific production), different authors’ topics of interest.
Tourism and travel are interdependent notions. Since tourism cannot exist without travel, some theorists – placing greater importance on travel – have referred to tourism in, for example, Ancient Egypt, Greece, the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. However, travel in these historical periods did not and could not have the character of tourism. Tourism as a new social phenomenon did not appear until the conditions were right, and this did not happen until the middle of the nineteenth century. The thesis which wrongly defines travel as tourism partly comes from the interesting notion of the traveller which was created in the period of European Humanism, and whose motive for travelling was similar to that of the modern tourist. Driven by cultural and scientific impulses, these travellers visited cultural and scientific centres around the world. This is probably why world travellers such as Montaigne (1533–92) or Marco Polo (c. 1254–1324) are often mentioned as the first tourists. An attempt has even been made to present Montaigne’s travel book Journal de voyage (published in 1774) as the first scientific tourism book. Today’s theoretical attitudes are very clear when they say that neither these nor similar travellers or explorers from the past can be considered tourists, and neither can the later explorers on Kon-Tiki, or the conquerors of the Himalayas.
The sixteenth century is also interesting because of the work of Thomas Mun (1571–1641). Mun, who was a mercantilist by orientation, was considered by later theorists (such as F.W. Ogilvie, Kurt Krapf, P.W. Titzhoff) to have created the first theory in which tourism was an invisible export. Mun’s book was written in 1630 as a petition of the East India Company to the British Parliament, and was published posthumously in 1664. The only German copy of Thomas Mun’s book is kept in the Library of the University in Kiel; one of several copies of the book in Great Britain is in the British Museum Library. It is true that Mun wrote about services and their influence on the balance of payments, mentioning for the first time the ‘expences of travailers’ as a form of service which should be taken into consideration when working out the balance of payments. In order to consistently develop his theory on their influence on the balance of payments, in both its assets and liabilities sections, Mun juxtaposes the expenses of travellers in England with the expenses of English nationals abroad. He named these expenses ‘petty things’. This research rectified the previous belief that it had been G.J. Göschen who had in 1861 first presented the theoretical assumption of tourism being an invisible export in his book Theory of Foreign Exchange. Extensive research on Thomas Mun’s work was carried out by the German theorist Peter W. Titzhoff (1964).
However, all this is not enough to ascribe scientific status to the research of tourism in the sixteenth century. In his foreword to G. Carone’s (1959) book Il Turismo nell’Economia Internazionale, Kurt Krapf pointed out that the visits of individual foreigners to England at that time were in essence the same as those of modern foreign tourists, with the obvious difference in the size of the traffic, and, consequently, the significance of that traffic.
The seventeenth century is also sometimes mentioned because of another phenomenon, the Grand Tour, suggested by some to have been the beginning of world tourism. The Grand Tour mainly involved young British and other European upper-class young men. It was interrupted by the 30 Years War (1618–48), which ravaged almost the entire European continent, and again by the Napoleonic Wars in the late-eighteenth century, but it continued until the middle of the nineteenth century. Texts on the Grand Tour not only contained a wealth of information and rich detail, but their serious content made them resemble scientific works on tourism. The names of authors who wrote about the Grand Tour in that period make the thesis that it is the beginning of tourism development even more appealing. One of these famous texts is the dialogue between the Earl of Shaftsbury and the philosopher John Locke (1632–1704), which was published in 1764 as ‘Dialogues on the Use of Foreign Travel’ by Bishop Hurd in one of his treatises. According to Lickorish and Kershaw (1958), the Travel Trade was extensively described by the historian J. W. Stoye, who, in 1952, published his treatise ‘English travellers abroad: their influence in English society and politics’. This work was followed by a number of individual papers published in different professional journals worldwide.
Romanticism is another historical period which placed great importance on travel as a source of knowledge for different areas of life. Travel was then undertaken by writers, poets, philosophers, painters and so on. Still, from today’s perspective on the emergence of tourism, J.J. Rousseau, Goethe, Chateaubriand, Schopenhauer, Nodier, Stendahl, Byron, Helly, Merimee, George Sand, Heine, Dumas, A. De Musset and many other authors cannot be considered primarily as tourists, but they can certainly be seen as some of the early travellers in world history. The joint name for their journeys – Les voyages romantiques – clearly testifies to their ‘travelling’ motives. Pierre Defert, a doyen of scientific tourism theory in France and Europe, later wrote about this:
It is likely that there will always be both ‘travellers’ and ‘tourists’, without social geography confusing them. A difference should be made among travel, exploration, observation (reconnoitring) of a particular environment, and tourism, which requires this environment to be organised for a specific purpose and for mass visits of a certain size and duration.
(Defert, 1958, 1960)
There is yet another important reason why we cannot talk about the existence of tourism in earlier historical periods. This reason is related to the concept of free time, which is one of the basic requirements for the development of tourism. It was not until after the First World War that workers’ unions managed to win the right to an 8-hour working day; at the beginning of the nineteenth century the working day lasted between 14 and 16 hours, reducing to 10 hours at the end of the century. This was then followed by a struggle for paid overtime, and then for a paid annual holiday. The first law concerning a paid annual holiday was passed in France on 20 June 1936, just before the Second World War. Even so, the already popular non-lucrative form of travel, which started in the middle of the nineteenth century, caused certain changes in those places which were visited by tourists and prompted the first analyses of the consequences of these visits. For this reason, the middle of the nineteenth century is the most appropriate time to consider the emergence of tourism as a modern-day phenomenon.
The first four works which are referred to as the beginning of expert literature were written in the three European countries where, statistically, tourist traffic was heaviest at the time: Austria, Switzerland and Italy. It was the need to make a statistical record of the new phenomenon of tourism that was the main content of these first works on tourism theory.
The first two works are the two treatises written by a Johann Angerer from Austria, entitled ‘Das Fremdenwessen im Deutschen Südtirol’ and ‘Statistischer Bericht der Handels-und Gewerbekammer in Bozen’, both written in 1881. Two years later, Guyer-Freuler (1884) wrote his treatise Das Hotelwesen in Switzerland. In Austria, one of the most productive tourism experts of his day, Josef Stradner (1890), published his work ‘Die Förderung des Fremdenverkehrs’ in Kulturbilder aus der Steiermark, in Graz. Only a few years later, Guyer-Freuler (1895) published his Beiträge zur Statistik des Fremdenverkehrs in der Schweiz in Zurich, and, Luigi Bodo (1899) from Italy published an article entitled ‘Sul movimento dei forestieri in Italia e sul denaro che vi spendono’, in the journal Giornalle degli Economisti.
Therefore, we have at our disposal an insight into the work of individuals who all made a significant contribution to tourism theory. So, at a time when tourism as a general phenomenon was not yet being discussed, its development was being looked into on a regional level, which seems somewhat absurd.
