xvii Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872; reprint, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
xvii “‘Who can say . . .’” Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man; and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871; reprint, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 62, 76. Also see the discussion of animal emotions in J. Howard Moore, The Universal Kinship (1906; reprint, Sussex, England: Centaur Press, 1992).
xvii Donald Griffin, The Question of Animal Awareness: Evolutionary Continuity of Mental Experience (New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976). Griffin is the discoverer of bat sonar. In the bibliography are listed those of his books and articles that affected the thinking in this book.
xviii “‘When, in the early . . .’” Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer, eds., The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity (London: Fourth Estate, 1993), p. 12.
xviii “‘A lion is not . . .”’ George Adamson, My Pride and Joy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), p. 19.
xx “Comparative psychology to this day . . .” Thus the Journal of Comparative Psychology announces in each issue that it publishes “research on the behavior and cognitive abilities of different species (including humans) as they relate to evolution, ecology, adaptation, and development. Manuscripts that focus primarily on issues of proximate causation where choice of specific species is not an important component of the research fall outside the scope of this journal.”
xx “. . . unworthy of scientific attention.” In a much discussed article in Der Spiegel (Nr. 47, 1980, pp. 251–62) entitled “Tiere sind Gefühlsmenschen” [Animals Are Feeling Creatures], Konrad Lorenz speaks of “crimes against animals” and says that anybody who intimately knows any individual higher mammal such as a dog or an ape and does not believe that this creature has feelings similar to his own is crazy. (“Ein Mensch, Der Ein höheres Säugetier, etwa einen Hund oder einen Affen, wirklich genau kennt und nicht davon überzeugt wird, dass dieses Wesen ähnliches erlebt wie er selbst, ist psychisch abnorm . . .”)
xxi E. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to Symbol (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 25.
2 G. G. Rushby, “The Elephant in Tanganyika,” in Ward, Rowland, The Elephant in East Central Africa: a Monograph (London and Nairobi: Rowland Ward Ltd., 1953). Cited in Richard Carrington, Elephants: A Short Account of Their Natural History, Evolution and Influence on Mankind (London: Chatto & Windus, 1958), p. 83.
2 “‘arguably the most important . . .’” Savage-Rumbaugh, Ape Language: From Conditioned Response to Symbol, p. 266.
3 Jane Goodall, interview by Susan McCarthy, May 7, 1994.
4 Mary Midgley, “The Mixed Community,” in Eugene C. Hargrove, ed., The Animal Rights/Environmental Ethics Debate (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 214.
4 Gunther Gebel-Williams with Toni Reinhold, Untamed: The Autobiography of the Circus’s Greatest Animal Trainer (New York: William Morrow & Co., 1991), p. 28.
4 “trainers were startled . . .” Personal communication, August 23, 1994.
5 “‘A loving dog-owner . . .’” In Schaller’s foreword to Shirley Strum, Almost Human: A Journey into the World of Baboons (New York: Random House, 1987), p. xii.
5 “‘Intuitively I seemed . . .’” George and Lory Frame, Swift & Enduring: Cheetahs and Wild Dogs of the Serengeti (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1981), p. 156.
6 Anne Rasa, Mongoose Watch: A Family Observed (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday & Co., 1986).
7 “Female baboons kept together . . .” Thelma Rowell, The Social Behaviour of Monkeys (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1972), p. 79.
7 Hope Ryden, God’s Dog (New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1975), pp. 87, 92–101.
8 “The female Tasmanian . . .” J. Maynard Smith and M. G. Ridpath, “Wife Sharing in the Tasmanian Native Hen, Tribonyx mortierii: A Case of Kin Selection?”The American Naturalist 106 (July-August 1972), pp. 447–52.
8 “‘There are willing workers . . .’” Robert Cochrane, “Working Elephants at Rangoon,” quoted in The Animal Story Book, Vol. IX, The Young Folks Library (Boston: Hall & Locke Co., 1901).
8 “Theodore Roosevelt . . .” Quoted in Paul Schullery, The Bear Hunter’s Century (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1988), p. 142.
9 David McFarland, ed., The Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 151.
9 “‘It is surely . . .’” Quoted by Sydney E. Pulver in an excellent overview of the topic: “Can Affects Be Unconscious?”International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 52 (1971), p. 350.
10 “alexithymia . . .” Robert Jean Campbell, Psychiatric Dictionary, 5th ed. (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 24.
10 “Psychological theorists speak . . .” Carroll Izard and S. Buechler, “Aspects of Consciousness and Personality in Terms of Differential Emotions Theory,” in Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience, Vol. I: Theories of Emotion, Robert Plutchik and Henry Kellerman, eds. (New York: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 165–87.
10 “One psychologist compiled . . .” Joseph de Rivera, A Structural Theory of the Emotions (New York: International Universities Press, 1977), pp. 156–64.
10 “William James defined . . .” June Callwood, Emotions: What They Are and How They Affect Us, from the Basic Hates and Fears of Childhood to More Sophisticated Feelings That Later Govern Our Adult Lives: How We Can Deal with the Way We Feel (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1986), p. 33.
10 “Behaviorist J. B. Watson . . .” Robert Thomson, “The Concept of Fear,” in Fear in Animals and Man, W. Sluckin, ed., 1–23 (New York and London: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1979), pp. 20–21.
10 “Modern theorists . . .” Michael Lewis, Shame: The Exposed Self (New York: The Free Press/Macmillan, 1992), pp. 13–14.
11 Anna Wierzbicka, “Human Emotions: Universal or Culture-Specific?”American Anthropologist 88 (1986), pp. 584–94.
11 Lévy-Bruhl, Les fonctions mentales dans les sociétés infériéures (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1910). It was published in the Bibliothéque de Philosophic Contemporaine, under the direction of Emile Durkheim. Lévy-Bruhl contrasts the primitive mentality with that of the “individu blanc, adulte et civilise” [the white, adult and civilized individual] (p. 2). One proof (p. 31): Cherokee Indians believe that “fish live in a civil society like men, and have villages and roads in the water.” These same “primitives” believe in expiatory rites before killing animals (p. 32). Moreover, “they” cannot generalize, and “every species of monkey and palm tree has its own name” (p. 192) and we “must not be led into believing that these delicate distinctions in the same species of plant or animals demonstrates an interest in objective reality” (p. 198). The text was much read and cited for many years.
13 Gordon M. Burghardt, “Animal Awareness: Current Perceptions and Historical Perspective,”American Psychologist 40 (August 1985), pp. 905–19.
14 Frans de Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 25.
15 “Grossly oversimplified . . .” For an account of the problems with correlating testosterone levels and aggressiveness, for example, see Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature: Altruism and Empathy in Everyday Life (New York: Basic Books, 1990), pp. 27–28.
16 “The part of the brain . . .” See Gordon G. Gallup, Jr. and Susan D. Suarez, “Overcoming Our Resistance to Animal Research: Man in Comparative Perspective,” in Comparing Behavior: Studying Man Studying Animals, D. W. Rajecki, ed. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1983), p. 10. They note: “The basic biological principles governing the metabolic, endocrinological, neurological, and biochemical activities in man are basically the same in many other organisms. Behavior, therefore, has become the last stronghold for the Platonic paradigm. . . . If we accept the proposition that, in the last analysis, behavior is nothing more than an expression of physiological processes, then to admit the biological but deny the psychological similarities between ourselves and other species seems logically inconsistent and indefensible.”
18 Descartes is quoted in Tom Regan and Peter Singer, eds., Animal Rights and Human Obligations (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1979), pp. 61–64. The original passage is from Discours de la méthode, 5 (A. Bridoux, ed., Oeuvres et lettres de Descartes, pp. 165–66. Dijon, France: Gallimard, 1953).
18 “An unknown contemporary . . .” Quoted in Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1983), p. 5.
18 “‘Answer me . . .’” François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire, Dictionnaire philosophique, Julien Benda and Raymond Naves, eds. (Paris: Garnier Fréres, 1961), pp. 50–51. Translation by Jeffrey Masson.
18 “Elsewhere . . .” François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire, “The Beasts,” Article 6 in Le philosophe ignorant, Les Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire, Vol. Mélanges, Jacques van den Heuvel, ed. (Paris: Gallimard), p. 863. Translation by Jeffrey Masson.
18 “As early as 1738 . . .” The French text is quoted in Hester Hastings, Man and Beast in French Thought of the Eighteenth Century, Vol. 27 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1936), p. 183. Translation by Jeffrey Masson. See, too, Thomas H. Huxley, “On the hypothesis that animals are automata, and its history,” in Method and Results: Essays (1893; reprint, London: Macmillan, 1901), pp. 199–250. He writes, “I confess that, in view of the struggle for existence which goes on in the animal world, and of the frightful quantity of pain with which it must be accompanied, I should be glad if the probabilities were in favour of Descartes’ hypothesis; but, on the other hand, considering the terrible practical consequences to domestic animals which might ensue from any error on our part, it is as well to err on the right side, if we err at all, and deal with them as weaker brethren, who are bound, like the rest of us, to pay their toll for living, and suffer what is needful for the general good. As Hartley finely says, ‘We seem to be in the place of God to them.’”(Ibid., p. 237) For a complete history of the Descartes debate, see Leonora Cohen Rosenfield:From Beast-Machine to Man-Machine: Animal Soul in French Letters from Descartes to La Mettrie (1940; new edition, New York: Octagon Books, 1968); the introduction in François Dagognet, “L’Animal selon Condillac” in Traité des animaux (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1987); and George Boas, “The Happy Beast” in French Thought of the Seventeenth Century: Contributions to the History of Primitivism (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1933).
19 Irene Pepperberg, interview by Susan McCarthy, February 22, 1993.
21 Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way,”The New Yorker (October 15, 1990), p. 91. 21 De Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates, p. 220.
21 David Macdonald, Running with the Fox (London and Sydney: Unwin Hyman, 1987), p. 164.
21 Konrad Lorenz, The Year of the Greylag Goose (New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978), p. 56.
22 “Not only is it . . .” Cf. Mary Midgley, Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978), p. 345.
25 Oeuvres choisies de Buffon, Vol. 2: “L’Histoire naturelle des animaux” (Paris: Librairie de Firmin Didot Frères, 1861), pp. 484–88, 493–96, 509, 525.
26 N. K. Humphrey, “The Social Function of Intellect,” in Growing Points in Ethology, P. P. G. Bateson and R. A. Hinde, eds., pp. 303–17 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976).
26 Donald Symons, The Evolution of Human Sexuality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 78–79.
26 “When the question . . .” D. Goldfoot et al., “Behavioral and Physiological Evidence of Sexual Climax in the Female Stump-tailed Macaque,”Science 208 (1980), pp. 1477–79. Cited in de Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates, pp. 151–53.
26 De Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates, pp. 151–53, 198–206.
27 “‘Civilization, or perhaps . . .’” This splendid example of benightedness is also quoted by Mary Midgley in her article “The Mixed Community,” in Hargrove, ed., The Animal Rights/Environmental Ethics Debate, p. 223. The actual article is a very long and learned one written by Northcote W. Thomas, in Vol. 1 of the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by James Hastings (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1908), pp. 483–535. The article actually begins (p. 483) by citing the “great gulf that exists between man . . . and the elephant and the anthropoid ape.”
