Roman Britain
Strictly speaking, Roman remains in Britain lie beyond the scope of what would truly be referred to as ‘prehistoric’. We do have a good deal of written evidence for the Roman invasion and occupation of Britain, though there is very little known about the minutia of life in these islands under the Romans except for what is recovered from archaeological sites. Authors like Julius Caesar and Tacitus were so busy trying to make political ground and singing the praises of either themselves or other famous figures from Latin history that they singularly failed to tell us anything of interest about the way ordinary people lived or the composition of Roman Britain, except in the broadest terms. As a result the sudden finding, in a remote field or under some factory, of Roman mosaics, hypocausts or marching camps generally comes as a great surprise.
A Wealth of Villas
As an example, with land being given by the Romans, especially in the south of England, to retired veterans of the legions, as well as to natives who knew how to toe the line, there were once a great many Roman villas in our islands. The National Trust presently produces an excellent map of Roman Britain, which lists all the known villas, as well as Roman towns, forts and other structures from the period. But as wonderful as these maps are, many of the Roman roads, some of the towns, dozens of the villas and forts, together with marching camps and maybe even the odd city, are not present – simply because we don’t know where they were located or even that they existed.
In terms of the surprises that come along every year for historians and archaeologists alike, these Roman remains are every bit as exciting and unexpected as a newly excavated Stone Age mound or the socket holes of a long-forgotten stone row. In addition, there are now many recreated or partly recreated Roman sites to be seen in our islands and these make excellent days out. Some have museums and visitor centres where artefacts discovered in these locations can be viewed at first hand. Finally, there are many reenactment groups that go to great trouble to recreate aspects of life in Roman Britain and who are often to be found at Roman sites on high days and holidays.
Roman Sites are often Accessible
For all these reasons I decided to include a limited amount of Roman sites in Britain at the end of this book and these should at least whet the appetite of readers who may by this stage discover that they have a real fondness for tramping across marsh and mountain to explore our past at first hand. Not that this is always necessary in the case of Roman sites because our Latin forebears often thoughtfully placed their structures in areas that are not so hard to get to (though some of them are also notoriously remote).
Romans in Britain
The Romans first came to Britain as an army in 55 BC under the leader Julius Caesar, though in reality Romans had been coming here a lot earlier than that in order to trade. Caes ar’s expedition was never intended to conquer Britain, and in any case, during this invasion the Romans came under great pressure from the combined forces of the British tribes that inhabited these islands in the Iron Age. These would have represented diverse groups that would probably fight each other at the drop of a hat but there were many that would and did come together to counter a common threat such as that presented by Rome.
Caesar soon withdrew and Britain was left alone again until AD 43, when a much more concerted campaign started, during the reign of the Emperor Claudius. This time the Romans had come to stay and although the British warriors fought back ferociously on occasion, they didn’t really stand a chance against the might of the Roman army.
Part of the Empire
England was conquered in total, as was Wales. In the case of Scotland some punitive expeditions took place, especially early in the invasion, but for one reason or another the legions soon withdrew behind a great defensive work (Hadrian’s Wall) in the far north of England.
Although the Britons revolted again and again, especially in the north, the Romans could not be dislodged until, in the year AD 410, what remained of the Roman garrisons in Britain were withdrawn to defend the heart of the Roman Empire, which was under attack and crumbling fast. Once the legions left, England was fair game to both local warlords and those that came from over the sea and this in turn led to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons (see Sutton Hoo in Impressive Sites section).
Figure 49: Housesteads (Vercovicium) on Hadrian’s Wall
Changed beyond Recognition
During this period of just under four centuries the islands of Britain had changed beyond all recognition, though of course much of Scotland and all of Ireland remained essentially untouched by the Roman Empire. But even these extremities were influenced greatly by the proximity of Rome. In Scotland especially there is still vague evidence of the fact that Rome did at least try to subdue the whole country.
I have picked what I consider to be the very best Roman sites in England, Wales and southern Scotland and in a couple of cases places where people who are not so good on their feet and who can’t stride over the high places with impunity might choose to go. Of course Roman sites are dramatically different from anything that went before and the comparison itself is fascinating. Most rewarding of all is that even when it came to everyday life the Romans built ‘to last’, so that although we know little about the way pre-Roman British tribes-people lived, we are beginning to amass a great deal of information about life in Roman villas, towns and forts.