Still, from the perspective of tourism theory and history, two events which took place in Graz, Austria, were significant for this period. The first one was a meeting in April 1884, concerning the promotion of tourism in the Alpine regions of Austria (‘Delegirtentag zur Förderung des Fremdenverkehrs in den österreichischen Alpenländern’). Ten years later, in 1894, the first congress for the promotion of tourism in the Alpine regions of Austria was held (‘1 Congress zur Hebung des Fremdenverkehrs in den österreichischen Alpenländern’). The materials and treatises from both were later taken as the foundation for the study of tourism. One of the most famous tourism theorists, Kurt Krapf (1957), thought that the relevance of these works was unquestionable and that many of the ideas that were put forward ‘could not have been formulated better today’. He also said: ‘It is enough to make one feel embarrassed, as it may seem that many modern-day theoretical insights are nothing but a reproduction of plans and suggestions from the past’. His words are still topical today.
Other topics discussed at these meetings included the valorisation of natural resources through tourism, tourism as an activity which economically stimulates underdeveloped areas, tourism as export, the relationship of demand and supply in tourism, the revenue that the state can raise through tourism from taxes and fees, the influence that prices can have on tourist traffic (physically and financially), the seasonal problems in tourism development and the need for a better statistical record of tourism. It is also interesting that the development outside the European continent was discussed, with Egypt being considered as a possible place for the development of tourism.
The end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century were marked by unprecedented industrial development, as well as major social changes and the restructuring of society. In this context, it seems unreal that it was in 1900 that a large economic crisis started (lasting until 1903), as a result of social changes, the strengthening of monopolist capital and a widespread desire for political (military) supremacy. Man’s restless spirit and many new discoveries were among the reasons for travelling to become a form of leisure. Central Europe provided the best conditions for tourism travel, as this area was the most peaceful. Switzerland soon became a fully fledged tourism destination, and this was proven by the increasing number of authors who analysed the effects of such travel on tourism regions and countries.
Apart from the above-mentioned Guyer-Freuler, the regional effects of tourism in Switzerland were also explored by Robert Just (1907) in Die Gemeinde Arose, ihr Wirtschaftsleben vor und seit dem Fremdenverkehr, Hermann Gurtner (1916) and W. Zollinger (1916), who wrote about tourism and its possible influence on the country’s balance of payments. Both of these works were entitled Fremdenverkehr und Zalungsbilanz. Another interesting treatise was written by Werberg Karl Müller (1908), who published it under the title Das Hotelwesen und der Fremdenverkehr in der Schweiz. In Austria, tourism was dealt with by Josef Stradner, Franz Bartsch, Paul Mechter and Hermann von Schullern zu Schrattenhofen. These authors were mainly concerned with macroeconomic issues, such as the national economy and its relationship with tourism. Most numerous are the authors from Germany such as Leo Woerl, Fridrich Zahn, Friedrich Zahn, Paul E. Damm, Max Buschel, Gustav Ströhmefeld, Otto Kamp Karl Köhne and Maximillian Krauss, and this is puzzling because Germany was not a popular tourism destination at that time. The Germans themselves, although later among the biggest tourism travellers, did not then travel for tourism purposes. What is not surprising, on the other hand, is the subject matter of these authors’ works, as many of them explain the role and the effects of the spa, at that time the most common destination for tourists in central Europe. Among tourism theorists, for the first time there is mention of B. Stringer (1912) and M. Avancini (1913) from Italy, L. Auscher (1916) from France, and Edmond Picard from Belgium. Of these, Stringer is particularly interesting because of his study of the influence of tourism on Italy’s foreign trade balance. Also, the Frenchman Auscher dealt with what was then a bizarre, but, as it later turned out, prophetic theme: the influence of the car on the development of tourism (Le tourisme en automobile).
The continuous growth of world tourism was slowed down and largely stopped by the First World War, but this was to be expected considering the geographical areas which were mostly affected by the war. The war was mainly fought on the European continent, where tourism had evolved most, and where most expert literature on tourism had been published. It is not surprising, then, that the war and the post-war period remained relatively unproductive in terms of written theoretical work on tourism.
As mentioned above, the First World War almost completely halted European tourism (and this, at the time, meant world tourism). However, the war also brought something positive – it gave people immense energy, which manifested itself in a general desire for life, a freer and happier existence than the one experienced before the war. This energy was partly channelled into increasingly widespread tourism travel and the transformation of certain tourism areas into target destinations, all with tourism being economically motivated. Tourism’s influence on a country’s balance of payments was the first tourism-related question dealt with in the treatises of T. Geering, E. Gebert and F. Demeuth in the 1920s (Mihalič, 2002).
All of this heightened interest in tourism as an economic activity, which relatively soon after the war assumed a leading role in a different and more successful economic life. This caused significant changes in tourism theory and gave an impetus to research and the scientific aspects of theoretical work. In 1930, Arhiv, a paper of the specialised institute for tourism, Forschungsinstitut fur den Fremdenverkehr, was first published. The academic community had great expectations of the Institute’s work, and the Arhiv was meant to take the role of a determined, competent bearer of the research results of European scientific institutions. Unfortunately, the coming to power of the social democrats in Germany was the reason that in 1935 the Institute ceased its activity. The initiative in tourism research was taken over by the Italians, mainly the fascinating Angelo Mariotti, who was a very prolific and authoritative author. His range of interest was very wide, from microeconomic to macroeconomic topics. His first book L’industria del forestiero in Italia: Economica e politica del Turismo appeared in 1923. However, it was a different Italian author, G. Tabacchi (1934), who wrote the first economic work on tourism theory, a work entitled Turismo ed Economia. It was the first attempt to give a summary view of tourism’s full role in the national economy. In the same area of interest are the works of M. Troisi (1940a, 1940b) Nozione economica di Turismo and Prime line di una teoria della rendita turistica. The second of these works is particularly interesting because the author tried to give the first theoretical explanation of tourism revenue. Among the others, there was B. Belotti (1919), who wrote about tourism law, A. Niceforo (1923) about tourist traffic in Italy, and M. Avancini (1925, 1939) and R. Benini (1926), who dealt with statistical problems in keeping records of tourism traffic.
At this time, Germany was developing a German school of tourism theory, with numerous authors and works. The leading German authors at that time were R. Glücksmann, Wilhelm Morgenroth, M. Klafkowski, Arthur Bormann, F. Oppenheimer, etc. Still the most prolific writers on economic topics, these authors now turned their attention for the first time to new, sociological topics. Morgenroth’s (1927) article ‘Fremdenverkehr’ published in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften was at the time of its publication as well as later one of the most frequently quoted articles on tourism. A similar fate was shared by Arthur Bormann’s (1931) work Die Lehre vom Fremdenverkehr, as well as Glücksmann’s (1935) Fremdenverkehrskunde. The economic aspects of tourism were also mainly dealt with by Karl Thiess, Ronnefeld Bodo, Kurt Brenner, D. Tremohlen, E. Dietel, W. Mahleberg, E. Sutter, A. Rockstroh and Friedrich Drosihn.
