Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War

INTRODUCTION

1. Edward Winslow, Good News From New England (1924), ed. Kelly Wisecup (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2014), 79–82. Kelly Wisecup, Medical Encounters (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013), 77–9. Matt Cohen, The Networked Wilderness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 69–70, 75. Note that the Pocasset Mattapoisett (Swansea and Somerset, Massachusetts) is distinct from the contemporary Massachusetts town of Mattapoisett, east of Dartmouth. For maps and connections, http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/introduction

2. Winslow, Good News, 80. Even the order of words was transposed, with the suffix “skwa” always appearing at the end of an Algonquian word, to denote female. On saunkskwa, see ch. 1.

3. Winslow, Good News, 63, 80, 86. William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation (New York: Random House, 1981), 97–9. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (1622), ed. Dwight B. Heath (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1986), 73–6.

4. Colin Calloway, Dawnland Encounters (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991), 27, 44. Jean O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 55–6. Patrick Wolfe, “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native,” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): 387–409.

5. Nathaniel Saltonstall, The Present State of New England With Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1675), 3. “Indian Deed,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 48 (May 1915): 492–3. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 128. Weetamoo is curiously absent from twentieth-century analyses of King Philip’s War. Jennings mentioned Weetamoo only briefly in the body of his book and once in an erroneous footnote. Jill Lepore refers to Weetamoo twice in the landmark The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), and then only parenthetically. James Drake’s detailed King Philip’s War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachsetts Press, 1999) mentions Weetamoo fleetingly, at the initial outbreak of war. George Bodge, Douglas Leach, and Russell Bourne acknowledge Weetamoo’s participation in the war, but they construct her in conformity with European gender conventions and downplay her leadership role, especially after the Pocasset swamp fight. However, Bourne does refer to Plymouth Court cases in which she participated. See George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906); Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958); Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion (New York: Atheneum, 1990). Weetamoo does not appear at all in William Simmons’s Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore, 1620–1984 (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1986). King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 2000) by Eric B. Schultz and Michael J. Tougias, although well written and especially valuable for its geographical focus, follows Leach’s lead in regard to Weetamoo. Jenny Pulsipher’s Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005) refers to Weetamoo once in the body and once in a footnote. Even more surprisingly, Ann M. Little’s Abraham in Arms: War and Gender in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007) mentions Weetamoo only briefly, once acknowledging her participation in the war, and then in a limited reading of Rowlandson’s representation.

6. Keith Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language among the Western Apache (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996), 6. Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2008), 245.

7. Anonymous, A True Account of the Most Considerable Occurrences that have happened in the Warre between the English and the Indians in New-England (London: Benjamin Billingsley, 1676), 5. Lepore, Name, 126, 136–48. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 33–4, 49, 99, 122, 135.

8. Lepore, Name, 126. Pauline Turner Strong, Captive Selves, Captivating Others (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 12. Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 4.

9. Lepore, Name, 136–48. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society 2 (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 455–9, 475–7, 486–91. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 68–75.

10. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 55.

11. O’Brien, Firsting, xxi−xxiii, 55–6. Lepore, Name, 119–223.

12. On Hawaiian history, see, for example, Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press 2004); Noelani Arista, “Histories of Unequal Measure: Euro-American Encounters with Hawaiian Governance and Law, 1793–1827” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2010). On the Wôpanâak language, see the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project website: www.wlrp.org. See also Anna Ash, Jessie Little Doe Fermino, and Ken Hale, “Diversity in Local Language Maintenance and Restoration: A Reason for Optimism,” in The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice, ed. Kenneth Hale (Boston: Brill Academic Publishing, 2001); Jennifer Weston and Barbara Sorenson, “Awakening a Sleeping Language on Cape Cod: The Wampanoag Language Reclamation Project,” Cultural Survival Quarterly 35.4 (2011). On Wôpanâak texts, see Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon, Native Writings in Massachusett (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1988).

13. Pulsipher, Subjects, 128, 302, n. 44. Benjamin Church, Entertaining History of King Philip’s War (Boston: B. Green, 1716). As Lepore notes of Church’s “History,” “This as-told-to, after-the-fact memoir is the single most unreliable account of one of the most well-documented wars of the Colonial period,” although that has not prevented historians from relying on it as a primary source. Jill Lepore, “Plymouth Rocked,” New Yorker, April 24, 2006. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/04/24/060424crat_atlarge. Thanks to Christine Delucia for recommending the review.

14. Lepore, Name, xv, xix, 48–9. Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York: Vintage Books, 2003), 11. Owaneco and Ben Uncas, “The Complaint and Prayer of Owaneco and Ben Uncas, 1700,” in “Land Disputes between the Colony of Connecticut and the Mohegan Indians, 1736–1739,” Ayer ms 459, Edward Ayer Manuscript Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. Lepore does raise the question, “What would the Indians have called it?” However, her answer was mainly speculative, raised during a time when few historians turned to Indigenous language sources.

15. I use the Western Abenaki term for “human beings” here, although this is common to many Native languages. See Joseph Bruchac, Roots of Survival (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1996), 19–31, 179–94; Russell Handsman and Trudie Lamb Richmond, “Confronting Colonialism: The Mahican and Schaghticoke Peoples and Us,” in Making Alternative Histories: The Practice of Archaeology and History in Non-Western Settings, ed. Peter R. Schmidt and Thomas C. Patterson (Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press, 1996), 87–117; Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884), 54, 58–9; Mohegan Tribe and Stephanie Fielding, “A Modern Mohegan Dictionary” (Uncasville, CT: Mohegan Tribe, 2006), 18, http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/collections/MoheganDictionary.pdf. “Language Keepers” (public event), featuring Wabanaki and Wôpanâak language teachers, including Carol Dana, Jessie Little Doe Baird, Roger Paul, Jesse Bruchac, and Gabe Paul, held at Harvard University in November 2010 and University of Maine, Farmington, in April 2012.

16. Joseph Aubery and Stephen Laurent, Father Aubery’s French Abenaki Dictionary (Portland, ME: Chisholm Brothers, 1995), 288. Gordon M. Day, Western Abenaki Dictionary (Hull, PQ: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1995), 1: 203–4, 2:437, 2:142. “War,” “madôbakw,” “migaka,” Western Abenaki Online Dictionary, www.westernabenaki.com. Winslow, Good News, 63, 106. Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 3. Thanks to Jonathan Perry for discussion of the terms for “warrior.”

17. Peter Hulme, quoted in Amy E. Den Ouden, Beyond Conquest: Native Peoples and the Struggle for History in New England (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 11.

18. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 3:7–8.

19. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 86.

20. Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003). Basso, Wisdom, 6. See also Yael Ben-Zvi, “Ethnography and the Production of Foreignness in Indian Captivity Narratives,” American Indian Quarterly 32, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 5–32; James Cox, Muting White Noise: Native American and European American Novel Traditions (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012); Daniel Heath Justice, Our Fire Survives the Storm: A Cherokee Literary History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006); Robert Warrior, The People and the Word (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 3, 84; Craig Womack, Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).

21. On colonization and objectivity, see Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous People (London: Zed Books, 2012), 22, 39, 119.

PROLOGUE: CASKOAK

1. Christopher Levett, A Voyage into New England (1623), in Maine in the Age of Discovery, ed. Emerson Baker (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1988), 42, 46. Joseph Nicolar, Life and Traditions of the Red Man (1893), ed. Annette Kolodny (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 199. Fannie Eckstorm,” Indian Place-Names of the Penobscot Valley and the Maine Coast,” Maine Bulletin 44, no. 4 (1941): 168. Lisa T. Brooks and Cassandra M. Brooks, “The Reciprocity Principle and ITEK: Understanding the Significance of Indigenous Protest on the Presumpscot,” International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies 3, no. 2 (2010): 11–28. Levett’s mission was “to locate a site for a 6,000-acre grant he had received from the Council of New England” and to investigate unregulated trade and related violence on the Maine coast. See Kenneth Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: The Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 38–39. For maps, documents, images and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/prologue.