Hadrian’s Wall
When it was built Hadrian’s Wall was quite definitely one of the most impressive structures, if not the most impressive, to be seen anywhere in Western Europe. It ran from Wallsend (Newcastle) in the east of northern Britain, 80 Roman miles across country to a point close to the village of Bowness-on-Solway, on the Solway Firth. The structure was made mainly of stone but there were some timber sections. Much of the wall would have been around 20ft (6 metres) in height and there were mile-castles at roughly one- mile (1.6km) intervals. The wall was also accompanied by a sizeable ditch but where the topography allowed for it, the legions used rocky crags and natural fault lines to improve the defensive nature of the wall.
Hadrian’s Wall was commenced in AD 122 and, as the name implies, it was built on the direct orders of the Emperor Hadrian who ruled from 117–138. Its purpose was thought for centuries to have been to keep the warlike Scots tribes at bay, though this is a misnomer for a number of reasons. First of all the people living north of the wall were not Scots at this time but rather Picts, and in any case the wall was more a ‘statement’ of intent than a direct obstacle to the fearsome little people from north of the border. There would never have been enough troops to look after every part of the 80-mile (129km) wall adequately but their mere presence in large numbers in bigger forts close to the wall would have acted as a significant deterrent. Also it is unlikely that the Picts ever had a cohesive enough society to consider an actual ‘invasion’ of Roman Britain, so the wall probably did serve its purpose of keeping small raiding parties at bay. It also controlled people coming and going and supervised trade between the two areas.
Contrary to popular belief, it was not British slave labour that created Hadrian’s Wall; the quality of work and speed necessary made it essential that the work was carried out by the legions themselves. Just about anyone would have lent a hand in one way or another and the massive task was finished in only six short years.
Auxiliary Troops
At any one time during the period Hadrian’s Wall was garrisoned it is likely that upwards of 9,000 soldiers were present along its length. These were not Roman legions but rather auxiliary troops, drawn from areas already under Roman rule elsewhere in the Empire but not from Britain itself.
Where large numbers of soldiers live there are always bound to be forts and these often attracted trade in such a way that the locations soon turned into towns. In the streets of these settlements outside Roman forts there would have been bath houses, bars, brothels, shops and many houses for the women the Roman soldiers may have taken as common-law wives. In many cases such settlements still exist and although they may now be perfectly normal British villages or towns, they often have a story to tell when new excavations are made for shops, offices or homes. With so many soldiers garrisoning Hadrian’s Wall there would have been a large number of such settlements and it is certain that some of them, which did not survive to the modern era, are still to be identified and excavated.
Figure 50: Steel Rigg, Hadrian’s Wall
John Clayton and Hadrian’s Wall Path
It is possible to walk along significant stretches of what remains of Hadrian’s Wall and though much of it has now crumbled to dust, or else the stone has been stolen over the years to build other structures, at least the footprint of this massive undertaking is still visible in most areas.
Much of what remains of Hadrian’s Wall does so because of the tireless efforts of a man named John Clayton. He lived at a time when large sections of the wall were being used for road building, but around 1830 the fairly wealthy John Clayton, who at that time was the town clerk of Newcastle upon Tyne, began to buy up stretches of the wall and to protect them from further attack by those wanting cheap, readily available stone. Clayton also bought farms along the wall and by running these judiciously and profitably, he was able to raise revenue that could be ploughed back into reconstructing parts of the wall and also into his archaeological exploits. He discovered or already knew about a number of the military settlements along the wall, including the most famous, Vindolanda, Carrawburgh and Housesteads.
There is now a path that follows the wall all the way from Wallsend to Bowness-on-Solway. Of course to walk the full length is a major undertaking, though some people do it in stages. Walkers are advised to follow the path during the summer months because much of the land is fragile and easily eroded by the treading of boots on the wet ground and in any case this can be a wild part of Britain in the winter.
Housesteads
| Housesteads (Vercovicium) near Hexham, Northumberland | |
| LATITUDE: 55° 00’ 36” N | LONGITUDE: 2° 19’ 26” W |
Vercovicium was the Latin name for the modern Housesteads, which was once one of the most impressive of the Roman garrison forts that guarded Hadrian’s Wall. Unlike other forts of its type it stood solely on the south side of Hadrian’s Wall, with the wall representing its northernmost defence. (Other forts protruded into enemy territory.)
Vercovicium was large and occupied by parts of several different auxiliary legions during its four-century history. It was often altered and extended and a number of archaeological digs on the site, both back in the 19th century and much more recently, have unearthed much of the ground plan and also a great many artefacts that have helped to illuminate a dark part of history by showing the sort of lives lived by the auxiliary soldiers, their families and retainers.
It is now possible to walk around much of the site and although Vercovicium is situated in a very impressive location it is approachable by car. In addition it is administered for the National Trust by English Heritage. At the site you will find car parks, a tea room, toilets, even bus stops and a small but extremely interesting museum.