As far as the topics they wrote about are concerned, Austrian experts were not very different from the German authors. An especially prolific writer was Erich Gebert, who mainly studied the macroeconomic consequences of tourism development, in particular the influence of tourism on the national balance of payments. Interestingly enough, some of the Austrian tourism experts dealt with problems of promotion, which was an area rarely or not at all covered in the works of authors from other countries. Promotion was written about by Wilhelm Krieger (1933) and Fritz Jaeger (1936).
The United Nations first tackled the questions of state interventionism in tourism in 1936, demanding countries not to impede tourist visits to foreign destinations. This was an understandable reaction to an objection made by less-developed countries which had already realised the possible role of tourism in general economic development, especially as most of the countries in question did not have other relevant resources for development.
General living and working conditions in Switzerland resulted in a different view of world events, especially economic ones, and Swiss tourism experts were more versatile in their works, exploring different aspects of tourism, but still putting the greatest emphasis on economic issues. The Swiss experts demonstrated an interest in different macroeconomic topics concerning tourism in general or its specific economic sectors (the hotel industry, traffic), and for the first time we find texts on the relationship between culture and tourism. An author who wrote about this topic was Franz Heinemann. The authors who, on the other hand, dealt with economic topics were the following: Hermann Gurtner, Julius Landmann, Franz Seiler, Max Gafner and H. Gölden. The authors E. Barberini (1929) and Fausto Pedrotta (1939) wrote about the problems of the hotel industry, and the Association of Swiss Banks published a text entitled Le tourisme et l’industrie hôtelière en Suisse.
French authors, apart from L. Auscher who had already been active in the field, included C. Gide (1928) and his remarkable work L’importance économique du tourisme. As a co-author with G. Rozet, Auscher was one of the first to look at the topic of urbanism in tourism (Urbanisme et tourisme) which was later to become interesting both theoretically and in practical terms (Auscher and Rozet, 1920). Tourism as a new branch of the economy was written about by E. Chaix, while the previous history of France’s tourism was covered by G. Baraud.
It may be of interest that in England, the country where we find the original forms of organised tourism, theorists interested in exploring the tourism phenomenon appeared relatively late. In the period between the two wars, the English published two very well-founded works, one written by F.W. Ogilvie (1933), entitled The Tourist Movement, and the other, The Tourist Industry, was written by A.J. Norval (1936). Since their publication, these books have been considered as essential reading for the study of tourism both within and outside England.
In terms of their content, the theoretical works from this time introduced a series of novelties. Of particular interest was the debate on tourist spending and its rules, as well as its particular features. Great importance was placed on explanations of the effects of tourism spending, which had an influence on a large number of economic branches and sectors. Another greatly discussed topic was the possibility that tourism might bring about economic balance between areas and countries with different economic potential and level of economic development through a spilling over of its revenue to other areas. The general discussions on tourism spending also introduced the topics of its structure, the size of the budget for tourism, and the related topic of tourists’ daily spending.
The end of this period was marked by three authors and their major works, which became the principal works of tourism theory in the world. Troisi (1940a) wrote Nozione economica di turismo in Bari, and Hunziker and Krapf (1940) wrote and published Grundriss der Allgemeine Fremdenverkehrslehre in Zürich. These were the first comprehensive systematic works on tourism, where the influence of tourism on the national economy is conclusively proved for the first time. The authors showed that, with regard to the characteristics of the national or international tourism movement, tourism could have a positive or negative influence on the size of national product. They also pointed out that the redistribution of national income in the case of domestic tourism generally has less significance for the national economy than the revenue from foreign tourists’ spending which is included in the national income of the receptive tourism country. The true significance of these works became clear only after the Second World War.
It is logical to expect a period of half a century to be too long to have the same characteristics throughout and to be seen as a single historical period of development. This is why it makes sense to divide such a period into smaller segments, distinguishable from each other because of the specific characteristics that general tourism development then had. There can be a great many different criteria for such a division, and here there is the question of the general economic and political situation in different time periods and in different parts of the world. Although tourism is certainly a global phenomenon, the level of its development in different geographical areas and in different periods differs in terms of the intensity of tourism traffic and in its effect.
The rapid growth of tourism after the Second World War was reflected in an increased amount of research work on tourism and the large-scale production of expert and scientific works. In Great Britain, Elizabeth Brunner (1945) produced a major work, Holiday Making and the Holiday Trades. Krapf and Hunziker’s theoretical views gained even more significance after they founded the first international association of tourism theorists, AIEST (Association internationale des experts du tourisme). From the start, the annual meetings (congresses) of the Association and the theoretical works it published became the foundation for scientific insights into world tourism. The above-mentioned authors did not stop working together, but worked independently as well. As a result, Kurt Krapf (1953) wrote a widely quoted work Die touristische Konsum: Ein Beitrag zur Lehre von der Konsumption, and Walter Hunziker (1959) wrote a comprehensive work Betriebswirtschaftslehre des Fremdenverkehrs, and a number of shorter articles.
Somewhat earlier Prof Paul Bernecker (1956) published Die Stellung des Fremdenverkehrs im Liestungssystem der Wirtschaft in Vienna, in which he, much like in his later work Der Fremdenverkehr und seine Betriebe und Betriebswirtschaftliche Ordnungsprobleme der Fremdenverkehrsbetriebe (Bernecker, 1959), opposed some of Hunziker’s theoretical explanations, in particular those concerning the existence of ‘tourism companies’ and the ‘economics of tourism companies’. Bernecker disproves the existence of such companies and argues that all the economic entities in tourism fit within an already existing system of companies.
Views similar to Bernecker’s were also propounded by G. Walterspiel (1956) and H. Joschke (1953). In Jahrbuch für Fremdenverkehr, Walterspiel wrote and published in instalments an extensive work entitled ‘Grundlagen der Betriebswirtschaftslehre des Fremdenverkehrsbetriebs’. In the same journal three years earlier, Joschke published a paper entitled ‘Beitrag zur theoretischen Analyse des Fremdenverkehrsangebote’. Both authors argue that even though tourists use commodity and non-commodity services provided by companies in different branches, this does not mean that these companies, in this way, become companies of the same kind (or of the same branch). Their opinion is shared by Walter Thoms (1952), who published the article ‘Die Arten und der Charakter des Fremdenverkehrsbetriebs’ in the book Handbuch für Fremdenverkehrsbetriebe. Here Thoms explains how the names of real and potential consumers cannot determine the relevant economic characteristics of individual companies, but, rather, the economic characteristics and names of companies are given and defined by economic science.
In this period immediately after the war, and for some time after, one of the significant interests of theorists was to define the tourism phenomenon itself, as theorists realised that an imprecise definition causes difficulties in thinking about tourism, in keeping statistical records, and in having a general understanding of tourism as a social phenomenon. Hunziker and Krapf (1942) proposed a definition which was accepted at the time by tourism experts, AIEST members:
On comprend par tourisme l’ensemble des rapports et des phénomènes résultant du voyage et du séjour de non-résidents en tant que ce séjour ne crée pas un établissement durable et ne découle pas non plus d’une activité lucrative. (We understand by tourism the sum of the relationships and phenomena arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity.)