2. Levett, Voyage, 42. Emerson Baker, “Finding the Almouchiquois: Native American Families, Territories, and Land Sales in Southern Maine,” Ethnohistory 51, no. 1 (2004): 73–100. Brooks and Brooks, “Reciprocity Principle,” 12–15. Emerson Baker and John Reid, “Amerindian Power in the Early Modern Northeast: A Reappraisal,” William and Mary Quarterly 61, no. 1 (2004): 3, 11–12. Joseph Bruchac, Roots of Survival (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1996), 30. See also Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), esp. 14–25. Colin Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990). William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983). David Ghere, “The ‘Disappearance’ of the Abenaki in Western Maine: Political Organization and Ethnocentric Assumptions,” in After King Philip’s War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, ed. Colin Calloway (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997), 72–89. Morrison, Embattled. Alice Nash, “The Abiding Frontier: Family, Gender and Religion in Wabanaki History, 1600–1763” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1997), esp. 174–9. Nicolar, Life, 105–6, 134–9. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 30–49. John A. Strong, “Algonquian Women as Sunksquaws and Caretakers of the Soil: The Documentary Evidence in the Seventeenth Century Records,” in Native American Women in Literature and Culture, ed. Susan Castillo and Victor DaRosa (Porto, Portugal: Fernando Pessoa University Press, 1997), 196–200. For the term saunkskwa, see ch. 1.

3. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 73–100. Brooks, Common Pot, 1–50. Brooks and Brooks, “Reciprocity,” 15. Margaret M. Bruchac, “Earthshapers and Placemakers: Algonkian Indian Stories and the Landscape,” in Indigenous Archaeologies: Politics and Practice, ed. Claire Smith and Martin Wobst (London: Routledge Press, 2003), 56–80. Calloway, Western Abenakis. William Cronon, Changes, 61–5. Morrison, Embattled, 29–31. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 151, 196–7. Salisbury, Manitou, 19–49, 62, 77–8. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733,” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 52–61.

4. Emerson W. Baker, et al., eds. American Beginnings: Exploration, Culture and Cartography in the Land of Norumbega (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 132−46, 162, 173−7, 192−5, 203−8. Brooks, Common Pot, 3−7, 20−4, 57−8. Morrison, Embattled, 12−41, 72−5.

5. Levett, Voyage, 44. Morrison, Embattled, 29. For example, when the Jesuit Sebastien Rasle became a part of a Wabanaki extended family and sought to return to the college at Quebec, his “mother” demanded, “you were of our cabin . . . Why then did you leave us?” Morrison, The Solidarity of Kin: Ethnohistory, Religious Studies, and the Algonkian-French Religious Encounter (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2002), 76.

6. Morrison, Embattled, 13–20. Nicolar, Life, 105–7. C. F. Waterman, Fishing in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975), 30–49.

7. Levett, Voyage, 45. Morrison, Embattled, 76, 102. Brooks and Brooks, “Reciprocity,” 15. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 83. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 174. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 2:48. William Willis, History of Portland from 1632 to 1864 (Portland, ME: Bailey and Noyes, 1865), 35–6.

8. York Deeds (Portland, ME: John T. Hull, 1887), 1:83. York Deeds (Portland, ME: John T. Hull, 1892), 8:86. Francis Small’s deposition (manuscript), May 10, 1683, Pejebscot Papers 6:67, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Deed from Warrabitta and Nanateonett to George Munjoy,” June 4, 1666, and “Indenture . . . between Jhone an Indian Sister to Scaterey Gussett . . . and Anthony Brackett,” January 15, 1670, Waldo Papers, box 1, coll. 34, folder 1/1, Collections of Maine Historical Society. F.S. Reiche,” Past activities at the mouth of Presumpscot River,” Special Collections, Maine Historical Society. Leonard Chapman’s Scrapbook: “Stroudwater,” Coll 3343, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Baker, Almouchiquois, 83–6. Amy McDonald, ed., Guide to the Presumpscot River: Its History, Ecology, and Recreational Uses (Portland, ME: Presumpscot River Watch, 1994), 4–6. Sybil Noyes, Charles Libby, and Walter Davis, Genealogical Dictionary of Maine and New Hampshire (Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing, 1979), 547. Brooks and Brooks, “Reciprocity,” 15–16. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 174, 181. Willis, Portland, 102–110. Eckstorm, “Place Names,” 160. Joseph Aubery and Stephen Laurent, Father Aubery’s French Abenaki Dictionary (Portland, ME: Chisholm Brothers, 1995), 400. On the complexity of deeds on the Wabanaki coast, see Emerson Baker, “‘A Scratch with a Bear’s Paw’: Anglo-Indian Land Deeds in Early Maine,” Ethnohistory 36, no. 3 (1989), and Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” esp. introduction and ch. 3.

9. York Deeds, 2:114. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 82–6. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 148–189. William Southgate, “History of Scarborough 1633–1783,” in Collections of the Maine Historical Society (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1853), 1st ser., 3:99–177. Eckstorm, “Place Names,” 171. Mary B. Pickard, “Scarborough: They Called it Owascoag,” Maine Memory Network, http://scarborough.mainememory.net/page/1608/display.html.

10. York Deeds, 2:114. Morrison, Embattled, 29–31. Baker and Reid, “Amerindian Power,” 77–106. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 154. Brooks and Brooks, “Reciprocity,” 16. Southgate, “Scarborough,” 101.

11. Gordon M. Day, Western Abenaki Dictionary (Hull, PQ: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1995), 2:173. Eckstorm, “Place Names,” 170–1. Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass (Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 2013), ix.

12. Nicolar, Life, 105, 134–9.

13. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 153.

14. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 186. Nicolar, Life, 105, 139.

1. NAMUMPUM, “OUR BELOVED KINSWOMAN”

1. “Indian Deed,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 48: 492–3 (May 1915). On awikhigan, see Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 1–50. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter1.

2. Arthur Sherman Phillips, The Phillips History of Fall River (Fascicle 1) (Fall River, MA: Dover Press, 1941), 4–10, 95–6, 109. Arthur Phillips, “Pocasset and the Pocassets,” Dec. 15, 1931, Rhode Island Historical Society (manuscript), 3–4. Henry M. Fenner, History of Fall River (New York: F. T. Smiley Publishing, 1906), 8–9. Kathleen Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 56–7, 64, 121, 127. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 27–8, 30–31. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 2000), 239. Ebenezer Peirce, Brief Sketches of Freetown, Fall River and Fairhaven (Boston: Dean Dudley, 1872), 17. Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Indian Deeds: Land Transactions in Plymouth Colony, 1620–1691 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2008), 342. Laurie Lee Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist: Competition for Land in 17th Century Plymouth Colony” (PhD diss., Southern Methodist University, 1983), 20, 27, 76, 151–63, 200–2. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, ed. Dwight B. Heath (Bedford, MA: Appleton Books, 1963), 27. “Quacut,” Francis Joseph O’Brien Jr., and Rhode Island USGenWeb Project, “American Indian Place Names in Rhode Island,” http://rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rigenweb/IndianPlaceNames.html. For the document and associated map see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/nonaquaket.

3. For wampum and writing, see Brooks, Common Pot.

4. Here, using Algonquian kinship terminology, “brother” means male cousin.

5. See, for example, Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884); Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 41–3. On “Ndakinna” as an “exclusive” term, see Brooks, Common Pot, 202, 251; Laurent, Dialogues, 54, 58–9.

6. Cronon, Changes, 59–64. Bragdon, Native People, 46–7, 138–9. Laura Liebman, ed., Experience Mayhew’s Indian Converts (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008), 51–2. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 74. Salisbury, Manitou, 42–3. Brooks, Common Pot, 53, 68–9. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 24–9, 74–5.

7. Paul Campbell Research Notes, mss 369, folder 5, Rhode Island Historical Society.

8. Mourt’s Relation, 56–7. Plymouth Town Records (Plymouth, MA: Avery and Doten, 1889), 1:36. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (PCR) (Boston: William White, 1855), 1:133. Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers and Fathers: Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 9, 12–13. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 2:22. Phillips, Fall River, 1:23, 97. Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 53, 62–5, 166, 210. Cronon, Changes, 31, 58–68, 71. James Ronda, “Red and White at the Bench,” Essex Institute Historical Collections, 110 (1974), 201–2. Norton, Founding, 12–13. H. Morse Payne, “New England Seventeenth Century Land Strategy,” NEARA Journal 31, no. 2 (1997): 87–94. Salisbury, Manitou, 114–9. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 120–6. Native American Archaeology in Rhode Island (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Preservation and Heritage Commission, 2002), 13, 14, 56. “Sapowett,” “Espowet,” American Indian Place Names in Rhode Island, http://rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rigenweb/IndianPlaceNames.html.

9. Anderson, Creatures, 215.

10. Rhode Island Historical Society, Early Records of the Town of Portsmouth (Portsmouth Records) (Providence, RI: E. L. Freeman and Sons, 1901), 16, 21, 47.