28 Matt Cartmill, A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 222.
28 Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1981).
29 “‘The fact that . . .’” Volker Arzt and Immanuel Birmelin, Haben Tieren ein Bewusstsein?: Wenn Affen lügen, wenn Katzen denken und Elefanten traurig sind (Munich: C. Bertelsmann, 1993), p. 154. Translation by Jeffrey Masson.
29 “When the subject . . .” “Another assessment of pain in fish comes from a team of researchers under the direction of Professor John Verheijen at the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands [in 1988]. They concluded that fish do feel pain and experience fear.” R. Barbara Orleans, In the Name of Science: Issues in Responsible Animal Experimentation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 148. 29 “The history . . .” E. S. Turner recently commented about his 1964 book All Heaven in a Rage, one of the first books to challenge attitudes toward animals: “In my original introduction I commented that in our attitude to animals we are hopelessly, perversely, inconsistent. Reviewing this book in the Observer, Philip Toynbee followed up the point, remarking that the rage of English foxhunters knew no bounds when they learned that the Russians had shot a dog into space. He thought that a certain pattern could be traced in these bewildering inconsistencies. ‘We abominate the cruelties which we are not tempted to perform, and we abominate them all the more when they are practiced by people who do not belong to our own group.’ He could have added ‘or when they are practiced by people of another nation.’” E. S. Turner, All Heaven in a Rage (Sussex, England: Centaur Press, 1992), pp. 323–24.
29 “Similarly, until the 1980s . . .” This incredible practice is well attested to in medical sources. See K. J. S. Anand and P. J. McGrath, eds., Pain in Neonates (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1993); Neil Schechter, Charles B. Berde, and Myron Yaster, eds., Pain in Infants, Children, and Adolescents (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1993); “Medicine and the Media” (editorial), British Medical Journal 295 (September 12, 1987), pp. 659–60; Ian S. Gauntlett; T. H. H. G. Koh; and William A. Silverman, “Analgesia and anaesthesia in newborn babies and infants” (Letters), Lancet, May 9, 1987; Nancy Hall, “The Painful Truth”Parenting (June/July 1992).
30 “Studies showing . . .” R. N. Emde and K. L. Koenig, “Neonatal Smiling and Rapid Eye-movement States,”Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 8 (1969), pp. 57–67. Cited in Carroll Izard, Human Emotions (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1977).
32 Article by Frank B. Jevons. Edited by James Hastings. Vol. 1, p. 574.
32 “The philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach . . .” See the article by R. J. Zwi Werblowsky in The Encyclopedia of Religion (ed. by Mircea Eliade), Vol. 1, pp. 316–20 (New York: Macmillan, 1987). Old German dictionaries (e.g. Meyers grosses Konversations-Lexikon of 1903) speak of anthropopathy, specifically ascribing human emotions to objects and animals (!) that cannot experience them. J. J. Rousseau in Emile says:“Nous sommes pour la plupart de vrais anthropomorphites,” which may well be, according to the eleventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, where the term originates.
32 McFarland, ed., Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior, p. 17.
32 “‘The scientific study . . .’”John S. Kennedy, The New Anthropomorphism (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 3–5.
33 “‘anthropomorphism will be . . .’”Ibid., p. 167.
33 John Andrew Fisher, “Disambiguating Anthropomorphism: An Interdisciplinary Review,” in Perspectives in Ethology 9 (1991), p. 49.
33 “This is one reason . . .” “Male/female differences in attitudes and knowledge of animals were substantial and implied the need for better understanding and appreciation of female attitudes toward and interests in wildlife. Particularly provocative were variations in basic feelings and ethical concern for animals. The most outstanding result was the much greater humanistic concern for animals among females.” Stephen R. Kellert and Joyce K. Berry, Phase III: Knowledge, Affection and Basic Attitudes Toward Animals in American Society (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980), p. 59. Phase Three gives the results of a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service funded study of American attitudes, knowledge and behaviors toward wildlife and natural habitats.
34 Frans de Waal, Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes (New York: Harper & Row, 1982), pp. 41–42.
34 Joy Adamson, intro. by J. Huxley, Living Free (U.K.: Collins & Harvill Press, 1961), p. xi.
35 Irene Pepperberg, interview by Susan McCarthy, February 22, 1993.
35 “What is wrong with . . .” This theme is also expressed in Theodore Xeno-phon Barber, The Human Nature of Birds: A Scientific Discovery with Startling Implications (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993).
36 Sy Montgomery, Walking with the Great Apes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), p. 143.
36 Cynthia Moss, Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1988), p. 37.
36 M. Bekoff and D. Jamieson, “Ethics and the Study of Carnivores,” in Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution, 2nd ed. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995).
36 “Yet as recently as 1987 . . .” Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way,” p. 99.
36 “Bottle-nosed dolphins . . .” Peter Tyack, “Whistle Repertoires of Two Bottle-nosed Dolphins, Tursiops truncatus: Mimicry of Signature Whistles?”Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 18 (1989), pp. 251–57.
36 “‘frequently uttered sounds . . .’” Eberhard Gwinner and Johannes Kneutgen, “Uber die biologische Bedeutung der ‘zweckdienlichen’ Anwendung erlernter Laute bei Vogeln,”Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 19 (1962), pp. 692–96.
37 Mike Tomkies, Last Wild Years (London: Jonathan Cape, 1992), p. 172.
37 Mary Midgley, “The Concept of Beastliness: Philosophy, Ethics and Animal Behavior,”Philosophy 48 (1973), pp. 111–35.
37 Kennedy, New Anthropomorphism, p. 87.
38 “How is knowing . . .” “If consciousness has evolved as a biological adaptation for doing introspective psychology, then the presence or absence of consciousness in animals of different species will depend on whether or not they need to be able to understand the behavior of other animals in a social group. Wolves and chimpanzees and elephants, which all go in for complex social interactions, are probably all conscious; frogs and snails and codfish are probably not. . . . The advantage to an animal of being conscious lies in the purely private use it makes of conscious experience as a means of developing an ideology which helps it to model another animal’s behavior. It need make no difference at ail whether the other animal is actually experiencing the feelings with which it is being credited; all that matters is that its behavior should be understandable on the assumption that such feelings provide the reasons for its actions.” N. K. Humphrey: “Nature’s Psychologists,” in Consciousness and the Physical World, B. D. Josephson and V. S. Ramachandran, eds., 57–80 (Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1980), pp. 68–69.
38 “N. K. Humphrey writes . . .” In B. D. Josephson and V. S. Ramachandran, eds., Consciousness and the Physical World (Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1980), pp. 57–80.
38 Midgley, Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature, pp. 41, 344–57. Also see Mary Midgley, Animals and Why They Matter (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1983).
39 J. Ortega y Gasset, Meditations on Hunting. H. B. Wescott, trans. (New York: Scribner’s, 1972), pp. 136–38. Italics in the original. Cited from Matt Cartmill, A View to a Death in the Morning, p. 240.
41 “The idea seems to be . . .” One way to avoid such errors has been to pretend that animals are neuter, which has only succeeded in reducing them to things rather than beings. Writing about creative behavior in dolphins for a scientific journal, researcher Karen Pryor was told to call the rough-toothed porpoise Hou “it” rather than “she,” on the grounds that “she” should be reserved for referring to humans. Not that being called “she” has humanized women with any security. Refusal to discuss observable facts (Hou was unquestionably female) is hardly scientific. Making the same mistakes about gender in animals that we do in people is no solution to the anthropomorphism taboo. See Karen Pryor, Lads Before the Wind: Adventures in Porpoise Training (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), p. 240; Karen Pryor, Richard Haag, and Joseph O’Reilly, “The Creative Porpoise: Training for Novel Behavior,”Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12 (1969) pp. 653–61.
41 Mike Tomkies, On Wing and Wild Water (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), pp. 136–37.
42 J. E. R. Staddon, “Animal Psychology: The Tyranny of Anthropocentrism,” in Whither Ethology? Perspectives in Ethology, P. P. G. Bateson and Peter H. Klopfer, eds. (New York: Plenum Press, 1989), p. 123.
42 “Deception has been observed . . .” Robert W. Mitchell and Nicholas S. Thompson, eds., Deception: Perspectives on Human and Nonhuman Deceit. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986).
43 “‘With a loud grunt . . .’” Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man (London: Collins, 1971), p. 202. Italics in the original.
43 “One respected random . . .” Diana E. H. Russell, The Politics of Rape: The Victim’s Perspective (New York: Stein & Day, 1977); Diana E. H. Russell, Rape in Marriage (New York: Macmillan, 1982); and Diana E. H. Russell and Nancy Howell, “The Prevalence of Rape in the United States Revisited,”Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 8 (Summer 1983), pp. 668–95.
43 “Child abuse may . . .” Diana E. H. Russell, “The Incidence and Prevalence of Intrafamilial and Extrafamilial Sexual Abuse of Female Children,”Child Abuse and Neglect: The International Journal 7 (1983): pp. 133–46; and Diana E. H. Russell, The Secret Trauma: Incestuous Abuse of Women and Girls (New York: Basic Books, 1986).
44 Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, The Hidden Life of Dogs (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1993).
45 “And yet from a Kenyan . . .” Douglas H. Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1992), pp. 129, 327.
45 “Wildlife biologist Lynn Rogers . . .” Adele Conover, “He’s Just One of the Bears,”National Wildlife 30 (June-July 1992), pp. 30–36.
46 “Rogers learned . . .” Lynn Rogers, interview by Susan McCarthy, July 15, 1993.
47 “Yet fear has also been . . .” Andrew Mayes, “The Physiology of Fear and Anxiety,” in Fear in Animals and Man, W. Sluckin, ed., 24–55 (New York and London: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1979), pp. 32–33.
47 McFarland, ed., Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior, p. 180.
47 “The biological traces . . .” Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982), p. 215.
48 “The theory is that . . .” Marcia Barinaga, “How Scary Things Get That Way,”Science 258 (November 6, 1992), pp. 887–88.
48 “The climber, more often . . .” Thomson, “The Concept of Fear,” p. 3.
49 F. Fraser Darling, A Herd of Red Deer: A Study in Animal Behavior (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), pp. 70–71.
49 “Somehow it is . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 178.
49 “. . . or that a frightened . . .”Gorilla: Journal of the Gorilla Foundation 15, #2 (June 1992), p. 5.
49 “‘We are—not metaphorically . . .’” Konner, Tangled Wing, p. 235.
49 Douglas H. Chadwick, A Beast the Color of Winter: The Mountain Goat Observed (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1983), pp. 57–58.
49 Wolfgang de Grahl, The Grey Parrot, trans, by William Charlton (Neptune City, NY: T.F.H. Publications, 1987), pp. 44–5.
51 “In the Rockies . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 89.
51 “Wild birds at a . . .” P. A. Russell, “Fear-Evoking Stimuli,” in Fear in Animals and Man, W. Sluckin, ed., 86–124 (New York and London: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1979), pp. 97–98.