Prof. Walter Hunziker remained an authority until his death. Switzerland had other distinguished scientists, such as Claude Kaspar, M. Baud-Bovy, P.H. Jaccard, J.-Ch. Bürky, Jost Krippendorf, Hans Peter Schmidhauser and J. Charvát.
Even in the early years after the war it became obvious that certain countries and their experts approached tourism development in a particular way, according to the country’s developmental needs. French theorists, for example, first started to look at regional development and planning. This came from France’s need to bring the tourist development of the Mediterranean coast back on track, after the destruction it had suffered during the war. In this period, and for a relatively long time after, tourism theory in France and Europe was influenced by a group of scientists led by Pierre Defert and Vincent Planque, and which included Simone Troisgros, Roger Ballossier, René Baretje, Henri Barre, Pierre Lainé, Jacques Durand and Hubert Delestrée. The reason this research had a dominantly geographical focus was that it involved a large number of experts who specialised in geography, as well as regional planning, which had hardly been written about in Europe before. Later, focusing on the aims of France’s developmental policy at that time, the policy of tourism development devoted its efforts to the mountainous part of the country (Haute Savoie) and to the restructuring of health tourism centres, including spas. At this point French experts turned to these problems in their works.
The same happened in other countries as well. German theorists, for instance, stayed focused on two main areas: microeconomic problems (the economics of tourism companies) and macroeconomic problems related to the influence of tourism on the national economy. German scientists had always had an interest in microeconomics, but a part of their interest then turned to tourism economics and the economics of tourist companies. The most distinguished members of the German school were Alfred Koch, Hans Ludwig Zankl, Günter Menges, Eberhard Gugg, each of whom was specialised in a particular area.
Italy continued with tourism research and the publishing of scientific works, but with relatively fewer influential authors than before. The best known Italian experts at the time were Luciano Merlo (who published the first book on marketing in Italy’s tourism), Alberto Sessa (quite a prolific author with a wide scope of interest) and the circle of theorists from the University in Florence, gathered around Professor Piero Barucci (who focused particularly on regional development).
English theorists remained interested in general topics, but they founded a special higher education institution in Guildford near London, whose area of specialisation was tourism research and education. Such an orientation allowed for the development of great tourism experts, such as Slavo Medlik, Brayan Archer, A.J. Burkart, V.T.C. Middleton, who developed tourism research to an admirable level. If we also mention L.J. Lickorish and A.G. Kerhow, as well as some other theorists, such as Louis Erdi and D.T. Jeffries, we can see that Great Britain had a very impressive group of scientists in the 1950s, which resulted in the publishing of several important books on general and specific tourism topics.
Among Austrian tourism theorists, the most distinguished, besides Paul Bernecker, were Anton Würzl, Helmut Zolles, and Harald Langer-Hansel. Each of them had his own area of specialisation, conforming to the general level of tourism development, and also to the specific interests of Austria.
However, other European countries, especially those where emissive or receptive forms of tourism were more markedly present, had their own authors with prominent works. This is especially true of Spain, whose authoritative tourism theorists were José Ignacio de Arrillaga y Sanchez and J. Vila Fradera. The rapid and intense tourism development on the Spanish Mediterranean coast required more precise theoretical research and explanations for the topics which were associated with it.
Prominent theorists from other European countries included Arthur Haulot and Norbert Vanhove from Belgium, Ejler Alkjaer from Denmark, M.C. Tideman from the Netherlands, and a group of Eastern European scientists. Most distinguished among them were Srđan Marković, Dragutin Alfier, Ivan Antunac, Slobodan Unković, Janez Planina and Milan Mazi from former Yugoslavia, Oleg Rogalevski and Krysztof Przeclawski from Poland, A. Guéorguiev from Bulgaria, László Kovács from Hungary, and František Prikril and Jiri Kašpara from the Czech Republic. Srđan Marković and his wife Zora wrote one of the first books in the area of tourism economics in the world, entitled Tourism Economics (Marković and Marković, 1972).
The 1960s saw the publication of the first serious works of American tourism experts. Their appearance is connected with the beginnings of the discussion on tourism’s multiplier effects. Back in 1958, in their book The Travel Trade, the British theorists L. J. Lickorish and A. G. Kershaw pointed to the interesting research results on the multiplier effects of foreign tourism spending, conducted by the Hawaii Visitors’ Bureau (Lickorish and Kershaw, 1958). A more serious theoretical attempt was that of H.G. Clement (1961) under the title The Future of Tourism in the Pacific and Far East. Kurt Krapf (1962) drew attention to this work in his article ‘Le tourisme, facteur de l’economie moderne’, published in AIEST’s official paper Revue de Tourisme. This marked the beginning of a long discussion, which is still continuing, in which proponents and opponents of the idea of the multiplier effects in tourism took turns in voicing their views. This especially goes for the mathematical model used by Clement. Clement referred to the links with the Kahn-Keynes’s multiplier of national income, but he never explicitly quoted those links, and only mentioned P.A. Samuelson, which gave additional arguments to those who did not agree with the application of the model as presented by Clement. Especially severe in their criticism of Clement’s multiplier were Karl Lewitt and Iqbal Gulati, John Bryden and Mike Faber, Herbert Vanhove, Albert Schmidt, Bryan Archer, Robert Erbes, Pierre Defert, Rene Baretje, and later theorists, such as Ivan Antunac, Mathieson and Wall. The bulk of the criticism referred to the work of M. Zinder, one of Clement’s associates, who wrote The Future of Tourism in the Eastern Caribbean, applying Clement’s multiplier method. The multiplier debate involved, for the first time, along with European writers, American authors as the interpreters and/or critics of the tourism theory, even though the majority of American authors acted primarily as economic theorists, explaining the irregularities in the mathematical operations and the model in general.
During the 1960s and 1970s, tourism experts from outside Europe appeared with their works. Among them, the first were Wahab et al. (1976) from Egypt and Francis M. Peltier from Canada.
One of the areas that interested tourism experts was the research of tourism demand, and the forecasting method in particular. How relevant this question still is today is illustrated by D. Frechtling’s (2001) Forecasting Tourism Demand: Methods and Strategies, or the chapter written by Witt and Martin (1989), entitled ‘Demand forecasting in tourism and recreation’ in the book Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management (edited by C.P. Cooper). There is an extensive list of authors and works in this field today.
In the 1970s, there were a number of events important for history and the social sciences, which triggered off a change in tourism theorists’ interest and focused their research on the novelties which these events brought. The large-scale world production of consumer goods and the growing issue of their promotion eliminated the interest of the economy in production which had existed for centuries and directed it to the sale and promotion of goods. This resulted in a new theoretical view of economics: marketing. At the same time, tourism’s continuous growth resulted in unprecedented rates of supply and demand. The increasing involvement of thousands of new places and localities throughout the world in tourism brought about universal competitiveness, which prompted tourism to implement marketing. European theorists in particular turned to marketing, as it diverted tourism theorists’ attention from their usual and over-researched topics for at least a couple of decades.