11. John Russell Barlett, Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (Providence, RI: A. Crawford Greene and Brother, 1856–65), 1:45–51. Portsmouth Records, 55–6, 64, 81. Samuel Greene Arnold, History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (Providence, RI: Preston, 1894), 1:69–71, 125. Phillips, Fall River, 1:26–8. Glenn LaFantasie, The Correspondence of Roger Williams (Providence, RI: Brown/Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988), 1:163. Archaeology in Rhode Island, 27. Salisbury, Manitou, 228–9.

12. Norton, Founding, 358; see also ch. 1, 6, and 7. Arnold, History, 1:51–71. David D. Hall, ed., The Antinomian Controversy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990). Lyle Koehler, “The Case of the America Jezebels: Anne Hutchinson and Female Agitation during the Years of Antinomian Turmoil, 1636–1640,” William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 31, no. 1 (Jan. 1974): 55–78. Samuel Atkins Eliot, A History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630–1913 (Cambridge, MA: The Cambridge Tribune, 1913), 42–3.

13. Norton, Founding, 374. Arnold, History, 1:69–71. Edward H. West, “Portsmouth, Rhode Island, before 1800,” in History of Portsmouth, 1638–1936 (Portsmouth, RI: J. Green, 1936), 9. Portsmouth Records, 1–2, 6, 23.

14. Norton, Founding, 10, 319, 392.

15. Cronon, Changes, 44, 75. Jane Mt. Pleasant, “A New Paradigm for Pre-Columbian Agriculture in North America,” Early American Studies 13, no. 2 (Spring 2015). For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/pocasset_pokanoket-placenames.

16. Arnold, History, 1:127–9, 135. Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (RI Records), 1: 53–64. Portsmouth Records, 35. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 120–5, 130–1, 135–6. Cronon, Changes, 71–7, 128–9. Anderson, Creatures, 18, 144, 153–5, 158–9. Norton, Founding, 4–10. Darrett Rutman, Husbandmen of Plymouth: Farms and Villages in the Old Colony, 1620−1692 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1967), 50.

17. Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (1643) (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1997), 141. Edward Winslow, Good Newes from New England (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1996), 33. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 56–8. Salisbury, Manitou, 36–40. John A. Strong, “Algonquian Women as Sunksquaws and Caretakers of the Soil: The Documentary Evidence in the Seventeenth Century Records,” in Native American Women in Literature and Culture, ed. Susan Castillo and Victor DaRosa (Porto, Portugal: Fernando Pessoa University Press, 1997), 196–200. Norton, Founding, 4, 12, 360–1, 366, 398. For example, Mistress Anne Hutchinson’s behavior was particularly threatening because she was a high-ranking woman, deriving her status as “Mistress” from her father, a minister in England, and her husband, a merchant and magistrate.

18. For interpretation of “saunkskwa,” “sachem,” and “sagamore” I am indebted to Roger Paul, who also helped me to see them as English variations of the same basic leadership term, drawn from Algonquian dialects; to Jessie Little Doe Baird; and to Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel and Lynn Malerba. (Roger Paul, personal communication, Orono, Maine, April 30, 2011; Jessie Little Doe Baird, “Wôpanâee Neekônuhshâeenun,” presentation at the Harvard University Native American Program Commencement Dinner, May 26, 2011, Cambridge, MA; Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel, presentation for FM90j, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, April 11, 2011; Lynn Malerba, “Native American Female Leadership” panel, University of Connecticut, Avery Point, March 17, 2011.) See also Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel (formerly Fawcett), Medicine Trail: The Life and Lessons of Gladys Tantiquidgeon (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000), 21; and Strong, “Algonquian Women,” 196–200.

19. Ebenezer Peirce, Indian History, Biography and Genealogy (North Abington, MA: Zerviah Gould Mitchell, 1878), 238–40. Rhode Island Land Evidences (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1921), 1:145–6. “Massachusetts Land Rec ords, 1620−1986,” images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QS7–99Z7-GL7?cc=2106411&wc=MCBR-PWY%3A361612701%2C362501701: 22 May 2014), Plymouth > image 268 of 677; county courthouses and offices, Massachusetts. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620–1986,” images, Family Search, (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QS7–89Z7-G27?cc=2106411&wc=MCBR-PWY%3A361612701%2C362501701: 22 May 2014), Plymouth > image 269 of 677; county courthouses and offices, Massachusetts. Richard Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in this Plymouth Colony Township (Rehoboth, MA: Rumford Press, 1945), 1:82–4. Ebenezer Peirce, “The Original Owners and Early Settlers of Freetown and Assonet,” Collections of the Old Colony Historical Society (Taunton, MA: C. A. Hack, 1882), 3:114–27. See also Bangs, Deeds, 291–3. For maps, images and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/pocasset_pokanoket-placenames and http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/namumpum.

20. Peirce, Indian History, 238–9. “Tatapanum” may have even been a phrase akin to “this woman,” as “phanem” (pronounced pa(h)anem) in the related Western Abenaki language, means “woman.”

21. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 268. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 269.

22. PCR, 1:143. Anderson, Creatures, 154–5. Cronon, Changes, 128, 142–6. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 151–60. Thomas Bicknell, Sowams: With Ancient Records of Sowams and Parts Adjacent (New Haven, CT: Associated Publishers of American Records, 1908), 173–4. Samuel Hopkins Emery, History of Taunton, Massachusetts, From its Settlement to the Present Time (Syracuse, NY: D. Mason and Co., 1893), 28, 55, 68–9, 95, 104. James Edward Seaver, “The Two Settlements of Taunton, Massachusetts,” in Collections of the Old Colony Historical Society (Taunton, MA: C. A. Hack, 1899), 7:106–41. Henry Williams, “Was Elizabeth Poole the First Purchaser of the Territory, and Foundress, of Taunton?” in Collections of the Old Colony Historical Society (Taunton: C. A. Hack, 1880), 2:37–113. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/plymouth-patuxet.

23. Mourt’s Relation, 64. Fenner, History of Fall River, 8. Peirce, Brief Sketches, 17. Phillips, Fall River, 3:9. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 151–62, 200–2.

24. PCR 3:167. Anderson, Creatures, 67–70, 145, 149–53, 159. Cronon, Changes, 77, 129, 134, 138–40. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 56, 111, 120–141, 147, 237. Mt. Pleasant, “Paradigm,” 381, 391–9. Rose T. Briggs, “The Court Houses of Plymouth,” Pilgrim Society Note, Series One, No. 17, May 1966 at http://www.pilgrimhallmuseum.org/pdf/Court_Houses_Plymouth.pdf. Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 78–9.

25. Mourt’s Relation, 64.

26. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 111, 129. See also Norton, Founding, 5–15; Cronon, Changes; Anderson, Creatures.

27. Cronon, Changes, 37–53. Charles Robinson, Asleep Beneath the Meadows (Providence, RI: Universal Press, 1992), 45, 76. Duane Hamilton Hurd, History of Bristol County, Massachusetts, with Biographical Sketches (Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis, 1883), 214–5. Archaeology in Rhode Island, 14. Massachusetts Historical Commission, MHC Reconnaissance Survey Town Report: Dighton (1981), http://www.sec.state.ma.us/mhc/mhcpdf/townreports/SE-Mass/dig.pdf. Bragdon, Native People, 50, 108. Eva Butler, “Algonkian Culture and the Use of Maize,” Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 22 (1948): 1–39. Cronon, Changes, 37–53. Edmund Burke Delabarre, “Early Interest in Dighton Rock,” in Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Transactions, 1915–16 (Boston: The Society, 1917), 18:243–4. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 53, 55–6. Samuel De Champlain, “Maine and Massachusetts” (1605), in Sailors Narratives of Voyages Along the New England Coast, ed. George Winship (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1905), 79–80, 83, 87. Mourt’s Relation, 34, 41. William Wood, New England’s Prospect (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 113. Martin Pring, “Plymouth Harbor” (1603), in Sailors Narratives, 58–9. Giovanni Da Verrazano, “Narragansett Bay” (1524), in Sailors Narratives, 139.

28. Cronon, Changes, 13, 28–9, 47–51, 57, 90–1, 118–9, 145–6. Anderson, Creatures, 47–8, 154–5. William A. Patterson III and Kenneth E. Sassaman, “Indian Fires in the Prehistory of New England,” in Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North America, ed. George P. Nicholas (New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1988), 107–22. Archaeology in Rhode Island, 14.