52 “Wingnut, a particularly . . .” Thomas Bledsoe, Brown Bear Summer: My Life Among Alaska’s Grizzlies (New York: Dutton, 1987), p. 129.
52 “Separated from his . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 178.
52 Jack Adams, Wild Elephants in Captivity (Dominguez Hills, CA: Center for the Study of Elephants, 1981), p. 146.
52 “One aviculturalist . . .” De Grahl, Grey Parrot, pp. 210–12.
52 Arjan Singh, Tiger! Tiger! (London: Jonathan Cape, 1984), pp. 75, 90.
53 “Cody, an orangutan . . .” Keith Laidler, The Talking Ape (New York: Stein and Day, 1980). Laidler was shocked by Cody’s terror of his own species and arranged for Cody to meet and eventually be caged with another young orangutan. The two apes became friendly and would walk about hand in hand.
53 Jim Crumley, Waters of the Wild Swan (London: Jonathan Cape, 1992), pp. 85–86.
53 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs, p. 71.
54 “Mountain goats . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 115.
54 “In Hwange National Park . . .” Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 315–16.
55 Bledsoe, Brown Bear Summer, pp. 171–76.
56 Lynn Rogers, interview by Susan McCarthy, July 15, 1993.
56 Paul Leyhausen, Cat Behavior: The Predatory and Social Behavior of Domestic and Wild Cats, trans. by Barbara A. Tonkin (New York and London: Garland STPM Press, 1979), pp. 286–87.
56 Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 19.
56 “A peregrine falcon father . . .” Marcy Cottrell Houle, Wings for My Flight: The Peregrine Falcons of Chimney Rock (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1991), p. 105.
56 “One experimenter decided . . .” Harvey A. Hornstein, Cruelty and Kindness: A New Look at Oppression and Altruism (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976), p. 81. Citing experiments by Professor Donald O. Hebb.
57 “In this case, however . . .” Herbert S. Terrace, Nim: A Chimpanzee Who Learned Sign Language (New York: Washington Square Press, 1979), p. 44. The mother chimpanzee’s apprehensions were justified: she was tranquilized and the infant was taken away, named Nim Chimpsky, and taught 125 words of American Sign Language. Years later he was returned to the institute.
57 Hans Kruuk, The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), p. 161.
57 “Pandora, a two-year-old . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 26.
58 “In Africa a buffalo . . .” George B. Schaller, The Serengeti Lion: A Study of Predator-Prey Relations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), p. 266.
58 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 161.
58 “For a nature program . . .” “Cheetahs in the Land of Lions,” an episode of Nature: with George Page, 1992.
59 Darwin is quoted by Peter J. Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London: HarperCollins, 1992), pp. 480–81. The sentences before the quote read: “Darwin was led to stress those accounts of animals which depict their behavior as ‘almost human.’ He made no experiments of his own, and relied upon anecdotal information supplied by hunters, zoo-keepers and the like.” The story of the “heroic” little monkey is found in Darwin’s Descent of Man; and Selections in Relation to Sex, pp. 89, 95 (Norwalk, CT: Heritage Press Edition, 1972).
59 Moss, Elephant Memories, p. 162.
60 “Koko, a gorilla . . .” Francine Patterson and Eugene Linden, The Education of Koko (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1981), pp. 135–36.
61 “The chimpanzee Viki . . .” R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix T. Gardner, “A Cross-Fostering Laboratory,” in Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, R. Allen Gardner, Beatrix T. Gardner, and Thomas E. Van Cantfort, eds., 1–28 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), p. 8.
61 “In a remarkable use . . .” Beatrix T. Gardner, Allen Gardner, and Susan G. Nichols, “The Shapes and Uses of Signs in a Cross-Fostering Laboratory,” in Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, p. 65.
62 “Biologists who arrived . . .” “A Letter from the Field,” Luis Baptista, Pacific Discovery 16 (4): pp. 44–47.
62 Sherwin Carlquist, I sland Life: A Natural History of the Islands of the World (Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, 1965), pp. 337–41.
62 “When Washoe grew . . .” Roger S. Fouts, Deborah H. Fouts, and Thomas E. Van Cantfort, “The Infant Loulis Learns Signs from Cross-Fostered Chimpanzees,” in Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees, pp. 28092. Also personal communication.
63 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, 3rd ed., trans, by G. E. M. Anscombe (New York: Macmillan Co., 1968), p. 174.
64 J. H. Williams, Elephant Bill (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1950), pp. 82–84.
65 “Yet love is not . . .” For example, Carroll E. Izard (Human Emotions, New York and London: Plenum Press, 1977) does not include love on his list of the eight basic emotions.
65 Catherine Roberts, The Scientific Conscience: Reflections on the Modern Biologist and Humanism (New York: George Braziller, 1967).
65 “‘It’s important to remember . . .’” Janine Benyus, Beastly Behaviors: A Zoo Lover’s Companion: What Makes Whales Whistle, Cranes Dance, Pandas Turn Somersaults, and Crocodiles Roar: A Watcher’s Guide to How Animals Act and Why (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1992), p. 52.
66 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs.
66 “Thomas has been castigated . . .” Patricia Holt, “Puppy Love Isn’t Just For People: Author Says Dogs, Like Humans, Can Bond,”San Francisco Chronicle, December 9, 1993.
67 “Females of a southeast Asian . . .” I owe this description to Professor Richard I. Vane-Wright. It originally derives from Miriam Rothschild, “Female Butterfly Guarding Eggs,” in Antenna, London, Vol. 3 (1979), p. 94.
67 J. Traherne Moggridge, Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders: Notes and Observations on Their Habits and Dwellings (London: L. Reeve & Co., 1873), pp. 113–14.
69 “‘The female appeared to be . . .’” Bertold P. Wiesner and Norah M. Sheard, Maternal Behavior in the Rat (Edinburgh and London: Oliver & Boyd, 1933), pp. 121–22.
69 “‘It is not uncommon . . .’” Tony Gaston and Garry Donaldson, “Banding Thick-billed Murre Chicks,”Pacific Seabirds 21 (1994), pp. 4–6.
69 “In contrast to . . .” Bill Clark, High Hills and Wild Goats (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1990), p. 34.
69 “Some biologists suggest . . .” Bettyann Kevles, Females of the Species: Sex and Survival in the Animal Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 154.
70 “Biologists studying wild dogs . . .” Frame and Frame, Swift & Enduring: Cheetahs and Wild Dogs of the Serengeti, p. 157.
70 “In a typical . . .” Anne Innis Dagg and J. Bristol Foster, The Giraffe: Its Biology, Behavior, and Ecology (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1976), pp. 38–39.
70 “‘When I approached . . .’” Quoted in Faith McNulty, The Whooping Crane: The Bird That Defies Extinction (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1966), p. 37.
71 “To the north of . . .” Stanley P. Young, The Wolves of North America: Their History, Life Habits, Economic Status, and Control (Part II: “Classification of Wolves” by Edward A. Goldman) (Washington, DC: American Wildlife Institute, 1944), pp. 109–10, citing a 1935 article by Peter Freuchen.
71 “It is estimated that . . .” Devra G. Kleiman and James R. Malcolm, “The Evolution of Male Parental Investment in Mammals,” in Parental Care in Mammals, David J. Gubernick and Peter H. Klopfer, eds. (New York: Plenum Press, 1981).
71 Gerald Durrell, Menagerie Manor (New York: Avon, 1964), pp. 127–29.
72 Macdonald, Running with the Fox, pp. 140–42.
72 “Researchers studying wild zebras . . .” Cynthia Moss, Portraits in the Wild: Behavior Studies of East African Mammals (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1975), pp. 104–05.
73 “. . . one adolescent wild baboon . . .” Strum, Almost Human, p. 40.
74 “In a captive baboon colony . . .” Rowell, Social Behaviour of Monkeys, p. 76.
74 Montgomery, Walking with the Great Apes, p. 43.
75 “Researchers in Africa kidnapped . . .” Hans Kummer, Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons; A Field Study (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1968), p. 63. This study refers to such caretaking by male baboons as mothering and as “maternal” behavior.
75 “The experimenters who gave the mother rat . . .” Wiesner and Sheard, Maternal Behavior, p. 148.
75 “‘At Northrepps Hall, near Cromer . . .’” Robert Cochrane, “Some Parrots I Have Known,” in The Animal Story Book, The Young Folks Library, Vol. IX (Boston: Hall & Locke Co., 1901), pp. 208–09.
76 “. . . a wildebeest calf who . . .” Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 171.
76 “One young wild elephant . . .” Moss, Elephant Memories, p. 267.
77 “In one pack of wild dogs . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 332.
77 Françoise Patenaude, “Care of the Young in a Family of Wild Beavers, Castor canadensis,” Acta Zool. Fennica 174 (1983), pp. 121–22.
78 “. . . a monkey kept alone will work . . .” Rowell, Social Behaviour of Monkeys, p. 110.
78 “Elephants appear to make . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, pp. 16–17.
79 Hans Kruuk, The Social Badger; Ecology and Behaviour of a Group-living Carnivore (Meles meles) (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 146.
80 John J. Teal, Jr., “Domesticating the Wild and Woolly Musk Ox,”National Geographic (June 1970); also Anne Fadiman, “Musk Ox Ruminations,”Life (May 1985).
80 “. . . a hand-reared leopard was . . .” Singh, Tiger! Tiger!, p. 207. 80 Michael P. Ghiglieri, East of the Mountains of the Moon: Chimpanzee Society in the African Rain Forest (New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1988), p. 119.
80 “A group of wild dogs . . .” Frame and Frame, Swift & Enduring, pp. 8588.
81 “In Madagascar a brown lemur . . .” Alison Jolly, Lemur Behavior: A Madagascar Field Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 123, 126–28.
81 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 242–43.
82 “Wild beavers, given time . . .” Hope Ryden, Lily Pond: Four Years with a Family of Beavers (New York: William Morrow & Co, 1989).
82 “Lucy, a chimpanzee . . .” E. S. Savage, Jane Temerlin, and W. B. Lem-mon, “The Appearance of Mothering Behavior Toward a Kitten by a Human-Reared Chimpanzee,” paper delivered at the Fifth Congress of Pri-matology, Nagoya, Japan, 1974.
82 “It is also reported . . .” Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant, pp. 270–71.
83 Professor William Jankowiak, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 15, 1992. Also see Daniel Goleman, “Anthropology Goes Looking for Love in All the Old Places,”New York Times, November 24, 1992.
83 Professor Charles Lindholm, interview by Susan McCarthy, January 12, 1993.
84 Jane Goodall, In the Shadow of Man, revised edition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988), p. 194.
84 “The butterfly fish of . . .” John P. Hoover, Hawaii’s Fishes: A Guide for Snorkelers, Divers and Aquarists (Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1993), pp. 26–27.
85 A. J. Magoun & P. Valkenburg, “Breeding Behavior of Free-ranging Wolverines (Gulo)” Acta Zool. Fennica 174 (1983), pp. 175–77.
85 “‘After all . . .’” Edna St. Vincent Millay, “Passer Mortuus Est,” in Collected Lyrics (New York: Washington Square Press, 1959), p. 56.