The first treatise on the possible application of marketing in tourism was written by the Spanish theorist José Ignacio de Arrillaga y Sanchez, who would later become the Spanish tourism minister. His treatise appeared under the name ‘Marketing de los mercados turisticos’ (Arrillaga, 1971). However, the real interest of experts was sparked by Krippendorf (1971) Marketing et tourisme. It is interesting that, already in 1971, the former IUOTO – now the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) – organised its 5th International Travel Research Seminar in Nassau, Bahamas, on the topic of The Changing World of Travel Marketing. With this, marketing definitely entered the area of tourism, both as a theoretical and a practical topic.
Somewhat later, V.T.C. Middleton (1979) published his article ‘Tourism Marketing: Product Implications’, which was followed by several similar works on tourism marketing by authors from other European countries. Middleton’s major work is considered to be the one co-authored with J. Clarke (Middleton and Clarke, 2000). However, it was Middleton’s article which opened a new area of interest for tourism theorists – the question of the tourism product. This issue was later discussed in a number of articles, while chapters on the tourism product appear in almost all the books that were later written on tourism marketing. What is also interesting is that at the very beginning of the 1970s, AIEST devoted its 23rd Congress (in 1973) to the topic of ‘Tourisme et marketing’. This topic was later explored by an especially large number of American authors, such as T. Levitt, A.M. Morrison, R.T Reilly, R.D. Reid, C.D. Coffman, P.G. Davidoff, D.S. Davidoff, D. Foster, as well as authors from other countries. Interesting works by non-American authors included Dieter Hebestreit’s (1975) Touristik-Marketing, Jean-Jacques Schwarz’s (1976) ‘Dynamique du Tourisme et Marketing’, a major work in this field Marketing for Leisure and Tourism by M. E. Morgan (1996), Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook by Stephen Witt and Luiz Moutinho (Witt and Moutinho, 1989), and Walter Freyer’s (1997) Tourismus: Marketing. Only in the 1990s did the leader of marketing theory, Philip Kotler, with co-authors, publish a work on tourism marketing, Marketing for Hospitality and Tourism (Kotler et al., 1996).
American theorists did not turn to general tourism topics until the early 1970s. Among the first was the joint work of the authors Robert McIntosh and Charles Goeldner (McIntosh and Goeldner, 1972), entitled Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies, which became a general course book for American students who wanted to learn more about tourism. A book of the same title but significantly different appeared as an independent work by Robert McIntosh (1972). This period in America saw the publishing of several works concerned with general tourism subjects. Works on tourism came from Carlton Van Doren, Donald Lundberg, J.A. Patmore, etc. There were more authors, however, who explored particular topics, since US tourism was seen only as a business. Hugh De Santis, therefore, wrote about travel agencies as the leaders of travel democratisation in the world, D.E. Lundberg studied the hotel and restaurant business, and a number of works on tourism and the hotel industry were published in the professional journals of ASTA (American Society of Travel Agents), Travel Weekly, UIOTO, USA Travel Data Center and so on. Similar texts were also published by state institutions, such as the US Department of Commerce, US Department of Employment, US Department of Interior. S.R. Waters began publishing his Travel Industry World Yearbook: The Big Picture, which for the first time included not only a statistical analysis, but also extensive comments by the author regarding the changes in world tourism.
By the 1970s, France already had a wide range of works about different aspects of tourism development. Apart from Rene Baretje and Pierre Defert, younger authors such as Marc Boyer were focusing on economic questions of tourism development. Still, the biggest turn in theoretical considerations of tourism came from an entirely practical tourism project: Languedoc Roussillon. This programme of tourism construction, until then the biggest in the world, intrigued many French and world tourism experts. It involved, on the one hand, a completely new approach to the construction of tourism regions, especially from the point of view of the state’s intervention in tourism development, which had not existed to such a degree until then, and, on the other hand, it introduced practical novelties, particularly in the architecture of tourism facilities. All of this prompted authors from different countries to publish works which were the first to tackle regional planning as a main prerequisite for tourism development.
These views should have been of special interest to American authors, as tourism by that time had not fully gained the ‘right of citizenship’, and state administration did not yet have a great interest in it. American authors began dealing with these issues almost 15 years later, when Clare Gunn (1979) first published Tourism Planning, followed by Vacationscape: Designing Tourist Regions (Gunn, 1988). This initiated a period of long and productive research work in which a number of experts worked more intensively on the general idea of tourism development and planning. An exception to this was Charles Gearing’s (Gearing et al., 1976) book, Planning for Tourism Development. These theoretical considerations led to the forming of the tourism destination theory, which attracted a great deal of interest from authors in the last decade of the twentieth century. Two works deserve special mention here, Tourism and Recreation Development: A Handbook of Physical Planning by Fred Lawson and Manuel Baud-Bovy (Lawson and Baud-Bovy, 1977), and Tourism Planning: an Integrated Planning and Development Approach by E. Inskeep (1991). But the crucial work on this subject was written by Brent Ritchie and Geoffrey Crouch (Ritchie and Crouch, 2003), and titled The Competitive Destination.
There is another work written in the early 1970s that should not be overlooked in a chronology of world scientific theory on tourism. A. J. Burkart and S. Medlik (Burkart and Medlik, 1974) published the first edition of their book Tourism: Past, Present and Future, which, much like Hunziker and Krapf’s work in the 1940s, freshened up general tourism theory, and took into consideration the different changes the world had gone through, in particular the changes in the development of the tourism phenomenon. This was also a major source for the new generations of students who were studying at a growing number of higher education institutions which specialised in tourism, so this book in fact became the first general tourism course book for a large part of Europe and the world.
It can be safely said that the area of tourism which has been researched and written about the most is the aspect of economics, or, rather, the economic implications and impact of tourism development.
In the same way that marketing dominated theoretical works in the 1970s, ‘sociological and cultural pollution’, the problem of environmental protection and the need to raise ecological awareness, became the focus of tourism works in the 1980s and 1990s. Of course, even before this there had been works which warned of the problem of ecological pollution caused by tourism development (such as the work of Arthur Haulot). No matter how perverse it may sound, by pointing out the negative effects of tourism development, sociologists and ecologist have perhaps done more for the popularisation of tourism than ‘classical’ tourism theorists! Tourism theory, which for a long time had focused on the economic features and consequences of tourism development, turned its attention in the 1980s and 1990s to social problems. An introduction to this may be found in Eric Cohen’s (1979) text, ‘Rethinking the Sociology of Tourism’, which was published in the Annals of Tourism Research. However, this mainly positively charged work was followed by texts which attacked the tourism phenomenon, proclaiming it as asocial, irritating to local people, a-cultural, and, in a word, unacceptable as part of ‘the new society’ which modern civilisation was striving for. Cohen was also responsible for one of the first classifications of tourists.