29. Francis Baylies, A Historical Memoir of the Colony of New Plymouth (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little, and Wilkins, 1830), 2:17, 20, 67–69. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 79–80. Peirce, Indian History, 238–9.

30. PCR, 2:10–11, 3:84, 4:18–19. Bangs, Deeds, 63–5, 74–8, 238–9, 247. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 79. Bicknell, Barrington, 42. Bicknell, Sowams, 125, 142–3, 152. Cronon, Changes, 71. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 175, 208–9. Ralph V. Wood Jr., Francis Cooke of the Mayflower: The First Five Generations (Rockport, ME: Picton Press, 1996), 12:12–13. Payne, “Land Strategy,” 87–94.

31. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 74, 174−5, 182−4, 207, 244−5. Bragdon, Native People, 137–9. Cronon, Changes, 59–75. Salisbury, Manitou, 42–50, 116. Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 46–7, 63–4. Paul Robeson, “One Island, Two Places: Archaeology, Memory, and Meaning in a Rhode Island Town,” in Interpretations of Native North American Life: Material Contribution to Ethnohistory, ed. Michael Nassaney and Eric Johnson (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2000), 408. Bangs, Deeds, 75–7, 263–72. PCR, 2:49–50. Bicknell, Sowams, 26–7, 36–7. Leonard Bliss, History of Rehoboth (Boston: Otis Broaders and Co., 1836), 1, 22–3.

32. Bangs, Deeds, 76–77, 263–5, 293–6. PCR, 3:164–5. Plymouth men on the 1652 deed included John Winslow (Josiah’s uncle), Thomas Southworth, John Cooke, and Myles Standish. Ekatebacke does not appear anywhere else in the records, suggesting this was not a man with a leadership role. Morris and Weetamoo appeared on different days, June 7 and 9, 1659. Morris did not formally accept Plymouth’s offer and submit to their authority until the following spring.

33. PCR, 3:167, 192. Bangs, Deeds, 269–70. Anderson, Creatures, 160, 192, 223. Bicknell, Barrington, 38, 43. Bicknell, Sowams, 161, 174–5. Bliss, History of Rehoboth, 1–7. Cronon, Changes, 131–2, 134–5, 138. Guy Mannering Fessenden, The History of Warren, Rhode Island, from the Earliest Times (Providence, RI: H. H. Brown, 1845), 57. Liebman, Indian Converts, 46–55. Ronda, “Red and White,” 208–9. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 174–5, 182–4, 188, 208–11, 228, 244–5. Wright, History of Swansea, 23, 47, 51, 74.

34. Strong, “Algonquian Women,” 196–200.

35. Norton, Founding, 72–3, 83–4, 139. Plane, Colonial Intimacies, 68.

36. Plane, Colonial Intimacies, 5.

37. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England, 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 2001), 52–4. Nanamocomuck was released and shortly thereafter joined Wabanaki relations on the Androscoggin River.

38. PCR, 3:162. Peirce, Indian History, 238–40. Bangs, Deeds, 293–40. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 269. Scott Richard Lyons, X-Marks: Native Signatures of Assent (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 1. Josiah Winslow and Constant Southworth were magistrates, as was Thomas Southworth, Constant’s brother, who also was a grantee. Both their half-brother William Bradford and John Tisdale, a grantee, served as witnesses. John Barnes, the tavern keeper (and grantee), was on the docket of the court in June 1659, about to be disenfranchised “for his frequent and abominable drinking.” PCR 3:167, 176. See also http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/BARNES2.htm.

39. Peirce, Indian History, 238–40. Bangs, Deeds, 297–9. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 80. Hugo A. Dubuque, Fall River Indian Reservation (Fall River, RI: self-published, 1907), 10–11. Fenner, History of Fall River, 4–5, 8–10. Peirce, Brief Sketches, 1. Peirce, “Original Owners.” Phillips, Fall River, 1: xv, 29, 62–96. Phillips, “Pocasset,” 3–4. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 171.

40. Phillips, Fall River, 3:9, 11. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 80. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 171. Friends of Historic Preservation, Report on Assonet Village Historic District, “First Settlement Period,” http://www.assonetriver.com/preservation/dist_period.asp?P=COL.

41. Josiah Winslow later (falsely) claimed that their deeds had created just such a reserve at Pocasset. William Hubbard, A History of the Indian Wars in New England, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Roxbury, MA: W. E. Woodward, 1865), 66.

42. Phillips, “Pocasset,” 3–4. Phillips, Fall River, 1: xv, 29, 62–96, 109. Fenner, History of Fall River, 4, 8. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 171.

43. “Letter from Governor and Council of Massachusetts to Magnus, July 6, 1667” (manuscript), “Letter of Magnus to Governor, October 7, 1667” (manuscript), Facsimile Copies of Records of Massachusetts Archives (Photostats), #138, #139, #140, Massachusetts Historical Society. Drake, BOI, 3:64. Howard Chapin, Sachems of the Narragansetts (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1931), 63, 68, 74. Native American Archaeology in Rhode Island, 53–4. Howard Chapin, “Queen’s Fort,” Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, 24:4 (1931). Sydney Rider, The Lands of Rhode Island (Providence, RI: printed by author, 1904), 58, 237–45.

44. RI Records, 1:464. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 279. Chapin, Sachems, 68. Drake, BOI, 2:58. Usher Parsons and Rhode Island Historical Society, Indian Place Names of Rhode Island (Providence, RI: Knowles, Anthony and Co., 1861), 16. Lucinda Brockway, “Cultural Landscape Report for Cocumscussoc, Wickford, RI,” (Kennebunk, ME: Past Designs, 2008). For members of the Atherton Company, see John Fredrick Martin, Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 62–73. For map and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/quaiapin.

45. RI Records, 1:465. James N. Arnold, The Records of the Proprietors of the Narragansett, or Fones Record (Providence, RI: Narragansett Historical Publishing, 1894), 1:5–16. Chapin, Sachems, 70–4. Drake, BOI, 2:81. Richard Dunn, “John Winthrop, Jr. and the Narragansett Country,” William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 13, no. 1 (Jan. 1956): 68–74, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1923390. Jennings, Invasion, 276, 279. Martin, Profits, 68–9. Paul Robinson, “The Struggle Within: The Indian Debate in Seventeenth-Century Narragansett Country” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1990), 161–2, 179–80. The United Colonies was a quasi-legal political body led by representatives from the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Haven, and Plymouth.

46. RI Records, 1:403, 418. Chapin, Sachems, 71. Society of Colonial Wars, The Narragansett Mortgage: The Documents Concerning the Alien Purchases in Southern Rhode Island (Providence, RI: E. R. Freeman Company, 1926), 35. Paul Campbell Research Notes, mss 369, folder 5, Rhode Island Historical Society. Jennings, Invasion, 278–86. Dunn, “Narragansett Country,” 70–1, 74. David W. Conroy, “The Defense of Indian Land Rights: William Bolan and the Mohegan Case in 1743,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 103 (1993): 403.

47. Massachusetts Archives, 30:102a.

48. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 77. Wood, New England’s Prospect, 38. See also Bragdon, Native People, 135–6; Mourt’s Relation, 28–9; Verrazano, “Narragansett Bay,” 139.

49. RI Records, 1:403, 418. Chapin, Sachems, 71.

50. Bangs, Deeds, 474, 476. RI Land Evidences, 1:189. PCR, 4:8. Durfee was then Tallman’s indentured servant.

51. Sidney Perley, Historic Storms of New England (Salem, MA: Salem Press Publishing and Printing, 1891), 14. William Tufts Brigham, “Historical notes on the earthquakes of New England” (Boston: Boston Society of Natural History, 1871), 3, http://www.worldcat.org/title/historical-notes-on-the-earthquakes-of-new-england/oclc/68775338. Paul Dudley, “An Account of the Several Earthquakes Which Have Happen’d in New-England,” Philosophical Transactions (1735–6), 39:64. Anderson, Creatures, 54. “Earthquake,” “nanamkiapoda,” “nanam-,” “poda-,” Laurent, Dialogues, 17. Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Stories in Stone: How Geology Influenced Connecticut History and Culture (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press, 2009), 132–3. Thanks to Rachel Sayet for her suggestions on sources related to the Moodus earthquakes.

52. Brigham, “Earthquakes of New England.” RuthAlice Anderson, “Peter Tallman, A Footnote in History” (1984), http://www.skep.com/genealogy/PDFs/PeterTallmanFootnote.pdf.