86 “Konrad Lorenz said that . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 171.
86 Mattie Sue Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot (Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational Series, 1993), p. 138.
87 “‘It sickens me when people . . .’” David Cantor, “Items of Property,” pp. 280–90 in The Great Ape Project. In August 1994 a spokesperson for the Cleveland Metropark Zoo said that Timmy had been sent to the Bronx Zoo, where he had fathered four baby gorillas. Katie was sent to the Fort Worth Zoo to serve as an aunt to other baby gorillas.
87 “Much has been made of the significant rates of infidelity . . .” For an overview see Natalie Angier, “Mating for Life? It’s Not for the Birds or the Bees,”New York Times, August 21, 1990.
87 “. . . male prairie voles who have formed . . .” James T. Winslow, Nick Hastings, C. Sue Carter, Carroll R. Harbaugh, and Thomas R. Insel, “A Role for Central Vasopressin in Pair Bonding in Monogamous Prairie Voles,”Nature 365 (7 October 1993), pp. 545–48.
87 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 100–01.
88 “The male she had paired with . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 49.
88 Ryden, God’s Dog, pp. 60–62.
89 George Archibald, “Gee Whiz! ICF Hatches a Whooper,”The ICF Bugle (July 1982). In a letter to Jeffrey Masson of July 25, 1994, George Archibald adds the following interesting details: “After she laid her egg in 1982, the egg was replaced with a dummy egg, and I spent the night in my shack beside Tex’s nest. My duty was to protect Tex from predators, and we hoped that allowing Tex to incubate the first egg would stimulate her to produce a second egg. About midnight a downpour of rain accompanied by strong winds descended on the Baraboo Hills. Tex was drenched as she sat on her nest. Every few minutes she emitted low frequency Contact Calls (low purring sound), and I answered. If I called to her, she immediately responded with a Contact Call. When the radio announced a tornado warning, I left the shack and with thunder crashing and lightning flashing, I picked up Tex, held her under my arm, and walked down the hay field to her shed. I talked and she Contact Called all the way there. During this emergency, I felt a strong emotional connection with Tex.” 89 Gavin Maxwell, Raven, Seek Thy Brother (London: Penguin Books, 1968), pp. 59–61.
91 Houle, Wings for My Flight, pp. 75–87. The female peregrine had reportedly been shot. The two surviving nestlings fledged successfully.
92 “According to naturalist Georg Steller . . .” Quoted in H. C. Bernhard Grzimek, ed., Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 12 (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1975).
93 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs.
94 “Ackman and Alle, two circus horses . . .” Henderson, Circus Doctor, p. 78.
94 Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 276–77.
94 “Researchers who had caught . . .” Antony Alpers, Dolphins: The Myth and the Mammal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 104–05.
95 “Lions do not form . . .” Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way,” p. 91.
95 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 269–71.
95 “. . . African elephants surrounding a dying matriarch . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 34.
95 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 272–73.
96 “Three small groups of chimpanzees . . .” Geza Teleki, “Group Response to the Accidental Death of a Chimpanzee in Gombe National Park, Tanzania,”Folia Primatol 20 (1973), pp. 81–94.
97 “A chimpanzee at the Arnhem Zoo . . .” De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, pp. 67–70.
97 “‘if they do not get companionship . . .’” Lars Wilsson, My Beaver Colony, trans. by Joan Bulman (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1968), pp. 61–62.
98 “. . . ‘bull areas.’” Moss, Elephant Memories, p. 112.
98 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 287–88.
99 Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1990), p. 230.
100 “‘Hum-Hum had lost all joy . . .’” Cited in Robert M. Yerkes and Ada W. Yerkes, The Great Apes: A Study of Anthropoid Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1929), p. 472.
100 “A pilot whale celebrity . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 82–83.
100 “Yet at Sea World, in San Diego . . .” Robert Reinhold, “At Sea World, Stress Tests Whale and Man,”New York Times, April 4, 1988, p. A9.
100 “. . . ‘just moped to death.’” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 132.
101 “‘It seems reasonable to allow . . .’” McFarland, ed., Oxford Companion to Animal Behavior, p. 599.
102 “. . .‘placed alone in the “depression chamber” . . .’” Harlow said that his “device was designed on an intuitive basis to reproduce such a well [of despair] both physically and psychologically for monkey subjects.” See the trenchant criticism by James Rachels in “Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?”in Animal Rights and Human Obligations, Tom Regan and Peter Singer, eds. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976), p. 211. See, too, Peter Singer’s criticism in Chapter 2 of his Animal Liberation.
102 “Even when months had passed . . .” “Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?” in Regan and Singer, eds., Animal Rights, p. 211. See, too, the fine criticism of Harlow’s work in Chapter 2 of Peter Singer’s influential Animal Liberation (New York Review, 1975); the original article by Harlow is written with Stephen J. Suomi: “Depressive Behavior in Young Monkeys Subjected to Vertical Chamber Confinement,”Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 80 (1972), pp. 11–18. Harlow published his articles in prestigious journals. For example, see his “Love in Infant Monkeys,”Scientific American 200 (1959), pp. 68–74; and “The Nature of Love,”American Psychologist, 13 (1958), pp. 673–85. A useful general critique is found in Psychology Experiments on Animals: A Critique of Animal Models of Human Psychopathology by Brandon Kuker-Reines for the New England Anti-Vivisection Society, 1982, who remarks in a telling aside that “the apparent quest to reveal the ‘true man’ through monkey experimentation is symptomatic of an identity crisis rather than scientific progress” (p. 68).
102 “. . . ‘learned helplessness.’” Martin E. P. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1975), pp. 23–25. While restrained, each dog was given sixty-four shocks of 6.0 milliamperes, lasting for five seconds.
103 “. . . talking to battered women . . .” Lenore Walker has powerfully delineated the role of learned helplessness in the lives of battered women. See her Terrifying Love: Why Battered Women Kill and How Society Responds (New York: Harper & Row, 1989).
103 “One experimenter raised rhesus monkeys in solitude . . .” J. B. Sidowski, “Psychopathological Consequences of Induced Social Helplessness During Infancy,” in Experimental Psychopathology: Recent Research and Theory, H. D. Kimmel, ed. (New York: Academic Press, 1971), pp. 231–48.
104 “. . . a special mourning howl . . .” Russell J. Rutter and Douglas H. Pimlott, The World of the Wolf (Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1968), p. 138; Lois Crisler, Captive Wild (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 210.
104 When Marchessa . . . Ian Redmond, The Death of Digit, International Primate Protection League Newsletter 15, No. 3, December 1988, p. 7.
104 “’In disappointment the young specimen. . . .” Yerkes and Yerkes, Great Apes, p. 161.
105 “Emotional tears are different . . .” William Frey, II, Crying: The Mystery of Tears, with Muriel Langseth (Minneapolis: Winston Press, 1985). Emotional tears are also called psychogenic tears. It is unclear where tears of pain fit into these categories.
105 “. . . the one body product that may . . .” S. B. Ortner, “Shera purity,”American Anthropologist 75 (1973), pp. 49–63. Quoted in Paul Rozin and April Fallon, “A Perspective on Disgust,”Psychological Review 94 (1987), pp. 23–41.
105 “. . . Nim Chimpsky . . .” Terrace, Nim, p. 56.
105 “Tears have been seen . . .” De Grahl, Grey Parrot, p. 189.
105 “. . . especially apt to have tears . . .” Victor B. Scheffer, Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses: A Review of the Pinnipedia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 22. Also Frey, Crying
106 Macacus maurus, the Celebes macaque, is now denoted Cynomacaca maurus. An influential German book in its time, Karl Friedrich Burdach’s Blicke ins Leben (3 Vols., Leipzig, Germany: Leopold Woss, 1842), Vol. 2, p. 130, cites examples of female seals who “shed copious tears when they were abused,” giraffes who cried when they were removed from their companions, and tears in fur seals when their young were stolen (geraubt) and in an elephant seal when it was treated roughly.
106 Frey, Crying, p. 141.
106 “Tears fell from the eyes . . .” Volker Arzt and Immanuel Birmelin, Haben Tieren ein Bewusstsein?: Wenn Affen lügen, wenn Katzen denken und Elefanten traurig sind (Munich: C. Bertelsmann, 1993), p. 154.
106 R. Gordon Cummings, Five Years of a Hunter’s Life in the Far Interior of South Africa (1850), quoted in Richard Carrington, Elephants: A Short Account of Their Natural History, Evolution and Influence on Mankind (London: Chatto & Windus, 1958), pp. 154–55.
107 George Lewis, as told to Byron Fish, Elephant Tramp (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1955), pp. 52, 188–89.
107 Victor Hugo, Carnet intime 1810–1871, publié et presenté par Henri Guille-min. (Paris: Gallimard, 7th ed., 1953), p. 88.
108 “shedding tears when scolded . . .” Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, p. 327.
108 “Observing young orphaned . . .” Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, p. 384.
108 “Perhaps the position somehow prevents drainage . . .” This suggestion was proposed by Dr. William Frey.
109 “. . . beavers also weep copiously . . .” L. S. Lavrov, “Evolutionary Development of the Genus Castor and Taxonomy of the Contemporary Beavers of Eurasia,”Acta ZooL Fennica 174 (1983), pp. 87–90.
109 Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983), p. 110.
109 D. M. Frame, trans., The Complete Works of Montaigne, Vol. 2 (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1960), pp. 105–09.
111 “It knew it was free . . .” Kenneth S. Norris, Dolphin Days: The Life and Times of the Spinner Dolphin (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991), pp. 129–30.
111 “. . . ‘what obtains after . . .’” Izard, Human Emotions, pp. 239–45.
112 “Lions purr . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, pp. 104, 304.
112 “Happy gorillas are said to sing.” Reported in Montgomery, Walking with the Great Apes, p. 146.
112 “Howling wolves . . .” Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs, p. 40.
113 Lynn Rogers, interview by Susan McCarthy, July 15, 1993.
113 Darwin to Susan Darwin, 1838, The Correspondence of Charles Darwin Volume 2; 1837–1843 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
113 Norris, Dolphin Days, pp. 42–43.
114 “When the ice finally melted . . .” Ryden, Lily Pond, p. 104.
114 “Nim Chimpsky . . .” Terrace, Nim, p. 412.
114 “. . . ‘gorilla hug.’” Patterson and Linden, The Education of Koko, p. 185.
114 Carolyn A. Ristau and Donald Robbins, “Language in the Great Apes: A Critical Review,”Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 12, 141–255 (1982), p. 229.
114 “. . . ‘singing in the rain.’” Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
115 “. . . some goats have been seen . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, pp. 150–51.
115 Jane Goodall and David A. Hamburg, “Chimpanzee Behavior as a Model for the Behavior of Early Man,” in Silvano Arieti, ed., American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1975), pp. 20–27. Cited here from Carl N. Degler In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 336.
115 Terrace, Nim, pp. 140–42.
115 “Two male bottle-nosed dolphins . . .” Alpers, Dolphins, p. 102.
116 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 124–25.
116 Wilsson, My Beaver Colony, pp. 92–93.
117 “The presence of such traits . . .” Richard Monastersky, “Boom in ‘Cute’ Baby Dinosaur Discoveries,”Science News 134 (October 22, 1988), p. 261.