The negative attitudes to tourism first appeared in Louis Turner and John Ash’s (Turner and Ash, 1975) work The Golden Hordes, Dean MacCannell’s (1976) The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class and Emanuel De Kadt’s (1976) Tourism: Passport to Development? Turner and Ash made interesting observations on tourism destinations as the ‘pleasure periphery’, and the existence of a ‘tourist belt’ which surrounds the world’s industrial zones. However, they turned their observation into an accusation that the ‘global pleasure periphery is emerging where the rich of the world relax and intermingle’. An attempt to find some kind of objective grounding for these severe and one-sided views, whose main flaw was generalisations made from particular phenomena and events, was made by Valene Smith (1977) in her anthropological analysis of tourism, entitled Hosts and Guests. Fred Bosselman (1978) did something similar in his work In the Wake of the Tourist. Although still pointing out the negative impact of tourism development, these authors offer a number of positive examples in order to balance the theoretical views on the effects of world tourism. Still, the introductory discussion of tourism’s real problems, with an emphasis on cultural and ecological issues, was certainly the book that marked a turning point in contemporary world tourism literature: Krippendorf (1986) Die Ferienmenschen: Für ein neues Verständnis von Freizeit und reisen.
In this context, another topic became prominent in world theoretical literature in the 1980s. Although seen from a somewhat different perspective, a number of authors, especially American ones, became interested in the centre—periphery relationships in tourism. In this relationship, T. Hoivik and T. Heiberg, W. Husbands, A. Mathieson and G. Wall, P.E. Murphy and S. Smith perceived links between the metropolitan centres (the centre) and tourism areas (the periphery), and observed the different implications in the economic, traffic, sociological, regional planning and many other sectors. These views attracted a large following over the next few years, resulting in an impressive number of works from different tourism experts worldwide.
The economic conditions and the impact of tourism development clearly remained a major theme in tourism theory. There was a remarkable amount of writing in this highly complex field, and some of the early works have already been mentioned. Interestingly enough, the topic of tourism economics had not been dealt with in any integrated way in so-called Western literature until the end of the twentieth century. This was probably a consequence of tourism in America and Australia being considered as a separate business, rather than a sector of activities with an influence on national development and GDP. On the other hand, in socialist countries such as Yugoslavia, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, which were generally less economically developed, but very active in the tourism sphere, the awareness of tourism’s impact on the national economy was very high. If for nothing else, the problem of currency non-convertibility was certainly one of the reasons why the relationship of these countries to the tourism sector was different, as tourism significantly facilitated the acquisition of foreign currency. This is why in these countries works on tourism economics, or books similarly entitled, contain the theoretical postulates on tourism and a wide range of theses on the economic implications of tourism development. In former Yugoslavia, for example, in the short period between 1972 and 1975, five authors published books entitled Tourism Economics. Among them, the most famous authors were professors Janez Planina, Srđan Marković and Slobodan Unković. Similar works from Eastern Europe were those by such writers as Jiři Kašpar and Jaromir Holubov from Czechoslovakia, Horst Uebel from East Germany, A. Gueorguiev from Bulgaria and A. Kolacsek from Hungary.
In the Western world, only a few books carried the name ‘tourism economics’ at the time, and in the US there were none. In Europe, there were a few exceptions, such as Economia del Turismo by the Italian author Franco Paloscia (1965), Aspects économiques du tourisme by the French authors Baretje and Defert (1972), Elements of Tourism Economics by Albeto Sessa (1983) from Italy and Economie touristique by Gerard Guibilato (1983) from Switzerland. The first works on this topic appeared in Western countries in the final decade of the twentieth century, such as Bull (1991) The Economics of Travel and Tourism, Lundberg et al. (1995) Tourism Economics, Sinclair and Stabler’s (1997) The Economics of Tourism, and Jose Marsano Delgado’s (2003) Economia del Turismo, ended with The Economics of Tourism Destinations by Norbert Vanhove (2005), one of the best European economic experts in the world of tourism. From this we can see that this part of the world also started observing tourism from a macroeconomic perspective, treating it as a part of the national economy, and exploring what impact tourism as a sector had on GDP. Interesting research in this field was carried out by Wieslav Alejziak from Poland, who, writing in 1999 about the economic implications of tourism, advocated the creation of a new discipline – touristics! And finally, in 2004, a scientific debate in France discussed ‘tourismology’ as a new discipline, whose name attempted to suggest its fully fledged scientific character. The debate was triggered off by a book written by Jean-Michel Hoerner (2005), La science du tourisme: Précis franco anglais de tourismologie.
The problems of tourism development in developing countries was a ‘new’ topic extensively explored by tourism experts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This topic came from the question about the dependence of particular countries’ economies on the success of tourism development. This key question raised a series of follow-up questions. Among the first authors to tackle this topic was Alberto Sessa, who, in 1970, had already published a smaller study entitled Tourism as a Factor of Progress in the Economy of Developing Countries, and soon after him came L. Turner (1976) with his article ‘The international division of leisure: Tourism and the Third World’, R. E. Wood (1979) with ‘Tourism and Underdevelopment in South East Asia’, and D. Harrison (1992) with Tourism and the Less Developed Countries. UIOTO and OECD both dedicated an edition of their journals to this topic, and these associations organised seminars on the subject of tourism in underdeveloped countries. A number of authors, mainly from America, discussed tourism as a cause of developing countries’ dependence on developed ones, including Turner, T.L. Hills and J. Lundgren, T. T. Heiberg, C.Wu, A. Mathieseon and G. Wall, P.A. Wellings and J. Crush, S.G. Britton. Among them, Britton was very clear in pointing out that underdeveloped countries were exploited not only by foreign capital, but also by ‘local dominant capitalist firms’, which had a negative impact on the economic, as well as the political and sociological, life of such countries. This area was dealt with by a number of authors, such as J. Monk and C. Alexander (1986), D.B. Miller and J. Branson (1989), P.B. Lerch and D.E. Levy (1990), D.E. Levy and P.B. Lerch (1991) and P.F. Wilkinson and W. Pratiwi (1995).
Discussion of tourism as a factor of regional development had started at the beginning of tourism development following the Second World War. One of the first to write about this was W. Christaller (1963) who discussed tourism as a means for achieving regional economic development, particularly in peripheral regions which benefited economically from tourists from richer central zones and metropolitan areas. A number of other authors dealt with the same topic over the next couple of years. Tourism is mentioned as an equally promising development strategy for both urban areas (Beauregard, 1998) and rural areas (Sharpley and Sharpley, 1997). Especially interesting was the thesis about tourism as a factor for creating growth poles, aimed at stimulating regional development (Oppermann and Chon, 1997). These were the theoretical postulates on which Mexico and Spain founded their national tourism development policies and carried out numerous regional tourism projects (e.g. Cancun in Mexico, and the so-called ‘zone urbanisation’ in Spain). This involved a strategy of selecting economically relatively marginal areas which had appropriate basic tourism resources, and then stimulating their regional development. Of course, the literature mentions and analyses a larger number of regional development models, especially those which focus on the benefits for the local community. Emphasis was also placed on the role of the state and the ruling political ideology, treated in fact by many authors, including C. M. Hall (1994), Ioannides (1995) and Elliott (1997). The message of all this research is significant: peripheral regions should not expect to have the most benefit from regional tourism development (Pack and Sinclair, 1995).