53. Anderson, “Peter Tallman.” In 1652, Rhode Island passed a law prohibiting the permanent enslavement of Africans in the colony, ordering that “no blacke mankind or white” could be held in bondage for “longer than ten years.” RI Records, 1:243. Douglas Harper, “Slavery in the North,” http://www.slavenorth.com/rhodeisland.htm.

54. RI Records, 1:412–3. Harper, “Slavery.” Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 114–5.

55. RI Records, 2:85, 123, 187. Portsmouth Records, 361. William F. Reed, Descendants of Thomas Durfee of Portsmouth, RI (Washington, DC: Gibson Brothers, 1902), 6–8.

56. Bartholomew Gosnold, “Buzzard’s Bay,” in Sailors Narratives, 40–41. Cronon, Changes, 122–5, 147–8.

57. Cronon, Changes, 122–5, 147–8. Mt. Pleasant, “Paradigm,” 390–9.

58. Plane, Colonial Intimacies, 5–6, 129–30. Norton, Founding, 89–90. Salisbury, Manitou, 40–1.

59. PCR, 4:16–17. See also Drake, Aboriginal Races, 187–8. Drake, BOI, 3:73. Phillips, Fall River, 31–3, 49, 100–3. Peirce, Indian History, 38. Jennings, Invasion, 280–1, 288–9.

60. PCR, 4:8. Plymouth Town Records, 1:46. In their recent town meeting, the Plymouth men had expressed concern over “the Incroachment of some Road Illand” settlers on “our lands att Puckateesett and places adjacent” and authorized John Cooke to intervene. Cooke had recently settled at Acushnet; he and his relations held shares in Pocasset Neck. Members of the court with interests included Josiah Winslow, whose uncle, John, and John’s son-in-law, Edward Gray, had shares at Pocasset Neck; Thomas Hinckley, who held interest at Sakonnet; Thomas Southworth, who held a share in Pocasset Neck, along with his mother, Alice Bradford; and William Bradford Jr., Alice’s son by William Sr. John Winslow and Thomas Southworth, with Cooke and Miles Standish, negotiated the deed with Ekatabacke in 1652. Plymouth Town Records, 1:36, 64–9. PCR, 3:164, 216, 4:8, 13–14. Bangs, Deeds, 76–7. Ralph Van Wood, Mayflower Families through Five Generations, vol. 12 (Francis Cooke), rev. ed. (Rockport, ME: Picton Press, 1999), 75. Robert Wakefield, Mayflower Families through Five Generations, vol. 18 (Richard Warren) (Plymouth, MA: General Society of Mayflower Descendants, 1999). Wamsutta also confirmed Providence’s rights “on the west side of Seecunk or Pawtuckqut river” in 1661, supporting Rhode Island’s quest to secure a royal charter, which would include in its territories the contested lands at Pocasset and Seekonk. Rhode Island Records, 1:434–5, 574–5. Jennings, Invasion, 280–1, 288–9.

61. Drake, BOI, 3:7–8. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 60. Roland was brother to John Sassamon.

62. Drake, BOI, 3:7–8. Hubbard’s account mainly agrees with Mather’s on the points illustrated here.

63. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 60. Drake, BOI, 3:7–8. Although not certain, this wife was likely Weetamoo, and if so, Mather calls her “his squaw.”

64. PCR, 4:8–24. Jennings, Invasion, 289–90. See also RI Records, 1:434–5, 574–575.

65. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 60. Drake, BOI, 3:7–8. John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 13. PCR, 3:216. Mayflower Families, 1:52. Matthew Fuller served as “physician” to the Plymouth troops during King Philip’s War. Since the narrative names only “Fuller,” Samuel Fuller Jr. (later Middleborough’s first minister), whose house in Middleborough was burned during the war, is also possible. Samuel Sr. served as lay physician to the first settlers at Plymouth. Society for Colonial Wars, Further Letters on KPs War (Providence, RI: E. L. Freeman Co., 1923). Norman Gevitz, “Samuel Fuller of Plymouth Plantation: A ‘Skillful Physician’ or ‘Quacksilver’?” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 47 (1992): 29–48. See also http://www.plimoth.org/sites/default/files/media/pdf/fuller_samuel.pdf.

66. Drake, BOI, 3:7.

67. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 60. Drake, BOI, 3:7–8.

68. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (CMHS) (Boston: The Society, 1792–1888), 4th ser., 8 (1868): 233–4.

69. PCR, 4:25–26.

70. CMHS, 1st ser., 2 (1793): 40. Jennings, Invasion, 290–1. No date appears on this letter and Philip did sign agreements in the seven years following. Jennings argues that the letter refers to the 1662 council, but allows the letter could refer to the 1671 Taunton “Submission.” Philip also signed deeds after that meeting. The interpreter, Tom, appears regularly on deeds beginning in 1667. Bangs, Deeds, 382, 388, 392, 447.

71. “The Trumbull Papers,” CMHS, 5th ser., 9 (1885): 38–9. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1867–9, 10 (Dec. 1868): 391. Fones Record, 19–22. Anderson, Creatures, 226–7. Narragansett Mortgage, 33–34. Dunn, “Narragansett Country,” 78–81.

72. Anderson, Creatures, 157, 166, 210–227. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 144, 155, 188, 208–12.

73. Anderson, Creatures, 150–1, 227. Clark Indian Manuscripts, box 1, folders 2, 3, 4, Rhode Island Historical Society. Martin, Profits, 62–74. Portsmouth Records, 398. Anderson, “Peter Tallman.” Daniel A. Romani Jr., “The Pettaquamscut Purchase of 1657/58 and the Establishment of a Commercial Livestock Industry in Rhode Island,” in Algonkians of New England: Past and Present, ed. Peter Benes and Jane Montague Benes (The Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife Annual Proceedings), 18 (1993), 45–60. Note that “cattle” referred not only to cows, but to livestock in general.

74. Anderson, Creatures, 188–90, 210–11. Cronon, Changes, 131–2, 136. Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England 1675–1678 (Oxford University Press, 1991), 89. As Cronon notes, the Massachusetts Court reported in 1658 that “many children are exposed to great daingers of losse of life or limbe through the ravenousnese of swine.” This referred to English children, but was likely true for Native children as well.

75. Anderson, Creatures, 190–2, 210–11, 223–4.

76. PCR, 3:192. Ronda, “Red and White,” 208. Anderson, Creatures, 190–2, 210–11, 223–4. Cronon, Changes, 75–7, 129–31. RI Records, 1:412–3.

77. RI Records, 1:85, 454. Portsmouth Records, 113, 82, 83, 142, 153. PCR, 9:286. Clark Indian Manuscripts, box 1, folders 2, 3, 4, Rhode Island Historical Society. Anderson, Creatures, 227. Dunn, “Narragansett Country,” 78–81. Martin, Profits, 69, 73–4. Elisha Potter, The Early History of Narragansett (Providence, RI: Marshall, Brown, 1886), 275–6. Narragansett Mortgage, 33–4. Romani, “Pettaquamscut Purchase,” 45.

78. Fones Record, 5–6, 19–20, 23. “Petition of John Scott, John Winthrop, Simon Broad-street, Daniel Denison, Josias Winslow, Thomas Willet & Richard Lord,” Proceedings of Massachusetts Historical Society, 1867–9, 10 (Dec. 1868), 391. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:54–5. Edmund O’Callaghan, Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of NY (Albany, NY: Weed Parsons, 1853), 3:84. Martin, Profits, 69–70, 73–9. Potter, History of Narragansett, 275–6. Note that Prence’s fellow Plymouth men, Thomas Willet, John Brown, and Josiah Winslow had purchased shares in the Atherton Company.

79. PCR, 9:283. RI Records, 1:36–8, 65, 451–3. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:38–9. Narragansett Mortgage, 33–34. Dunn, “Narragansett Country,” 70–4, 78–81. Society of Colonial Wars, Samuel Gorton’s Letter to Lord Hyde in Behalf of the Narragansett Sachems (Providence, RI: E. L. Freeman, 1931). Jennings, Invasion, 278–86.

80. PCR, 4:24. I am interpreting “Quiquequanchett” as a misspelling of Quequegunent. With no other reference to Quiquequanchett, a survey of the documents and secondary sources shows that Quequegunent is the closest match, a theory supported by contextual evidence. (Note that in a confirmatory Atherton deed, Quequegunent is referred to as “Ceshequansh,” with a suffix similar to “-quanchett.” All of these varied spellings give us a sense of how the Native name was heard by English ears.) Still, despite compelling evidence, it is possible that Quequequanchett was someone other than Quaiapin’s son, a man who does not appear elsewhere in the records. Fones Record, 6–7.