117 “When a young sparrow . . .” Arzt and Birmelin, Haben Tieren ein Bewusst-sein?, p. 173.
117 Wilsson, p. 131.
118 “. . . beaver’s ‘subjective feelings . . .’” Ryden, Lily Pond, pp. 185–87.
118 “That a tiger is condemned . . .” On the other hand, Elizabeth Marshall Thomas is of the opinion that “the best life for a large captive cat is that of a circus performer. A fortunate circus tiger, in my view, might share a cage with another, compatible tiger, in a collection of ten or twenty fellow tigers whose owners not only train them and perform with them but in all ways share their lives.”The Tribe of Tiger: Cats and Their Culture (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 194.
118 Gebel-Williams with Reinhold, Untamed, p. 310.
119 Karen Pryor and Kenneth S. Norris, eds. Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), p. 346.
119 “Horse trainers commonly . . .” Heywood Hale Broun, “Ever Indomitable, Secretariat Thunders Across the Ages,”New York Times, May 30, 1993, p. 23.
119 Ralph Dennard, interview by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and Susan McCarthy, September 24, 1993.
120 “Washoe may have had . . .” Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
121 “It looks as if . . .” De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, p. 26.
121 “. . . ‘exploded with joy’ . . .” George B. Schaller, The Last Panda (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 66.
121 J. Lee Kavanau, “Behavior of Captive White-footed Mice,”Science 155 (March 31, 1967): pp. 1623–39.
122 “. . . ‘lamp-pulling and squirting behavior . . .’” P. B. Dews, “Some Observations on an Operant in the Octopus,”Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2 (1959): pp. 57–63. Reprinted in Thomas E. McGill, ed., Readings in Animal Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).
122 F. Fraser Darling, A Herd of Red Deer: A Study in Animal Behavior (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 35.
123 “When Indah . . .” “Orangutan Escapes Exhibit, Mingles with Zoo Visitors,”San Francisco Chronicle, June 19, 1993 (Associated Press story).
124 “Play . . . has been increasingly studied . . .” See M. Bekoff and J., A. Byers: “A Critical Reanalysis of the Ontogeny and Phylogeny of Mammalian Social and Locomotor Play: An Etiological Hornet’s Nest.” In K. Immelmann et al., Behavioral Development: The Bielefeld Interdisciplinary Project. (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 296–337.
124 Robert Fagen, Animal Play Behavior (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 3–4.
124 “Biologists continue to be dismayed . . .”Ibid., pp. 17–18. Fagen notes that whenever he lectured on animal play, “Afterwards, to my discomfort and embarrassment, I would chiefly be asked ‘people questions.’”
124 “‘. . . this behavior fascinates . . .’” Fagen, p. 494.
124 Robert A. Hinde, Animal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966).
124 Marc Bekoff, “Kin Recognition and Kin Discrimination” (letter)Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7 (3), March 1992, p. 100.
125 Moss, Elephant Memories, pp. 85, 142–43, 171.
125 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, pp. 249–50.
125 “. . . Norma, a young elephant . . .” Lewis, Elephant Tramp, pp. 128–29.
126 Terrace, Nim, pp. 228–29.
126 “Alaskan buffalo . . . playing on ice.” Gary Paulsen, Winterdance: The Fine Madness of Running the Iditarod (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1994), p. 193.
126 “Two grizzly bears . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 70.
126 “Tiger cubs and leopards . . .” Singh, Tiger! Tiger!, pp. 72–73.
126 “The bonobo covers its eyes . . .” De Waal, Peacemaking, p. 195.
126 “. . . domes of the Kremlin . . .” Jeffery Boswall, “Russia Is for the Birds,”Discover (March 1987), p. 78.
127 “. . . Komodo dragon . . . played with a shovel . . .” Craven Hill, “Playtime at the Zoo,”Zoo-Life 1: pp. 24–26.
127 “. . . alligator in Georgia . . .” James D. Lazell, Jr., and Numi C. Spitzer, “Apparent Play Behavior in an American Alligator,”Copeia (1977): p. 188.
127 “. . . Koko . . . pretends to brush her teeth . . .” Patterson and Linden, Education of Koko, picture caption.
127 “. . . ‘That’s a hat.’” Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
127 “. . . dolphins vied for . . .” Alpers, Dolphins, pp. 90–93.
127 “. . . play similar keep-away . . .” Norris, Dolphin Days, pp. 259–60.
127 “Beluga whales carry stones . . .” Fred Bruemmer, “White Whales on Holiday,” Natural History (January 1986): pp. 40–9. 127 “Lions, both adults and cubs . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, pp. 163–64. 127 “. . . dolphin teased a fish . . .” Alpers, Dolphins, p. 90.
127 “Ravens tease peregrines . . .” Houle, Wings for My Flight, p. 23.
128 “. . . crows may pull their tails . . .” Crumley, Waters of the Wild Swan, pp. 53–54.
128 “. . . hyenas . . . catching and killing such a fox . . .” Macdonald, Running with the Fox, pp. 78–79.
128 “Sifaka lemurs . . .” Jolly, Lemur Behavior, p. 59.
128 “. . . cricket was taught to elephants . . .” Carrington, Elephants, pp. 216—17.
129 “. . . dolphins . . . foul play . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 66–67.
129 “The kangaroos preferred to wrestle and box . . .” Geoffrey Morey, The Lincoln Kangaroos (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1963), pp. 53–60.
130 “Tatu . . .” Rasa, Mongoose Watch, pp. 44–45, 142–44.
130 “. . . beavers and otters were present . . .” Hope Sawyer Buyukmihci, The Hour of the Beaver (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1971), pp. 97–98.
130 “. . . mangabey and red-tailed monkeys . . .” Ghiglieri, East of the Mountains of the Moon, p. 26.
130 Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, pp. 423–24.
131 Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson, The Ants (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1990), p. 370.
131 Henry Walter Bates, The Naturalist on the River Amazons: A Record of Adventures, Habits of Animals, Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life, and Aspects of Nature under the Equator, During Eleven Years of Travel (New York: Humboldt Publishing Co., 1863), pp. 259–60.
133 “. . . Cosimo de’ Medici shut a giraffe . . .” Dagg and Foster, The Giraffe, p. 3.
133 “While aggression among animals is a favored topic . . .” Konrad Lorenz, one of the founders of ethology, wrote a celebrated book on aggression. Ruth Kluger, in her wetter leben: Eine fugend (Göttingen, Germany: Wall-stein, 1992, p. 186), in discussing programmed and flexible learning behavior, makes this acid observation: “On the other hand, one cannot predict the behavior of the behavioral researcher: he was a Nazi and became a great professor at that time, and then he once again became a sensible contemporary with justifiable political views. Naturally evil remained for him always only the ‘so-called evil,’ and the temptation to evil, which lies in human freedom, he chose not to acknowledge. He confused it stubbornly with the preprogrammed animal aggression, which he had so thoroughly researched.”
134 “. . . relations may not be hierarchical.” See, for example, Ryden’s God’s Dog, p. 223, where she complains “. . . my animals got along so well that I was unable to determine their relative ranks.”
134 “Anger and other emotions related . . .” What animal aggression says about human aggression is debated. Richard Lewontin writes that “there is in fact not a shred of evidence that the anatomical, physiological, and genetic basis of what is called aggression in rats has anything in common with the German invasion of Poland in 1939.”(Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA. New York: HarperCollins, 1991, p. 96.) On the other hand, the Renaissance historian Richard Trexler said that “without animal behavior studies, I would understand much less about human aggression in Italy in the fourteenth century.” [Personal communication.]
135 “‘Animals fight . . .’”Aussichten auf den Bürgerkrieg Frankfurt am M., 1993.
135 “. . . Kasakela apes . . .” Jane Goodall, The Chimpanzees of Gombe; Patterns of Behavior (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 502.
136 “Bands of dwarf mongooses . . .” Rasa, Mongoose Watch, pp. 230–31.
136 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, pp. 254–56.
137 “Parrots have been known . . .” Mattie Sue Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, p. 138.
138 “. . . dominance relationships . . . dominance ranks . . .” Irwin S. Bernstein, “Dominance: the Baby and the Bathwater,”Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4 (1981), pp. 419–29. (Followed by peer commentary.)
138 “. . . a female and her adolescent daughter.” Thelma Rowell has suggested that rank relationships may be better characterized as subordinance rather than dominance relationships, since it is the giving way by one animal that constitutes a decision not to fight. In her view a dominance rank does not express the social character of a baboon, but is what is “left over” after his degree of subordination is accounted for. (Rowell, Social Behaviour of Monkeys, pp. 162–63) Consider ring-tailed lemurs, a species in which females dominate males. Males seem to have a clear dominance order among themselves, and females a less apparent one. Researcher Alison Jolly noted, “Females . . . were far less ‘status-conscious.’ They might gratuitously chase each other or the males and would cuff any animal which came too close. However, not only did they spit less frequently, but they did not carry themselves in a particularly erect or cringing posture, nor did they keep an eye on dominant troop members and dodge their approach. The general dominance of females over males seems to rise out of the same attitudes: an insouciant female would cuff any animal, but a male was subordinate to any animal it could not bully.”(Lemur Behavior: A Madagascar Field Study. Alison Jolly. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp. 104–07.) Also Alison F. Richard, “Malagasy Prosimians: Female Dominance,” in Primate Societies, eds. Barbara B. Smuts et al., pp. 25–33 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
139 “In the hamadryas baboon . . .” Christian Bachmann and Hans Kummer, “Male Assessment of Female Choice in Hamadryas Baboons,”Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 6 (1980), pp. 315–21. This paper continues a tradition of referring to male hamadryas baboons as “owners” of females.
139 Strum, Almost Human, pp. 118–20.
139 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 256–57.
139 “This may be why . . .” Lemurs are by no means the only species that exhibit female dominance. The recently rediscovered mountain pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus) is a mouse-sized marsupial, previously known only from fossils. Living high in the Australian Alps, they must survive fierce winters. They are thought to show an unusual form of female dominance. The females occupy good foraging habitat year-round and in the winter hibernate in nests with their daughters. The males, who mate with many females and who do not take care of the young, move into these areas in the summer. In the winter, apparently ousted by the females, they move to poorer habitats where they hibernate alone or with other males. Fewer males survive the winter, so although equal numbers of male and female pygmy-possums are born, adult males are much less common than females. (The Mountain Pygmy-possum of the Australian Alps. Ian Mansergh and Linda Broome. Kensington, NSW, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1994.)
139 “Scientists’ behavior may . . .” President Theodore Roosevelt, “an enthusiastic imperialist and a staunch believer in the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, was also a renowned Great White Hunter who devoted much of his life to killing large animals throughout the world and writing books recounting his adventures.” The early Canadian conservationists John Muir (founder of the Sierra Club) and William J. Long engaged the president in a much followed debate in the popular press. When Roosevelt contended that they lacked manliness and did not know “the heart of the wild thing,” Long snapped back with a famous counterattack:
Who is he to write, “I don’t believe for a minute that some of these nature writers know the heart of a wild thing.” As to that, I find after carefully reading two of his big books that every time Mr. Roosevelt gets near the heart of a wild thing he invariably puts a bullet through it.