Vindolanda
| Vindolanda, Greenhead, Northumberland | |
| LATITUDE: 54° 59’ 30” N | LONGITUDE: 2° 21’ 47” W |
There is no better place in Britain to see the way military life was lived in Roman times than at Vindolanda. Like Vercovicium, Vindolanda was a military fort on Hadrian’s Wall, this one guarding an important trade route known as ‘Stanegate’. Vindolanda is an almost unique time capsule, and for an important reason: the first of the forts on Hadrian’s Wall were built almost entirely of wood and as a consequence they soon needed replacing. When this happened the Romans placed clay and earth over the demolished material, which they rammed down hard in order to create a suitable base for the next structure. By so doing they eliminated oxygen, allowing many of the artefacts buried in the soil to remain in almost perfect condition.
Modern archaeological techniques have allowed the most fragile of finds to be both located and preserved, offering a snapshot of the minutia of life in a Roman fort that would normally rot away to nothing. So, leather goods, writing committed to wooden tablets, pieces of clothing and all manner of objects have survived and many of these are placed in the museum that is to be found close to the extensive site.
The digs have been very extensive and in places it was necessary for the archaeologists to dig down as much as 13ft (4 metres), because not merely one or two but at least ten forts existed at Vindolanda during its 400-year history. At the site you can see reconstructions of buildings, exhibitions, Roman hypocausts, officers’ residences, barrack blocks and so much more. For anyone with the slightest interest in our common history Vindolanda can make the past come to life. The work of the Vindolanda Trust to fully excavate this truly amazing site goes on. Who knows, you might be so captivated that you will want to become involved in archaeology yourself.
With a shop and café on site and with ample car parking available, even those who are not up to tramping across moorland and heather can have a great day out at Vindolanda.
Fishbourne
| Fishbourne Roman Palace, Fishbourne, Chichester, West Sussex | |
| LATITUDE: 50° 50’ 12” N | LONGITUDE: 0° 48’ 37” W |
Worlds away form the northernmost outpost of the Roman Empire on Hadrian’s Wall and in the very south of England lies Fishbourne Roman Palace. This site represents one of the largest and best Roman villas ever to be found on English soil. Its full importance did not come to light until a major excavation took place starting in 1960 and over a protracted period of time the true significance of this massive villa began to be understood.
The final villa (because there were several stages to the construction) was over 179 square ft (150 square metres). It had several wings and formal gardens, as well as accommodation for what was obviously a very wealthy family and all the necessary retainers to keep such a significant house running.
The site of Fishbourne also had a military significance and excavations are still taking place in the vicinity, exposing even more buildings that were placed adjacent to the villa itself. It is thought that the villa belonged to a local petty king and his family. The Roman invaders fought their enemies ferociously, but they were very generous to local British leaders who accepted their presence and who helped them to subdue the less welcoming tribes. One of these, a man by the name of Togidubness, was rewarded with the villa where he, his family and their descendants, began to live a totally Roman style of life.
The true glories of Fishbourne Palace are its mosaics, each created by the use of thousands of pieces of stone. Originally these were monochrome, but later examples are in many colours and their artistry and complexity rival examples found much nearer to the heart of the Roman Empire.
Even in its excavated form, Fishbourne is well worth seeing and remains the largest Roman villa ever to be found north of the Alps. It is worth visiting whatever the weather because much of the excavated site is under cover. The going is easy and the atmosphere serene. With a museum attached and lots for children to do, Fishbourne Palace makes a wonderful day out. It is a great introduction not only to Roman Britain but also to archaeology and associated studies.
Bath
| The Roman Baths, Bath, Somerset | |
| LATITUDE: 51° 22’ 57” N | LONGITU DE: 2° 21’ 38” W |
If there was one thing the Romans loved to do it was to bathe. On just about any significant Roman site archaeologists find the remnants of bath houses, where soldiers and civilians alike would spend as much of their spare time as proved to be possible. Bathing was much more than a chore to Romans, and to Romanized Britons. It was a social exercise, and even business was transacted on the tour around the different sorts of bath that existed in even the remotest bath houses. Even in the most far-flung parts of the Empire (on Hadrian’s Wall for example) extensive and comfortable bath houses have been located.
After the passing of so many centuries it would be a miracle if something as complex and amazing as a truly magnificent Roman bath could possibly have survived, but the miracle happened and it can be seen at first hand in the centre of the stunning southern English city of Bath in Somerset.
The Romans called this place Aqua Sulis, probably after a British deity that was already being worshipped there when they arrived. There are natural hot springs in the vicinity and these were used to supply the baths. Housed within a custom-built building and allowing access from above and alongside, the Roman baths in the centre of Bath are extensive and utterly fascinating.