81. PCR, 4:24. Drake, BOI, 2:81. On “the deed game,” see Jennings, Invasion, 128.

82. Jennings, Invasion, 288. Newell, Brethren, 108.

83. Ronda, “Red and White,” 206. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 188. Jennings, Invasion, 282. Anderson, Creatures, 222–3. Herbert Osgood, The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1907), 173, 143–92.

84. The Clarendon Papers, Collections of the New York Historical Society, 1869 (New York: The Society, 1870), 90–1. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:70–1. John Hull, “Some Observable Passages of providence toward the Country [Diary of John Hull],” Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society, 3:216 (1857).

85. Clarendon Papers, 90–1. Hull, “Observable Passages,” 3:216 (1857).

86. RI Records, 2:59. Calendar of State Papers, 5:274, 342, items 925 and 1103. CMHS, 2nd ser. (1815), 6:724–5. Clarendon Papers, 90–1. Samuel Maverick to Col. Richard Nicolls, March 5, 1664, Clark Family Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society, ms 351, box 4, Westerly Town Record Book, 8–12. O’Callaghan, Documents, 3:93. RI Records, 1:512–3. “Newport Historical Society Collections, Indian File,” page 1937 in Paul Campbell Research Notes, Mss 369, folder 6, Rhode Island Historical Society. Jennings, Invasion, 281–5. Jenny Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 48–60. Osgood, Colonies, 179. Archaeology in Rhode Island, 54.

87. RI Records, 1:134–5, 2:59. Calendar of State Papers, 5:342, item 1103. Jennings, Invasion, 281–5. Pulsipher, Subjects, 55–6. Osgood, Colonies, 179. CMHS, 2nd ser., 6 (1815): 725.

88. Clark Family Papers, Rhode Island Historical Society, ms 351, box 4, Westerly Town Record Book, 13. RI Records, 2:4, 59. Jennings, Invasion, 285–6. Cronon, Changes, 57. King James Bible Online, http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1611_Psalms-115-16.

89. Jennings, Invasion, 283, 288, 291. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 208–12. O’Callaghan, Documents, 3:93. The Royal Commission did offer Plymouth a charter, in exchange for greater control over the composition of their governing body, but the Plymouth men “chose to be as they are.” Calendar of State Papers, 5:344.

90. Bangs, Deeds, 326–7. PCR, 2:58. Henry Williams, “Elizabeth Poole,” 47–48, 96–7, 105. Emery, History of Taunton, 122, 114, 117–9. As early as 1643, the Plymouth Court had “granted” the land at Assonet Neck to its men at Taunton, “provided leave can be procured from Ossamequin,” which never occurred. For Assonet maps and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/assonet.

91. Bangs, Deeds, 264, 339–43. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” images, Family Search, (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QS7–99Z7-GYG?cc=2106411&wc=MCBR-PWY%3A61612701%2C362501701: 22 May 2014), Plymouth > image 263 of 677; county courthouses and offices, Massachusetts. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” images, Family Search, (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QS7–89Z7-GQ9?cc=2106411&wc=MCBR-PWY%3A61612701%2C362501701: 22 May 2014), Plymouth > image 417 of 677; county courthouses and offices, Massachusetts. Phillips, Fall River, 31. As Weinstein notes, the Mattapoisett near Acushnet/Dartmouth (contemporary Mattapoisett and Marion) should not be confused with Conbitant’s seat of Mattapoisett in Pocasset (contemporary Gardner’s Neck). Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 236.

92. Plymouth Town Records, 1:62, 73, 35. Bangs, Deeds, 339–43, 327–8. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 263. Phillips, Fall River, 98–100. According to Phillips, although the lots “had been ‘laid out’ to and ‘entered upon’ by the seventy-five freemen of Plymouth . . . no substantial structures had been built there” by the eve of King Philip’s War. However, the Plymouth men apparently “leased” out those lands for pasturage in the interim. He adds, in another historical address, “Weetamoe’s protest seems to have held up the partition of these lots.” Phillips, “Pocasset,” 52.

93. Jennings, Invasion, 275. For early writings see, for example, Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon, Native Writings in Massachusett, Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 185 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988).

94. Amie and Tuspaquin’s grandson, Benjamin (II) Tuspaquin, married Sassamon’s granddaughter, Mercy Felix. Peirce, Indian History, 212–4. Drake, BOI, 3:9–10.

95. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 30–2, 39. Drake, BOI, 3:9–10. PCR, 10:167, 4:25–26. Kawashima, Igniting, 76–87. Jennings, Invasion, 294–5. Phillips, “Pocasset,” 28. John Easton, “Indyan Warre,” 7. Bangs, Deeds, 287, 293, 326–7, 330–1, 339–43. Massachusetts Archives 30:102a.

96. PCR, 10:167. Drake, BOI, 3:9–10. Jennings, Invasion, 294–5. Lepore, Name, 30–2, 39. Kawashima, Igniting, 78–80.

97. Lepore, Name, 30–2, 39. Drake, BOI, 3:9–10. Bangs, Deeds, 287, 293, 326–7, 330–1, 339–43. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 269. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” image 417. Clark Indian Manuscripts, box 1, folders 2, 3, 4, Rhode Island Historical Society. Fones Record, 1:6–7. See also RI Land Evidences, 1:29, 68. The confirmatory documents included an additional statement by Namumpum, in October 1659, attesting that in the June court, she had “surrendered up all that right and title of such lands as Woosamequin and Wamsutta sould to the purchasers; as appears by deeds given under theire hands.” This appeared as a blanket consent, not only to the Freeman’s deed, but to all the deeds signed or confirmed by Ousamequin and Wamsutta. However, this statement was not recorded until 1674. See Chapter Three.

98. RI Records, 2:60. Plymouth Town Records, 1:73. Phillips, Fall River, 3:6. Archaeology in Rhode Island, 54.

99. RI Records, 2:96, 108, 122–3. Portsmouth Records, 127. Ruth Alice Anderson, “Peter Tallman, A Footnote in History,” http://www.skep.com/genealogy/PDFs/PeterTallmanFootnote.pdf.

100. RI Records, 2:123–4. PCR, 4:168. Rick Durfee Balmer, “Revised Story of Ann Hill Tallman (c.1633−c.1683) & Thomas Durfee (1643–1712),” (June 26, 2008) http://www.genealogy.com/forum/surnames/topics/durfee/819/. If Ann Tallman had gone to Archer’s home in Portsmouth, then Rhode Island, not Plymouth, would have asserted jurisdiction, under its law against harboring another man’s wife. Portsmouth Records, 66. Plymouth did assert legal jurisdiction over Pocasset Neck, as evidenced by their demand of submission from Richard Morris. Archer was later called to Plymouth Court for “residing in the govment without order, and not attending the publicke worship of God, liveing lonely and in a heathenish way from good societie.” PCR, 5:169.

101. RI Records, 2:187–8. Balmer, “Revised Story.”

102. RI Records, 2:187–8. Balmer, “Revised Story,” including Mary Beth Norton’s email communication with Rick Durfee Balmer, posted by the author.

103. PCR, 4:168. “Dispose,” www.oed.com.

104. PCR, 4:186. See also Drake, Aboriginal Races, 188.

105. Drake, Aboriginal Races, 188. Several years later, in 1671, the Sissons established the first settlement in Acoaxet, later “Westport,” at the head of the Acoaxet River. http://wpthistory.org/timeline. For Sanford and Archer, see Portsmouth Records, 45–7, 58, 67–8, 75, 80, 85–9, 139, 358, 423, and PCR, 5:169. John Sanford was also involved in his half-brother Peleg’s livestock trade.

106. Portsmouth Records, 80, 149–50. For a full account, see Anderson, Creatures, 199–211, 214–5, and Virginia Anderson, “King Philip’s Herds: Indians, Colonialism, and the Problem of Livestock in Early New England,” William and Mary Quarterly Third Series, 51, no. 4 (Oct. 1994), 601–24. See also David Silverman, “‘We Chuse to Be Bounded’: Native American Animal Husbandry in Colonial New England,” William and Mary Quarterly Third Series, 60, no. 3 (Jul. 2003): 511–48. Chesawanocke, or Hog Island, had been granted to Richard Smith Jr. by Wamsutta in February 1653/4, a deed witnessed by John Sanford. Bangs, Deeds, 276–7.