That this is a global problem and a global topic is shown in Aisner and Plüss’s (1983) book La ruée vers le soleil; similar works appeared in other world languages as well. However, the issue of underdevelopment is not solely an economic one, and neither are the consequences of tourism development. Consequently, theory shifted its focus to the issue of culture and environmental protection. The large number of authors who wrote about this include Vargniol (1975) La planification du tourisme dans les pays en voie de développement: l’exemple de la Côte-d’Ivoire, Vielhaber and Aderhold (1981) Tourismus in Entwicklungsländer, and John Leo (1988) Tourism and Development in the Third World. In addition, the relevance that these questions had in developing countries brought authors from these countries to the world scientific scene for the first time. They include the Mexican author A. Garcia de Fuentes (1979) Cancun: Turismo y sudesar-rollo regional, the Argentinean E. Galeano (1971) Las venas abiertas de America Latina, E. Ntanyungu and F. N’Duhirahe (1981) Tourisme et dépendance: Le Cas de l’Afrique noir, and Tej Vir Singh et al. (1989) Towards Appropriate Tourism: The Case of Developing Countries.
Within the subject of third world countries, another interesting research area appeared – the relationship of religion and tourism. The most famous works published on this topic at the time were O’Grady (1981) Third World Stopover: The Tourism Debate, the paper, ‘Ecumenical Coalition on Third World Tourism’, and Vukonić (1995) Tourism and Religion.
In this period, European authors published their first works on an important economic subject in the field of tourism: tour operators. Particular interest in this field existed in Germany and Great Britain, two countries in which tour operators as travel organisers had the biggest influence on the development of these countries’ emissive tourism, which is the largest in the world in terms of the number of tourists. This topic raised interest in other countries, particularly receptive ones, in which tour operators have a dominant role in the development of tourism. The first major work in this field had been published somewhat earlier, in 1974. Touristik Marketing (Hebestreit, 1975) connected what was then marketing’s main area of interest with the work of tour operators. The problem of tour operators was later explored by a number of theorists, such as Mundt (1993), who published a comprehensive work entitled Reiseveranstaltung, and Neveka Čavlek (1998) in Tour Operators and World Tourism, unfortunately for the international expert public published only in Croatian. Still, many more works on tour operators have been published in professional journals in all the main world languages.
Before the closing remarks on the development of tourism theory at the end of the twentieth century, this overview would not be complete if it failed to mention the works published at the annual conferences of tourism associations. These works give us an insight into all the different theoretical opinions, and their publication has created a firm foundation for the study of the tourism phenomenon (and the history of tourism theory). A series of such journals has continuously been published by AIEST (Association Internationale d’Experts Scientifiques du Tourisme), and now numbers 46 books from 54 AIEST congresses. The works deal with practically all the relevant theoretical problems. A few that have arisen in the past 15 years are property, globalisation, quality management, destination management, marketing, tourism policy, culture, tourism growth and global competitiveness, air traffic, sport, and small and medium-sized companies in tourism. Similar work has been done by other national and international tourism organisations, such as TTRA (Travel and Tourism Research Association), ATLAS (European Association for Tourism and Leisure Studies), etc. In the last 15 years, the American association IMDA (International Management Development Association) has also included tourism topics at its annual conferences, and has published the conference papers in its journal. Irregular, but particularly significant, has been the publishing activity of the World Tourism Organisation, which has published different studies and classic course-book materials (such as Cooper et al. (1996) Educating the Educators). Similarly, IAST (International Academy for the Study of Tourism), founded 1989, has published a number of books about different tourism topics, especially topics presented at the organisation’s annual conferences.
It is difficult to study authors in the latter part of the twentieth century according to their geographical and national origins, or to use the same criteria to discuss the interests of particular tourism theorists. The world has started living intensely within its global framework, in which interest for different topics has become universal, and a strong flow of information provides the authors, regardless of where they live and work, with enough information to discuss their joint topics. Instead of listing as many works from this period as possible, only the major works representative of the theoretical work in the last 20 years of the twentieth century will be mentioned here.
Among these, an important place belongs to Tourists, Travellers and Pilgrims (Hindley, 1983), The Travel Industry (Gee et al., 1989), Tourismus: Einführung in die Fremdenverkehrsökonomie (Freyer, 1990), Managing Tourism (Medlik, 1991), Reiseveranstaltung (Mundt, 1993), Tourismus-Management (Haedrich, 1983), Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Research: A Handbook for Managers and Researchers (Ritchie and Goeldner, 1994), Resorts: Management and Operations (Mill, 1995), Change in Tourism (Butler and Pearce, 1995), Tourismus (Freyer, 1995), Management von Destinationen und Tourismusorganisationen (Bieger, 1996), Tourism Development: Principles, Processes, and Policies (Gartner, 1996), L’Invention du tourisme (Boyer, 1996), Tourismus: Eine systematische Einführung – Analyse und Prognosen (Opaschowski, 1996), Tourisme, Touristes, Sociétes (Michel, 1998), Entrepreneurship in the Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Industries (Morrison et al., 1999), Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies (Goeldner et al., 2000).
A number of authors dealt with specific areas of tourism interest, such as the psychology of travel (J. Reason, 1974: ‘Man in Motion: the Psychology of Travel’), tourism’s anthropological aspects (Turner and Turner, 1978: Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture), the psychology of tourist consumers (P. L. Pearce, 1982: The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour), legal issues regarding package holidays (Nelson-Jones and Stewart, 1993: Practical Guide to Package Holiday Law and Contracts), the relationship of religion and tourism (Boris Vukonić, 1995: Tourism and Religion; Myra Shackley, 2001: Managing Sacred Sites), urban tourism (S. Page, 1995: Urban Tourism), the relationship of public policy and tourism (C.M. Hall, 1995: Tourism and Public Policy), the sociolinguistic issues of tourism (Graham Dann, 1996: The Language of Tourism), consumer behaviour (Pizam and Mansfield, 1999: Consumer Behaviour in Travel and Tourism), the relationship of tourism and ecology (Müller and Flügel, 1999: Tourismus und Ökologie), tourism ethics (Smith and Duffy, 2003: The Ethics of Tourism Development), the control of companies in the tourist industry (H. Huber, 2000: Controlling im Hotel- und Restaurantbetrieb).
Another author, whose work does not focus on the usual theoretical topics, but which belongs to a group of widely read papers published in the late twentieth century with great influence on people’s general attitudes towards tourism and its development, is John Naisbitt (1994), whose book Global Paradox has had sales of several million copies. In one of the chapters, this well-founded and informed analysis gives a detailed overview of the development of the tourism phenomenon, especially some of its dynamic segments, such as air traffic and the tour operator business.