You won’t need your hiking boots or your trusty stick and when you have finished looking at the baths, you can either take the water at the spa, which tastes foul, or better still retire for a leisurely lunch or a cup of coffee in one of the many cafés and restaurants that are to be found in the centre of this most beautiful city. There is plenty to captivate the history buff in Bath that is not Roman, and of course the stone circles at Stanton Drew are not far away.
Brading
| Brading Roman Villa, Brading, Isle of Wight | |
| LATITUDE: 50° 40’ 21” N | LONGITUDE: 1° 08’ 40” W |
Brading is another of my favourite Roman villas. It is much less extensive than Fishbourne but to me it is just as fascinating. It comprises what remains of 12 rooms, some of which have wonderful mosaic floors. The first of the rooms was discovered in 1879 when the local farmer accidentally broke through with an iron bar into a void that contained the magnificent Bacchus mosaic. Although the excavation that followed was not as scientific and careful as it would be these days, at least the majority of the villa was preserved. The villa originally dates from a period shortly after the Roman invasion of Britain in AD 44 but the site was developed over a century or more.
Like most villas, Brading was also the centre of an extensive farm and there are the remains of agricultural outbuildings, and replanted Roman gardens give an indication of the surroundings that the Romans and their British counterparts enjoyed.
On site there is an exhibition centre, offering a wonderful view of life in Roman Britain and this is another location for a wonderful family day out.
Wales
The Romans were represented in great numbers in Wales, all the way from the south to Anglesey in the north. In the main, Roman sites in Wales are the remnants of forts – built to keep the residents in check. However, there are some larger and more complex sites, the best of which is at Caerleon.
| Roman Headquarters at Caerleon, Newport, Gwent | |
| LATITUDE: 51° 36’ 33” N | LONGITUDE: 2° 57’ 21” W |
The principality of Wales represented a fairly tough nut for the Roman legions to crack. In the early days of occupation a great deal of opposition to Roman rule was organized in the area and so it isn’t surprising that a section of the most formidable of the Roman army’s might was located in Wales. To the Romans Caerleon was known as Isca.
The headquarters of the second Augustinian legion was created at Caerleon from as early as AD 75 and because an entire legion was garrisoned in the area the site is extensive, and contains the remains of some of the most impressive Roman garrison buildings to be found anywhere. It’s true that a great deal of what once existed at Caerleon was robbed by locals as a cheap and easy way to get their hands on quarried stone, but the extensive foundations are interesting enough.
Nearby is a Roman amphitheatre, with seats for as many as 6,000 spectators, making it one of the largest in Britain.
What really sets the seal on this site is the nearby National Roman Legion Museum, which has artefacts, exhibitions and activities at any time of year. Entry is free and Caerleon represents an economic and interesting way to keep the family amused, whilst at the same time indulging one’s interest in ancient structures and archaeology.
Scotland
The Antonine Wall
It is known that on a couple of occasions the Roman army marched well into Scotland and it may have been the intention of Rome at one time to absorb the whole area into the Roman Empire. A few factors worked against this wish. The terrain is formidable, the weather can be atrocious and what Rome would get out of its subjugation of Scotland would never be paid back by what the area could supply in terms of Rome’s needs.
Nevertheless, and most probably because of pressure placed upon northern England by the Caledonian tribes, several punitive expeditions into Scotland did take place. One of these led to a defensive structure being created well north of Hadrian’s Wall. Because it was built on the orders of the Emperor Antoninus Pius (commenced in AD 142) it came to be known as the Antonine Wall.
The Antonine Wall took far longer than Hadrian’s Wall to create, partly because of the topography but also on account of the weather and probably the unfriendly locals. It ran from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, across the central belt of Scotland and was built from stone and turf. The Antonine Wall was 39 miles (63km) in length and about 10ft (3 metres) in height, with a formidable ditch on the northern side. It took the legions 12 years to complete but not long after AD 208 it was finally abandoned and the Romans contented themselves with an empire that extended only to Hadrian’s Wall.
There are several features on the Antonine Wall that are still evident, though few remain in such a good state of repair as parts of Hadrian’s Wall or have been reconstructed in a similar way. In most places the ditch is still discernible but fortifications are not much in evidence. There are a number of forts and fortlets along the wall and most of these are administered by Historic Scotland. The Antonine Wall does not presently offer the ease of access that is to be found on parts of Hadrian’s Wall and the going across this part of Scotland is often tough. Perhaps the best way to explore the Antonine Wall is by recourse to the Ordnance Survey maps of Roman Britain.