107. PCR, 2:58. RI Records, 2:267, 272. Williams, “Elizabeth Poole,” 47–8, 96–7, 105. Thomas Stanton to John Mason, July 8, 1669. Connecticut State Library, Connecticut Archives, Indian Series 1, 1:10. http://images.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1669.07.08.00/1669.07.08.00.html. Emery, History of Taunton, 114, 117–9, 122. Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist,” 171. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 79–80, 84. Butler, “Algonkian Culture,” 25. Hurd, Bristol County, 256. A History of the Town of Freetown, Massachusetts (Fall River, MA: J. H. Franklin, 1902), 207. Philips, Fall River, 29, 34–5, 48. Peirce, “Original Owners,” 114. Delabarre, “Dighton Rock,” 243–4.

108. RI Records, 2:267–71. West, “Portsmouth,” 10. The Court included John Easton and John Sanford, as well as Governor Benedict Arnold. Ninigret relayed that “there was never a Mount Hope Indian there.”

109. RI Records, 2:265, 270–3.

110. The group included John Sanford, Peleg Sanford, John Easton, Benedict Arnold, and John Clark, among others. RI Records, 2:292.

111. RI Records, 2:295–7. Philips, Fall River, 34–5.

112. RI Records, 2:420. Philips, Fall River, 34–5.

113. PCR, 12:242. Drake, BOI, 3:4. It is possible that Piowant is “Pianto,” mentioned in the Freeman’s survey. See Bangs, Deeds, 298.

114. PCR, 12:242. Delabarre, “Dighton Rock,” 246–8. Phillips, Fall River, 34. Drake, BOI, 3:4, 55. For maps, documents and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/assonet.

2. THE HARVARD INDIAN COLLEGE SCHOLARS

2. Lucius Robinson Paige, History of Cambridge (Boston: H. O. Houghton, 1877), 1–44. Charles M. Sullivan and Cambridge Historical Commission, “Harvard Square History and Development,” http://www.cambridgema.gov/~Historic/hsqhistory1.html; John Smith, A Description of New England, Or, Observations and Discoveries in the North of America, in the Year of Our Lord 1614 (London: Printed by Humfrey Lownes for Robert Clerke, 1616), 17. Richard Frothingham Jr., The History of Charlestown, Massachusetts (Boston: Little and Brown, 1845), 8–12. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 340. Meserve, “English Works,” 272. Bernd Peyer, The Tutor’d Mind: Indian Missionary-Writers in Antebellum America (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 46. William Smith Tilden, History of the Town of Medfield, Massachusetts, 1650–1886 (Boston: G. H. Ellis, 1887), 17. Anthony N. Penna and Conrad Edick Wright, eds., Remaking Boston: An Environmental History of the City and its Surroundings (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 2009), 1, 84–6, 107–8, 133. Personal communication, Pam Ellis, December 7, 2009. Pam Ellis notes that her understanding is that the river has different names, based on distinct geographic features in different sections, as is the case with many Indigenous river names. Note that “Newtowne” spread to encompass the village of Nonantum, where Eliot first preached, now known as the city of Newton. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/harvard-indian-college.

3. Arthur Gilman, The Cambridge of 1896: A Picture of the City and Its Industries Fifty Years after Incorporation (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1896), 10. Paige, Cambridge, 383. Nathaniel Shurtleff, Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston: W. White, 1853), 1:254, 394. Richard Frothingham Jr. History of Charlestown (Boston: C. C. Little and J. Brown, 1845), 35–6. William Bright, Native American Place Names of the United States (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 306. Samuel Drake, BOI, 40–1. Dwight Health, ed., Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1986), 78–80. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982, 121, 199–201. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, circa 1604–1733.” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 29–30, 81–3, 91. See also Ron Wiser’s Research Home Page, “Descendants of Squa Sachem,” http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~raymondfamily/wiser/WiserResearch.html. The New England Company encouraged the colony to acquire “purchase” of “title” from Native leaders, which the colony then required of towns. The Massachusett Saunkskwa reserved planting grounds and hunting territory at Missitekw and fishing rights at the weir above the ponds. For maps and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/missitekw

4. James Savage, Richard S. Dunn, and Laetitia Yeandle, eds., The Journal of John Winthrop, 1630–1649 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1996), 35, 55, 86, 105. William Wood, New England’s Prospect (Amherst, MA: University Massachusetts Press, 1997) 64. Drake, BOI, 2:40–1, 47–9. Kathleen Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 137–9. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 59–75. Frothingham, Charlestown, 25, 28, 31–7. Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 46–7, 63–4. Jean O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts. 1650–1790 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 43. Paul Robeson, “One Island, Two Places: Archaeology, Memory, and Meaning in a Rhode Island Town,” in Interpretations of Native North American Life: Material Contribution to Ethnohistory ed. Michael Nassaney and Eric Johnson (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2000), 408. Salisbury, Manitou, 42–50, 176, 183–4, 190–1, 199–201. Silverman, Faith, 41. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 29–30, 56–60, 81–8, 97–102, 134, 145. Laurie Lee Weinstein, “Indian vs. Colonist: Competition for Land in 17th Century Plymouth Colony” (PhD diss., Southern Methodist University, 1983), 74, 207.

5. Salisbury, Manitou, 190–2. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 64–5, 90–2, 104–5. Winthrop Journal, 35, 55, 105.

6. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 52, 71.

7. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 96–100. Silverman, Faith, 20–24, 34–37. Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2008), 7–8. O’Brien, Dispossession, 31–2, 55.

8. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 28, 43, 96–104. Silverman, Faith, 7–13, 17–24, 34–7, 47, 59. David J. Silverman, “Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha’s Vineyard, William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 2 (2005): 141–74. Neal Salisbury, “Religious Encounters in a Colonial Context: New England and New France in the Seventeenth Century,” American Indian Quarterly 16, no. 4 (Fall 1992). Brooks, Common Pot, 7–8. Jennifer Monaghan, Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 46–62.

9. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 97. Liebman, Indian Converts, 28, 43, 96–104. Silverman, Faith, 26–35, 50, 59, 72–3. Silverman, “Indians,” 141–74. Salisbury, “Religious Encounters.” Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650, 187–207. Eva Butler, “Algonkian Culture and the Use of Maize,” Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 22 (December 1948): 6. Monaghan, Learning, 46–7. Salisbury, Manitou, 35–7, 42–8. William Simmons, Spirit of the New England Tribes (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1986), 38–44.

10. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 27–8, 36, 43, 62–4, 98–100, 104–5, 111. Silverman, Faith, 13, 26, 51, 54, 58, 60. Monaghan, Learning, 57. Graham and Golia, “Caleb’s Footsteps,” 123–43.

11. O’Brien, Dispossession, 54–8. Gookin, Historical Collections, 45. PCR, 10:167, 219, 238–43. Wawaus or James may have been among the first recruits brought to Dunster by Eliot, who reported in 1645 “he had sent two Indians—hopeful young plants . . . to Harvard,” including a boy named “James.” Massachusetts Archives, 30:9. As Pam Ellis explained to me, Speen was also known as Qualalanset, a title that recognized his leadership and knowledge. On the translation of wabun as wind, see Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 135, and James Hammond Trumbull, Natick Dictionary (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska, 2009), 178. On Wabun and early proselytizing, see Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 10, 16, 39–40, 83–7, 96–8, 122–6, 135, 271–2, 292–3, 374–6, 393–5. Drake, BOI, 53, 112, 115. O’Brien, Dispossession, 26–8. Peyer, Tutor’d Mind, 35–6, 43–4. For map, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/hassanamesit.

12. Drake, BOI, 2:53, 112. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 83–7, 97. O’Brien, Dispossession, 27, 43. Silverman, “Indians,” 141–74. Butler, “Algonkian Culture,” 6. Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650, 188–95, 207–8. Joseph Nicolar, The Life and Traditions of the Red Man (1893), ed. Annette Kolodny (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 14. On multiple scholarly views of Eliot, see Drew Lopenzina, Red Ink: Native Americans Picking Up the Pen in the Colonial Period (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2012), 93–7.

13. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 83–4, 95, 99. Francis Samuel Drake, The Town of Roxbury: Its Memorable Persons and Places, Its History and Antiquities (Roxbury, MA: Municipal Print Office, 1908). Gookin, Historical Collections, 45, 48–9; Gookin, “Historical Account,” 480. PCR, 10:167, 219, 238–43, 262, 323–31, 356. Kathleen Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1650–1775 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009), 29. Drake, BOI, 2:50. Ford, Some Correspondence, 28. Cogley, “Seventeenth-Century,” 171–9. Although Cogley’s research is essential for documenting James Printer’s family, he mistakenly confused “Naoas,” James’s father, with another convert, “Nataos,” or “William of Sudbury.” Gookin’s 1674 account, Historical Collections, clearly identifies them as two distinct individuals.