This quote and the earlier one about Roosevelt come from Matt Cartmill’s A View to a Death in the Morning, pp. 153–54.
140 “. . . scimitar-horned oryx . . .” Clark, High Hills and Wild Goats, pp. 6768.
140 “. . . rape . . . in coatimundis . . .” Bil Gilbert, Chulo (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973), pp. 230–31.
141 “. . . white-fronted bee-eaters . . .” S. T. Emlen and P. H. Wrege, “Forced Copulations and Intraspecific Parasitism: Two Costs of Social Living in the White-fronted Bee-eater,”Ethology 71 (1986), pp. 2–29.
141 “. . . males try to pile on.” Robert O. Bailey, Norman R. Seymour, and Gary R. Stewart, “Rape Behavior in Blue-winged Teal,”Auk 95 (1978), pp. 188–90. Also, David P. Barash, “Sociobiology of Rape in Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos): Responses of the Mated Male,”Science 197 (August 19, 1977), pp. 788–89.
141 “. . . rape the newcomer . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 78–79.
141 “. . . in the wild . . . dolphins . . .” Natalie Angier, “Dolphin Courtship: Brutal, Cunning and Complex,”New York Times, February 18, 1992.
141 Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 232.
142 “. . . penguins may push one of their . . .” John Alcock, Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach, 4th ed. (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1989), pp. 372–73.
142 “. . . giraffe got off the road . . .” Dagg and Foster, Giraffe, pp. 36–37. 142 “. . . both appear irritated . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 123.
142 “. . . a young false killer whale . . .”Ibid., p. 214.
143 “. . . colleagues of Pavlov tried to . . .” Quoted in Thomas M. French, The Integration of Behavior, Volume 1: Basic Postulates (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952), pp. 156–57.
144 “. . . ‘literally eaten alive . . .’” “What Everyone Who Enjoys Wildlife Should Know,” pamphlet from Abundant Wildlife Society of North America, Gillette, Wyoming. Also Abundant Wildlife, Special Wolf Issue, 1992.
144 “The whistling dog . . .” Michael W. Fox, The Whistling Hunters: Field Studies of the Asiatic Wild Dog (Cuon Alpinus) (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), p. 63.
145 “A leopard . . . play with captured jackals . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 296.
145 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 128–30.
145 “. . . tiger catches prey . . .”Ibid., pp. 136–37.
145 “. . . lioness has been seen . . .” Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way,” p. 93.
146 “. . . cats . . . play with paper balls . . .” Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, p. 137.
147 “Bears, confronted by a river full . . .” Bledsoe, Brown Bear Summer, p. 67.
147 “Hyenas invade a flock . . .” Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 89.
147 “Such surplus killers . . .” See, for example, Troy R. Mader, “Wolves and Hunting,”Abundant Wildlife, Special Wolf Issue (1992), p. 3. Accounts of wolves surplus-killing deer in Minnesota, caribou calves in Canada, and Dall sheep in Alaska are used to argue that wolf numbers must be limited. Also photo caption, p. 1.
147 Both wild and captive hyenas . . . Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 119. Also
Stephen E. Glickman, pers. comm., November 5, 1992.
147 “. . . eat some of the surplus.”Ibid., pp. 165, 204.
147 “They may not estimate closely . . .” Gerard Gormley, Orcas of the Gulf; a Natural History (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990), p. 85.
148 Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 383. He adds that lions tend to treat humans as fellow predators rather than as prey.
149 “Congo, a chimpanzee . . .” Desmond Morris, Animal Days (New York: Perigord Press/William Morrow & Co., 1980), pp. 222–23.
149 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 234–35.
150 William Jordan, Divorce Among the Gulls: An Uncommon Look at Human Nature (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1991), p. 30.
150 “. . . Bimbo . . . Tabu . . . Mkuba . . .” Sigvard Berggren, Berggren’s Beasts, translated from the Swedish by Ian Rodger (New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1970), p. 76.
150 Terrace, Nim, pp. 51–52.
151 “The student may be thought of as a model . . .” This is an example of observational learning, and animals have frequently been said to be unable to do this. However, observational learning has been experimentally demonstrated in animals as diverse as cats and octopuses.
151 Irene Pepperberg, interview by Susan McCarthy, February 22, 1993. 151 “A tame parrot may suddenly . . .” De Grahl, Grey Parrot, p. 46. 151 Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, p. 11.
151 “When Nepo . . . Kianu . . .” Don C. Reed, Notes from an Underwater Zoo (New York: Dial Press, 1981), pp. 248–51. Kianu was separated from the other orcas, became visibly depressed, and was sold to a Japanese oceanarium. Nepo died in 1980. Yaka is still at the original oceanarium.
152 De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, p. 168.
152 “. . . in the Arnhem Zoo . . .”Ibid., p. 116. Also De Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates.
152 De Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates, p. 5.
154 “One evening . . .” Ralph Heifer, The Beauty of the Beasts: Tales of Hollywood’s Animal Stars (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1990), pp. 109–10. Also interview by Susan McCarthy, November 11, 1993.
155 “In Aberdare National Park . . .” Esmond and Chrysse Bradley Martin, Run Rhino Run (London: Chatto and Windus, 1982), p. 28.
155 “Young white oryx . . .” Clark, High Hills and Wild Goats, p. 198.
156 “A mother Thomson’s . . .” Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, p. 193.
156 “Thus a researcher . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, p. 72.
156 “When a group . . .” Jane Goodall, With Love (Ridgefield, CT: Jane Goodall Institute, 1994).
156 “Zebras energetically . . .” Moss, Portraits in the Wild, pp. 111–12.
156 “African buffalo . . .” Cited in Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 262.
156 Bates, Naturalist on the River Amazons, pp. 251–52.
157 “Consider the following . . .” Herbert Friedmann, “The Instinctive Emotional Life of Birds,”Psychoanalytic Review 21 (1934), p. 255. The author, who was the curator of birds at the Smithsonian, delivered this lecture to the Washington Society for Nervous and Mental Diseases. Not only did the author consider the birds too lowly evolved to have compassion, but men were so highly evolved that when they hunted these parrots, “the satisfaction in inflicting cruelty may be fundamentally similar to the pleasure in other forms of endeavor and achievement” (p. 257).
158 Macdonald, Running with the Fox, p. 220.
158 “Tatu, a dwarf . . .” Rasa, Mongoose Watch, pp. 257–58.
159 “In a case of . . .”Gorilla: Journal of the Gorilla Foundation 15 (June 1992), No. 2, p. 8.
159 “Male elephants . . .” Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, p. 94.
159 “An adult pilot whale . . .” Richard C. Connor and Kenneth S. Norris, “Are Dolphins Reciprocal Altruists?”The American Naturalist 119, No. 3 (March 1982), p. 363.
160 “Shooting lions . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, pp. 25–26.
160 Ralph Dennard, interview by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and Susan McCarthy, September 24, 1993.
160 “One family got . . .” Cindy Ott-Bales, interview by Susan McCarthy, September 30, 1993. The baby suffered no ill effects from his single choking episode. Gilly, a Border collie, is trained to notify Ms. Ott-Bales’s husband of doorbells and so on.
161 “Another signal dog . . .” Paul Ogden, Chelsea: The Story of a Signal Dog (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1992), p. 145.
161 Kearton, 1925, cited in Yerkes and Yerkes, The Great Apes, p. 298.
161 “An adult wild chimpanzee . . .” Goodall, With Love.
161 “It has already been . . .” Terrace, Nim, pp. 56–57.
162 “. . . thirty-sixth word . . .”Ibid., 406.
162 “In one grim . . .” Jules H. Masserman, Stanley Wechkin, and William Terris, “‘Altruistic’ Behavior in Rhesus Monkeys,”American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (1964), pp. 584–85.
163 Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (New York and Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 14.
163 “. . . Dawkins specifies that he uses the term . . .”Ibid., p. 4.
163 “An example of chimpanzee . . .” Montgomery, Walking with the Great Apes, pp. 265–66.
163 “Sniff’s mother . . .” Goodall, Through a Window, pp. 107–08.
164 “. . . clump of mushrooms . . .” Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, pp. 105–06.
165 “. . . elephant seal . . .”Ibid., p. 74.
165 Haldane quoted in Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, p. 103.
166 “Scientists who . . .” Fred Bruemmer, “White Whales on Holiday,”Natural History (January 1986) p. 48.
166 “An Atlantic bottle-nosed . . .” Connor and Norris, “Are Dolphins Reciprocal Altruists?” p. 368.
166 “Washoe, the famous chimpanzee . . .” Told in Eugene Linden, Silent Partners: The Legacy of the Ape Language Experiments (New York: Times Books, 1986), pp. 42–43. Also interview with Roger Fouts by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
166 “Asked whether he . . .” “Ripples of Controversy After a Chimp Drowns,”New York Times, October 16, 1990. (The chimpanzee who drowned, referred to in the Times headline, is not the same animal as the one saved.)
167 “The three belugas . . .” Bruemmer, “White Whales on Holiday,” pp. 4049.
167 Connor and Norris, Ibid., pp. 358–74.
168 “Two reporters . . .” Michael Hutchins and Kathy Sullivan, “Dolphin Delight,”Animal Kingdom (July/August 1989), pp. 47–53.
169 Mike Tomkies, Out of the Wild (London: Jonathan Cape, 1985), p. 197.
169 Ryden, Lily Pond, p. 217.
169 Moss, Elephant Memories, p. 84.
169 Barry Holstun Lopez, Of Wolves and Men (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978), p. 198.
169 “A rabbit in . . .” Goran Högstedt, “Adaptation unto Death: Function of Fear Screams,”American Naturalist 121 (1983), pp. 562–70.
170 “. . . when lions hunt . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 254.
170 “A handful of studies . . .” Hannah M. H. Wu, Warren G. Holmes, Steven R. Medina, and Gene P. Sackett, “Kin Preference in Infant Macaca nemestrina,” Nature 285 (1980), pp. 225–27.
171 “However, it has . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, p. 15.
171 “Experimenters studying . . .” Robert M. Seyfarth and Dorothy L. Cheney, “Grooming, Alliances, and Reciprocal Altruism in Vervet Monkeys,”Nature 308, No. 5 (April 1984), pp. 541–42.
171 “. . . to monitor their indebtedness . . .” Eugene S. Morton and Jake Page, Animal Talk: Science and the Voices of Nature (New York: Random House, 1992), pp. 138–39.
172 Joseph Wood Krutch, The Best of Two Worlds (New York: William Sloane Associates, 1950), p. 77.
172 “In the Negev Desert . . .” Clark, High Hills and Wild Goats, p. 136.
173 Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, pp. 111–12. Also interview by Susan McCarthy, August 23, 1993.
173 “In the Kenya bush . . .” Rasa, Mongoose Watch, pp. 83–84.
173 Thomas, The Tribe of Tiger, p. 25.
174 “Ola, a young false killer . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 218–19.
175 “‘. . . doing her own genes no good . . .’” Dawkins, Selfish Gene, p. 109.