These different discussions on tourism’s influence on the development of underdeveloped countries led, almost simultaneously, to the discussion of a new area of interest – what kind of tourism do we really want, what kind of tourism are we willing to accept as an option for development, what sacrifices are we willing to make for such a development? In other words, these were primarily questions on how to protect oneself from the negative effects of mass tourism, but they were also questions about a different kind of tourism – so-called alternative tourism as a possible solution (Smith and Eadington, 1992: Tourism Alternatives). The work of American authors dominated this field once again. However, even in the first discussions it became clear that the phrase ‘alternative tourism’ neither explained what was meant, nor what was understood by it. This is why other phrases, such as ‘responsible tourism’, ‘soft tourism’, ‘sanfter tourismus’ and ‘sustainable tourism’ were created. The authors who were among the first to write about this new form of tourism were R.W. Butler, J.G. Nelson, G. Wall, J. Brohman, B. Bramwell and B. Lane. When talking about theoretical works on tourism today, this topic remains one of the leading areas of interest.
World tourism theory in the 1990s and later focused on the topic of management. The first books on this subject were Introduction to Management in the Hospitality Industry by Tom Powers (1992), and Management im Tourismus by Clode Kaspar (1994). Other significant works include Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management by Cooper and Lockwood (1994), International Hospitality Management by Teare and Olsen (1992), Tourist Destination Management by E. Laws (1995), Management von Tourismusunternehmen by Torsten Kirstges (1994), Tourisikmanagement 1 and 2 by W. Pompl (1998), Tourism Management by Weaver and Lawton (2000), Strategic Management in Tourism by L. Moutinho (2000), Tourism Management: Towards the New Millennium by Ryan and Page (2000), and Internationales Tourismus-management by Pompl and Lieb (2002). Apart from a general discussion on management in tourism, an increasing number of works have been published on the subject of management in specific sectors or activities present in tourism today. Some of them are Festivals, Special Events and Tourism by D. Getz (1991), Festival and Special Event Management by McDonnell, Allen, and O’Toole (1999), Resorts: management and operation by Robert C. Mill (2008), The Airline Business in the 21st Century by R. Doganis (2001), and Sport Tourism: Fitness Information Technology by Douglas M. Turco et al. (2002).
Among the last topics to dominate the interest of world tourism theorists are two which are drastically different in their content and ideology: the relationship between tourism and culture on the one hand, and tourism and turbulent political changes and, especially, terrorism on the other. While it is difficult to say whether or not it is better that more works are written about the first of these topics, the relationship of culture and tourism is certainly often discussed and written about in scientific papers. One of the first who in a scientific paper examined and discussed factors which both constitute and influence the tourist culture was Jafar Jafari (1987). One of the first books in this area was Eddystone Nabel’s (1983) Tourism and Culture: A Comparative Prospective. Among the many other works in this field are The Tourist-Historic City by Ashworth and Tunbridge (1990), Tourism and Heritage Attractions by Richard Prentice (1993), Tourism and Culture: Image, Identity and Marketing by Robinson et al. (1994), Vendre le tourisme culturel by Josquin Barré (1995), Managing Quality Cultural Tourism by P. Boniface (1995), Tourisme et patrimoine by Valéry Patin (1997), Tourism and Heritage Relationships: Global, National and Local Perspectives by Robinson et al. (2000), Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies by M. Smith (2003).
Scientific work on political instability and its influence on the development of world tourism has had fewer pages devoted to it, although it has been particularly present in the media, as well as in professional tourism journals. A few authors from this field have produced work which can be considered as pioneering. One of the first who indicated the problem of safety in tourism was A. Stutts (1990) in his book The Travel Safety Handbook. Five years later (in 1995), the General Assembly of World Tourism Organisation in Cairo was devoted to the question of crisis management. At the Assembly, a report entitled ‘Crisis Management’ was delivered by R. Leaf. Other authors who specialised in this area were Colin Michael Hall (1994: Tourism and Politics), and Dallen Timothy (2001: Tourism and Political Boundaries). Michael Hall, Dallen Timothy and David Timothy Duval were editors of the book Safety and Security in Tourism (Hall et al., 2003) in which a range of scholars from all over the world highlighting the vulnerability of the tourism sector to changes in safety and security, especially after the recent terrorist attacks in the United States. The specific subject of air traffic safety was explored by D. Phipps (1991: The Management of Aviation Security), and security in international tourism in general by Pizam and Mansfield (1995: Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues). Generally speaking, professional journals are much more widespread these days than expert books, as they appear almost at the same time as the phenomena which influence the development of tourism. This can be well illustrated by the success and charisma of Jafar Jafari’s Annals of Tourism Research, amongst others such as Tourism Management, Tourism Economics, which have become compulsory reading in the discussions of contemporary tourism topics.
And, finally, let us consider the tourism subject with which mankind has entered the third millennium: crisis management. Resulting from turbulent political world events at the start of the twenty-first century, the increasingly important topic of management of crisis situations in tourism has become not only a relevant theoretical subject, but a highly practical topic, which is of interest to the tourism industry throughout the world. Among the works which have been published in this field until now, particularly interesting have been the books Managing Tourism Crises by Sönmez et al. (1994), Krisenmanagement im Tourismus by A. Dreyer (2001), and Crisis Management in the Tourism Industry by Dirk Glaesser (2003).
As in the earlier periods, theorists today do not write just about the hottest topics, but deal with almost all subject areas. Nowadays, the most numerous are course books, but their authors also deserve the most criticism. The published course books are often so similar that it is difficult to see the reason for their publication, apart from the author’s and/or the publisher’s direct commercial interest. However, this should not discourage young researchers and lecturers from presenting themselves to the public. Every such work has at least some originality in its treatment of a particular tourism phenomenon, and that in itself is enough for these works to be taken into consideration. Also, these works are a guarantee that the scientific interest in tourism is not waning and that tourism theory need not worry about its future.
A rich source of theoretical papers, already mentioned, is the professional journal Annals of Tourism Research, first published 1973, which has been the leading tourism journal for many years and is in itself a real encyclopaedia of theoretical insights and knowledge. Special mention should be made of the topics covered, which are relevant, up to date and novel, and, by turning theoretical material into current conjectural information, they influence the formation of scientific theses in almost all areas in the scientific study of tourism. The French Cahiers du Tourisme, a well-known series, published by R. Baretje from CHET, Aix-en-Provence, was an important and unavoidable source of tourism knowledge in this part of the world for decades.
Focusing both on pioneering works in the specific areas of interest of different authors and on the works whose ideas were significant for a particular period of tourism theory this article was intended to be an important source of credible information regarding the antecedents of modern tourism scholarship. Such a task can hardly be fully performed because of the limited availability of literature on the one hand and the large-scale production of expert literature on tourism in the past 30 years and more on the other, especially in the languages of smaller nations. This is the reason why some authors and their works are absent from this overview, even though they may be very significant for a particular country or tourism theory as a whole. This failure was not intentional, and especially was not a result of an idea to lessen the significance and the role of any theorist anywhere in the world.
This article had also the intention to inspire other world tourism theorists, IAST members in particular, to expand this material in order to develop a more comprehensive study of present-day world tourism theory and the history of theoretical insights in tourism from their beginnings until today.
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