175 “‘. . . that has no place in nature . . .’”Ibid., p. 215.
175 “A recent scientific report . . .” Gerald S. Wilkinson, “Food Sharing in Vampire Bats,”Scientific American 262 (1990), pp. 76–82. Also Gerald Wilkinson, interview by Susan McCarthy, March 4, 1994.
176 “Robert Frank . . .” Quoted in Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature, p. 188.
176 Connor and Norris, “Are Dolphins Reciprocal Altruists?” pp. 358–74.
176 Robert L. Trivers, “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,”Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971), pp. 35–57.
177 “They were martyrs.” Jim Nollman, Animal Dreaming: The Art and Science of Interspecies Communication (Toronto and New York: Bantam Books, 1987), p. 59.
179 Jane Goodall, interview by Susan McCarthy, May 7, 1994.
180 “Shame. . . . most vividly remembered . . .” This observation was made by John McCarthy.
180 “. . . ‘the master emotion’ . . .” Robert Karen, “Shame,”Atlantic Monthly 269 (February 1992), pp. 40–70.
180 Donald Nathanson, Shame and Pride: Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self (New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1992), p. 142.
181 “If such apes are anesthetized . . .” Gordon Gallup, “Self-recognition in Primates: A Comparative Approach to the Bidirectional Properties of Consciousness,”American Psychologist 32 (1977), pp. 329–38. Gallup tested paint on himself before applying it to chimps.
181 Kennedy, New Anthropomorphism, pp. 107–08.
181 “The chimpanzees Sherman and Austin . . .” Savage-Rumbaugh, Ape Language, pp. 308–14.
182 “. . . Yeroen was slightly injured . . .” De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, pp. 47–8.
182 “. . . to save face.” De Waal, Peacemaking Among Primates, pp. 238–39.
182 Craig Packer, “Male Dominance and Reproductive Activity in Papio anubis,” Animal Behavior 27 (1979), pp. 37–45.
182 “. . . lion glanced around . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 268. 182 “A mountain goat who sees a predator . . .” Chadwick, Beast the Color of Winter, pp. 87–88.
182 “Koko[’s] embarrassment.” Patterson and Linden, Education of Koko, pp. 136–37.
183 “. . . Wela, was trained . . .” Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, p. 128.
184 “. . . Washoe were human.” Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
184 “One text on animal behavior evades . . .” Erika K. Honore and Peter H. Klopfer, A Concise Survey of Animal Behavior (San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990), p. 85.
184 The pre-Darwinian naturalist Jean de Lamarck (1744–1829) theorized that animals could inherit acquired characteristics, in this case the habit of blushing.
185 Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, p. 309.
185 “His data contradicted those defenders of slavery . . .” Nathanson, Shame and Pride: Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self, p. 462.
185 “Monkeys redden . . .” Darwin, Expression of the Emotions, p. 344.
185 “The ears of a Tasmanian devil . . .” Grzimek, Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 10, p. 82.
185 “. . . smoky honeyeater have . . .” Bruce M. Beehler, A Naturalist in New Guinea (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1991), p. 57.
185 Athan, Guide to a Well-Behaved Parrot, p. 13. Also interview by Susan McCarthy, August 23, 1993.
186 “. . . toys . . . designed to fall apart . . .” Cited in Lewis, Shame, pp. 526.
186 Helen Block Lewis cited in Nathanson, Shame and Bride, p. 218.
186 “. . . flashing colored lights . . .”Ibid., pp. 169–70.
187 “. . . ‘a biological system . . .’”Ibid., p. 140.
187 “. . . global self-accusation . . .” Ibid., pp. 210–11.
187 “. . . bone marrow of wildebeest . . .” Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 231.
187 “One experimenter who was shooting . . .” Kruuk, Spotted Hyena, pp. 99100, 150.
188 “. . . acting oddly . . .” Ibid., pp. 153–55.
188 “. . . small silver fish . . .” Cited in Norris, Dolphin Days, p. 188.
188 Leyhausen, Cat Behavior, pp. 144–45.
189 “Scottish red deer . . .” Darling, Herd of Red Deer, p. 81.
190 “. . . elephants who are laughed at . . .” David Gucwa and James Ehmann, To Whom It May Concern: An Investigation of the Art of Elephants (New York: W. W. Norton & Co, 1985), p. 200.
190 Terrace, Nim, pp. 222–26.
191 “. . . dogs do feel remorse . . .” Desmond Morris, Dogwatching (London: Jonathan Cape, 1986), p. 29.
191 Nathanson, Shame and Pride, p. 15.
192 Geza Teleki, “They Are Us,” pp. 296–302 in The Great Ape Project.
192 “The sense of . . .” Izard, however, considers creativity part of an Interest-Excitement emotional complex, along with hope. Izard, Human Emotions, p. 42.
192 Adriaan Kortlandt, “Chimpanzees in the Wild,”Scientific American 206 (May 1962), pp. 128–38.
193 “. . . animals . . . are color-blind.” Paul Dickson and Joseph C. Gould, Myth-Informed: Legends, Credos, and Wrongheaded “Facts” We All Believe (Perigee/Putnam, 1993), p. 21. The authors write “bulls, like many other animals, including dogs, see only shades of light and dark.” Also see John Horgan, “See Spot See Blue: Curb that Dogma! Canines Are Not Color-blind,”Scientific American 262 (January 1990), p. 20. Horgan notes this assertion making its way into textbooks.
194 “. . . see ultraviolet light . . .” Gerald Jacobs, interview by Susan McCarthy, September 30, 1993.
194 “. . . magnetic fields.” Wolfgang Wiltschko, Ursula Munro, Hugh Ford, and Roswitha Wiltschko, “Red Light Disrupts Magnetic Orientation of Migratory Birds,”Nature 364 (August 5, 1993), p. 525.
194 “‘What is it about . . .’” Benyus, Beastly Behaviors, p. 206.
195 K. von Frisch: “Ein Zwergwels, der kommt, wenn man ihm pfeift.”Biologisches Zentralblatt 43 (1923), pp. 439–46. In this article, von Frisch left it open whether the fish “heard” or “felt” the whistling. But in a later article (Nature, 141, January 1, 1938, pp. 8–11) he proved that they did hear. He noted that people had long believed fish made no sounds. Yet minnows make soft piping noises: “It is interesting that the production of sound by so well known a fish should have been overlooked for so long. There may be much to discover in the future about the language of fishes.”
195 “Birds are about . . .” Joel Carl Welty and Luis Baptista, The Life of Birds (New York: Saunders College Publishing, 1988), pp. 82, 215. Among the functions of song, the authors note, “that some birds may sing from a sense of well-being, or simply ‘for the joy of it,’ should not arbitrarily be ruled out!”
195 Gerald Durrell, My Family and Other Animals (New York: Viking Press, 1957), pp. 38–39.
196 “Grey parrots . . .” De Grahl, Grey Parrot, p. 168.
196 Ryden, God’s Dog, p. 70.
196 “In most gibbon . . .” Donna Robbins Leighton, “Gibbons: Territoriality and Monogamy” in Primate Societies, Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham, and Thomas T. Struhsaker, eds. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 135–45.
196 Nollman, Animal Dreaming, pp. 94—97.
197 “Michael, a gorilla . . .” Wendy Gordon (Gorilla Foundation, Woodside, CA), interview by Susan McCarthy, April 29, 1994.
198 “Siri, an Indian . . .” Gucwa and Ehmann, To Whom It May Concern, p. 190.
199 “. . . coatimundis in Arizona . . .” Gilbert, Chulo, p. 202.
198 “. . . vultures . . .” Welty and Baptista, Life of Birds, pp. 78–79.
198 “. . . rhesus monkeys . . .” N. K. Humphrey, “‘Interest’ and ‘Pleasure’: Two Determinants of a Monkey’s Visual Preferences,”Perception 1 (1972), pp. 395–416.
199 Bernhard Rensch cited in Desmond Morris, The Biology of Art: A Study of the Picture-Making Behavior of the Great Apes and Its Relationship to Human Art (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962),. pp. 32–34.
199 “. . . widowbirds . . .” Make Anderson, “Female Choice Selects for Extreme Tail Length in a Widowbird,”Nature 299 (October 28, 1982), pp. 818–20.
199 “. . . bowerbirds and birds of paradise . . .” Both are members of the family Paradiseidae.
199 “. . . the satin bowerbird . . .” Welty and Baptista, Life of Birds, pp. 27880.
200 Beehler, Naturalist in New Guinea, p. 45.
201 “‘. . . control of the lek . . .’”Ibid., p. 147.
201 “New Guinea human . . .” It is also worth keeping in mind that plumage may send a message to someone other than a potential mate or rival. Beehler and colleagues recently made the discovery that the hooded pitohui, also of New Guinea, has a powerful neurotoxin in its bright orange and black feathers, which is believed to protect it from predators. Here the plumage presumably has, at least in part, a warning message. See John P. Dumbacher, Bruce M. Beehler, Thomas F. Spande, H. Martin Garaffo, and John W. Daly, “Homobatrachotoxin in the Genus Pitohui: Chemical Defense in Birds?”Science 258 (October 30,1992), pp. 799–801. Natives of New Guinea have long known that pitohuis have “bitter” skin.
202 “Alpha, a chimp . . .” Paul H. Schiller, “Figural Preferences in the Drawings of a Chimpanzee,”Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 44 (1951), pp. 101–11.
202 Desmond Morris, Animal Days (London: Jonathan Cape, 1979), pp. 197–98. Also Morris, The Biology of Art: A Study of the Picture-Making Behavior of the Great Apes and Its Relationship to Human Art.
202 “One chimp, Moja . . .” Kathleen Beach, Roger S. Fouts, and Deborah H. Fouts, “Representational Art in Chimpanzees,”Friends of Washoe 3 (Summer 1984), pp. 2–4; Roger Fouts interview; also A. Gardner and B. Gardner, “Comparative Psychology and Language Acquisition,”Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 309 (1978), pp. 37–76. Cited in Gucwa and Ehmann.
205 Gucwa and Ehmann, To Whom It May Concern, pp. 119–20.
206 “. . . San Diego Zoo . . .”Ibid., pp. 93–97.
206 Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant, pp. 12–15.
207 Pryor, Lads Before the Wind, pp. 234–53; Karen Pryor, Richard Haag, and Joseph O’Reilly, “The Creative Porpoise: Training for Novel Behavior,”Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12 (1969), pp. 653–61. For the journal article all references to Hou as “she” were changed to “it.”
It is interesting to see how anecdotal information was transformed into acceptable data in this story. Despite the presence of careful observers, Malia’s creativity had the status of an anecdote. Hou’s almost identical display of creativity was not, presumably in large part because it was expected. The recording of Hou’s actions on film is irrelevant: the vast majority of animal behavior that makes its way into the literature is not documented in this way. 209 “In Japanese monkey troops . . .” Toshisada Nishida, “Local Traditions and Cultural Transmission,” in Primate Societies, Barbara B. Smuts, Dorothy L. Cheney, Robert M. Seyfarth, Richard W. Wrangham and Thomas T. Struhsaker, eds. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 462–74; Marvin Harris, Our Kind (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), p. 63.
209 Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way.”
209 “. . . olive baboons . . .” Strum, Almost Human, pp. 128–33. This tradition of intensive hunting for meat later vanished.
209 “A curious example . . .” De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, p. 135.
210 “In the University of Washington . . .” Roger S. Fouts and Deborah H. Fouts, “Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language,” 28–41 in Cavalieri and Singer, eds., The Great Ape Project, pp. 37–38.
210 “. . . ‘just interesting oddities.’” Dawkins, Selfish Gene, pp. 203–04.
210 “Cultural transmission, may . . .” Richard Dawkins coined the word meme to mean a bit or collection of bits of information that are behaviorally transferred from one individual to another, including such things as tunes, techniques, fashions, and phrases. It is part of the current scientific fashion to ascribe a great deal of human and animal behavior to genetic causes. Until we are better able to tell a meme from a gene, such conclusions are often unwarranted.
211 Krutch, Best of Two Worlds, pp. 92–94.
211 “. . . elephants in Kenya . . .” Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant, p. 63.
212 “We are all . . .” Darwin once wrote himself a note: “Never use the words higher and lower.” More Letters of Charles Darwin, edited by F. Darwin and A. C. Seward (London: Murray, 1903), Vol. 1, p. 114n.
213 Jolly, Lemur Behavior, p. 36.
213 “. . . awe as a form of shame.” Nathanson, Shame and Pride, p. 474.
213 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs, xvii-xviii.
214 “Nim Chimpsky learned . . .” Terrace, Nim, p. 171. 214 De Waal, Chimpanzee Politics, pp. 171–72.
214 “In another incident . . .”Ibid., p. 207.
215 Thomas, Hidden Life of Dogs, pp. 49–51.
215 “. . . coatimundis . . .” Gilbert, Chulo, p. 105–06.
216 Terrace, Nim, pp. 185–86.
216 “Signing apes have . . .” The chimpanzees in the later sign language projects of the Gardners and the gorillas taught by Patterson did have native signers among their teachers. In no case were the lead researchers fluent signers, however.
217 Terrace, Nim, Appendix B, “Recruiting Nim’s Teachers,” pp. 392–95.
217 “Moja, who knows . . .” Roger Fouts, interview by Susan McCarthy, December 10, 1993.
217 Donald R. Griffin: “The Cognitive Dimensions of Animal Communication,” in Fortschritte Der Zoologie, 31 (1985), pp. 471–82.
218 Savage-Rumbaugh, Ape Language, p. 337.
218 Jim Nollman, Animal Dreaming: The Art and Science of Interspecies Communication, p. 105. Cf. the authoritative article in The Encyclopedia of Mammals: “It is clear from its continuous nature and ordered sequence that the song potentially contains much information, but its precise function is not known. Most evidence at present indicates that the prime function of the song is sexual.” David Macdonald, ed. (New York: Facts on File Publications, 1984), p. 229.
219 Schaller, Serengeti Lion, p. 50.
220 Joyce Poole quoted in Chadwick, Fate of the Elephant, pp. 75–76.
220 “‘On meeting a gorilla . . .’” George B. Schaller, The Last Panda (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 79–80.
221 “‘Certain usages . . .’” Terrace, Nim, pp. 222–26.
222 “As Julian Huxley . . .” Quoted in Krutch, Best of Two Worlds.
223 Joseph Wood Krutch, The Great Chain of Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956), p. 106.
224 Lynn Rogers, interviews by Susan McCarthy, July 15, 1993, and May 11, 1994.
225 Thomas, “Reflections: The Old Way,” p. 100.
227 Rousseau from Lester G. Crocker, ed. The Social Contract and Discourse on the Origin and Foundation of Inequality Among Mankind (New York: Washington Square Press, 1967), p. 172.
227 Brigid Brophy: “In Pursuit of a Fantasy,” in Animals, Men and Morals, pp. 125–45, S. and R. Godlovitch, eds. (New York: Taplinger Publishing Co, 1972), p. 129.
227 The quote is from Darwin’s The Descent of Man. Quoted here from Marian Scholtmeijer, Animal Victims in Modern Fiction: From Sanctity to Sacrifice (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993).
228 First published in the American Scholar, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Summer 1971) as “Antivivisection: The Reluctant Hydra,” and reprinted with the title “A Defense of Vivisection”in Animal Rights and Human Obligations, Tom Regan and Peter Singer, eds. (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), pp. 163–69.
228 “As late as the 1930s . . .” No doubt he did. He had even greater problems. At the end of his book Man the Unknown (New York & London: Harper, 1935), on p. 318, this Nobel laureate wrote:
“There remains the unsolved problem of the immense number of defectives and criminals. They are an enormous burden for the part of the population that has remained normal. Gigantic sums are now required to maintain prisons and insane asylums and protect the public against gangsters and lunatics. Why do we preserve these useless and harmful beings? The abnormal prevent the development of the normal. Why should society not dispose of the criminals and the insane in a more economical manner? . . . Perhaps prisons should be abolished. They could be replaced by smaller and less expensive institutions. The conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gases. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts. Modern society should not hesitate to organize itself with reference to the normal individual. Philosophical systems and sentimental prejudices must give way before such a necessity.” Hitler’s doctor, Karl Brandt, in his trial in Nuremberg, offered this book in his defense.
229 “When animal psychologist . . .” S. Begley and J. Cooper Ramo, “Not Just a Pretty Face,”Newsweek (November 1, 1993), p. 67.
229 “Recently a steer . . .” “Steer Flees Slaughter and Is Last Seen Going Thataway,”New York Times, May 24, 1990.
230 “Perhaps just . . .” A German woman leaving a theater performance of The Diary of Anne Frank was heard to say to her companion: “That one, at least, should not have been killed.”
230 “Modern philosophers . . .” The new school of cognitive ethology, started by Donald R. Griffin, is an exception, and many of the biologists and animal behaviorists who work in this area, people such as Gordon Burghardt, Dorothy Cheney, Robert Seyfarth, Carolyn Ristau, Marc Bekoff, Dale Jamieson, Alison Jolly and many others, would agree with the position that animals lead emotional lives, though they might not all agree on how complex and sophisticated they are.
230 This passage from Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation by Jeremy Bentham (Chapter 18, sec. 1) as well as selections from his “A Utilitarian View” and John Stuart Mill’s “A Defence of Bentham,” can be found in the useful collection edited by P. Singer and T. Regan, Animal Rights and Human Obligations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976).
231 “. . . to a spider . . .” P. N. Witt, “Die Wirkung einer einmaligen Gabe von Largactil auf den Netzbau Der Spinne Zilla-x-notata,” in Monatschrift fuer Psychiatrie und Neurologie, 129 (1955), Nos. 1–3, pp. 123–28.
232 Roberts, The Scientific Conscience: Reflections on the Modern Biologist and Humanism, pp. 106–07.
232 “‘The details of his . . .’” Quoted by Dr. White himself on p. 166 of the article cited earlier in this chapter.
232 Goodall in The Great Ape Project, Cavalieri and Singer, eds., pp. 15–16.
233 Chadwick, The Fate of the Elephant. Quoted by E. M. Thomas in “The Battle for the Elephants,”New York Review of Books (March 24, 1994), p. 5.
233 “‘In the distance . . .’” Somadeva, Kathasaritsagara, Durgaprasad Parab, ed. (Bombay, India: Nirnaya Sagara Press, 1903), Ch. 64, w. 4–12. See, too, the 12-volume translation of The Ocean of Story, translated by C. H. Tawney, edited by N. M. Penzer (London: Chas. J. Sawyer), Vol. 5, 1926, pp. 138ff. The editor, p. 34 of the Introduction, notes that “India is indeed the home of storytelling. It was from here that the Persians learned the art, and passed it on to the Arabians. From the Middle East the tales found their way to Constantinople and Venice, and finally appeared in the pages of Boccaccio, Chaucer and La Fontaine.” The story is old, probably predating the Christian era, being found in the Sanskrit Pancatantra. (In the Pancatantra version, there are a few more details about the mongoose: “He left behind a mongoose that he had raised just like a son, keeping him in his house in the room where the sacred fire was kept and feeding him on kernels of corn and the like.” (Franklin Edgerton:The Pancatantra Reconstructed. Vol. 2: Introduction and Translation. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1924. p. 403.)
234 Jan Harold Brunvand, The Mexican Pet (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), p. 44.
234 “We cannot know . . .” See M. B. Emeneau, “A Classical Indian Folk-Tale as a Reported Modern Event: The Brahman and the Mongoose.”Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 83, No. 3, September 1940, pp. 50313. This reports a modern event that mirrors the classic story. Emeneau concludes that the modern report “is one of actual events.” On August 17, 1994,1 spoke with Professor Emeneau (now in his nineties). He told me that his associate, the anthropologist David Mandelbaum, interviewed the woman whose mongoose it was. Emeneau was working with these hill tribes, the Kotas of the Nilgiris in South India during 1935–38. He told me that because the storytellers incorporate so much material from the plains (the Kotas live on a 7,000-foot plateau), including literary motifs, it is impossible to know for certain whether the event actually happened or not. He has changed his mind several times over the years, and is now unable to decide whether it did or did not happen. The woman, however, claims to have been an eyewitness—in fact, the protagonist of the story (in the modern version she kills the mongoose). Legend or fact, the story resonates with the modern reader, at least with this modern reader.
234 The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, with an English translation by John C. Rolfe. 3 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984, vol. 1, pp. 421–27). Only fragments of the Wonders of Egypt exist. A very similar account, from the same source, was made famous in Europe in the sixteenth century by Michel Montaigne. See The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans, by Donald M. Frame (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989, pp. 350–51). For more on Apion, see Pauly’s Realencyclopadie der classischen Alter-tumswissenschaft, Vol. 1, pt. 2 (1894), Article on Apion 3, esp. p. 2805. The very fact that he claimed to have been an eyewitness to the event is used, here, against his credibility.
236 “‘This is the lion . . .’” There is considerable literature on this topic. See August Marx, Griechische Märchen von dankbaren Tieren und verwandtes (Stuttgart: Verlag von W. Kohlhammer, 1889). On p. 58 he points out that the famous Brehma (Tierl. I, pp. 369 and 378) leaves it unclear whether he thinks the story of Androcles is possible or not. St. Hieronymus also takes a thorn out of the paw of a lion (p. 61 for sources). See, too, the excellent book by Otto Keller:Thiere des classischen Alterthums in culturgeschichtlicher Beziehung (Innsbruck: Verlag der Wagner’schen Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1887). He is especially good on dolphins.
236 “Is this fiction . . .” See Adrian House, The Great Safari: The Lives of George and Joy Adamson, Famous for Born Free (New York: William Morrow & Co, 1993). In her original book, Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds (Fontana/ Collins Harvill, 1960, p. 49), Joy Adamson notes: “Most lions take to man-eating because they have some infirmity: either they have been wounded by an arrow head or damaged in a trap, or their teeth are in bad condition, or they have porcupine quills in their paws.”
236 “An Interview with John Lilly,”New Frontier, September 1987, p. 10.