14. Pauline Turner Strong, Captive Selves, Captivating Others (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), 43–6. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 59.

15. Williams quoted in O’Brien, Disposession, 13. In Western Abenaki, awani kia means “who are you?” or awanigik = who, plural, perhaps, more accurately, “who are you,” i.e., those we do not know. In the same language, pilwaka means “a stranger,” so Roger Williams’s phrase may have been closer to the former. www.westernabenaki.com.

16. Winthrop Journal, 105. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 59, 222–3. Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 65–9.

17. Drake, BOI, 3:9–10. PCR, 10:167. Steward’s ledger, 1650–1659, Records of the Bursar, Harvard Archives. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 28–32, 39, and 19–45, generally. Kawashima, Igniting, 76–87. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 352–3. Newell, Brethren, 65.

18. See Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004). Morison, Three Centuries. Winship, Cambridge. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts. Roland Sanders, Lost Tribes and Promised Lands: Origins of American Racism (New York: HarperPerennial, 1992).

19. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 58.

20. Bross, Dry Bones, 8, 148–52.

21. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 97. Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 159–63, 170, 188–92. Cronon, Changes, 131–2. O’Brien, Dispossession, 49–50. Anne Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 5, 30, 42–64. Salisbury, Manitou, 187. Silverman, Faith, 14. Paige, Cambridge, 284. David Silverman, “‘We Chuse to Be Bounded’: Native American Animal Husbandry in Colonial New England,” William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 60, no. 3 (July 2003): 511–48.

22. Railton, “Vineyard’s First,” 94. The Connecticut Commissioners were agents for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. “Yoke,” Oxford English Dictionary http://dictionary.oed.com.

23. Bainbridge Bunting, Harvard: An Architectural History (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985), 14. On Pequot War, see Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, eds., The Pequots in Southern New England (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990). Eric S. Johnson, “Uncas and the Politics of Contact,” in Robert Steven Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996). Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 34–72; Amy Den Ouden, Beyond Conquest: Native Peoples and the Struggle for History in New England (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2005). Salisbury, Manitou, 203–35.

24. Bross, Dry Bones, 46. Morrison, Three Centuries, 11, 14–15. Winship, Cambridge Press, 67–9; Bunting, Harvard, 13. Graham and Golia, “Caleb’s Footsteps,” 125. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 57, 65, 67, 99. Bobby Wright, “‘For the Children of Infidels’?: American Indian Education in the Colonial Colleges,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 12, no. 3 (1988): 4–6.

25. An Act for Promoting and Propagating the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England (London: Printed for Edward Husband, Printer to the Parliament of England, 1649). Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 223. Harvard University, Charter of 1650, Harvard University Archives. See http://library.harvard.edu/university-archives/using-the-collections/online-resources/charter-of-1650. For further analysis, see Bross, Dry Bones, 7; Morison, Three Centuries, 8; Wright, “Infidels,” 6–7.

26. Railton, “Vineyard’s First,” 94. Winship, Cambridge Press, 138, 166. See also Bunting, Harvard, 13; Graham and Golia, “Caleb’s Footsteps,” 125; Gookin, Historical Collections, 32–3; Morison, Seventeenth Century, 340–8; Wright, “Infidels,” 6–7. Recent archaeological investigation has revealed that thick brick was used to create a lower wall for the Indian College, built to withstand the fluctuating water tables of Massachusett. See “The Indian College,” “Digging Veritas” online exhibit, Peabody Museum, https://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/2011.

27. Gookin, Historical Collections, 46. Duane Hamilton Hurd, History of Bristol County, Massachusetts, with Biographical Sketches (Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis, 1883), 3. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 352. Morison suggests that as many as twenty Indian students may have attended Weld’s school in Roxbury between 1655 and 1672. At least four, perhaps more, of the students enrolled in the grammar school and in Corlett’s Latin School died before the completion of their studies. Their names and nations, unfortunately, were not recorded in any extant documents. On the education of girls in the colonies, see Monaghan, Learning, 23, 41–3.

28. From 1659–1677, the vast majority of Harvard graduates went on to become ministers, doctors, and magistrates/political leaders. A handful became teachers and merchants. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 562.

29. PCR, 10:242. Hale Jr., Tercentenary, 17–20. Lepore, Name, 35. Liebman, ed,. Indian Converts, 21–2, 67, 71–2. Silverman, Faith, 51. Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891), 127–8. Monaghan, Learning, 84–90. Simmons, Spirit, 6.

30. Hale Jr., Tercentenary, 18. Silverman, Faith, 68. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 59–61.

31. Thomas Shepard, A Short Catechism (Cambridge, MA: Samuel Greene, 1654). Hale Jr., Tercentenary, 18. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 89–98. Joseph Bruchac, Lasting Echoes: An Oral History of the Native American People (New York: Harcourt, 1997). See also Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884) and Stephen Laurent, “The Abenakis: Aborigines of Vermont,” in Vermont Historical Journal 23, no. 4 (Vermont Historical Soc. Proc., Oct 1955): 290.

32. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 341–4. The phrase Oohgôkje korâmen neh átta Mandouh? was translated in print as “How prove you that there is a God?” This bilingual text was published in A Further Account of the Progress of the Gospel (London: M. Simmons, 1659), which also recounted the success of Joel and Caleb in the preparatory schools.

33. Hale, Tercentenary, 20, 98, citing W. A. L Vincent, The Grammar Schools (London: Murray, 1969). Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 20, 59–62, 67–9. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 186–7.

34. PCR, 10:204–7. “Harvard College Records,” 24–5. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 67, 353. Szasz, Indian Education, 124. Railton, “Vineyard’s First,” 100–1. Ford, ed., Some Correspondence, 27–33. Gookin, Historical Collections, 32–34. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 354. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 58, 73. Monaghan, Learning, 41. The last record of Joane states, “Joane the Indian mayde now att Mr Welds is to bee with the Governor of the Massachusetts after her year is up until she be otherwise disposed he finding her clothes for her service.” PCR, 10:204–7. On the history of women at Harvard, see Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, “Harvard’s Womanless History,” Harvard Magazine (November-December 1999), http://harvardmagazine.com/1999/11/womanless.html.

35. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 67. Szasz, Indian Education, 124. Railton, “Vineyard’s First,” 100–1. PCR, 10:243, 251, 262, 296. Ford, ed., Some Correspondence, 27–33. Gookin, Historical Collections, 32–3, 45; Gookin, “Historical Account.” Morison, Seventeenth Century, 349. Monaghan, Learning, 32–3. For a recent account of the struggling early years of the press within the context of the development of the missionary project and Harvard College, see Lopenzina, Red Ink, 106–10.

36. Winship, Cambridge Press, 151.

37. Peyer, Tutor’d Mind, 47. Lepore, Name, 29–39. Lopenzina, Red Ink, 106–23. Szasz, Indian Education, 113–4.

38. Winship, Cambridge Press, 157, 158, 161.

39. Szasz, Indian Education, 113–4. Peyer, Tutor’d Mind, 44−6. Lepore, Name, 29–39. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 95–6. Pilling, Bibliography, 172. Jennifer Monaghan, Learning, 88.

40. Winship, Cambridge Press, 197, 200, 211. Lepore, Name, 34. Drake, BOI, 2:50–1. Peyer, Tutor’d Mind, 313. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 1:348.

41. For my understanding of the details and complexity of the colonial printing process I am indebted to Michael Kelly, who is quoted here. Email and personal communication, August 11, 2014, and February 18, 2015.

42. The language work and historical research of Wampanoag linguist Jessie Little Doe Baird and the Wôpanâak language project, as well as recent scholarship by Drew Lopenzina, strongly support this argument. See Red Ink, 106–23. Baird has identified Wôpanâak as the language of the Eliot bible and her research demonstrates that there were multiple speakers assisting in the translation. Although scholars often have used “Massachusett” to describe the language of the bible, this research demonstrates that the Wôpanâak language was spoken on the coast, from the islands and Cape Cod to the south side of the Merrimack River. Personal communication, Jessie Little Doe Baird and Judith Sanford-Harris. See also Helen Manning, “Language” (exc. from Moshup’s Footsteps), in Dawnland Voices, ed. Siobhan Senier (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2014).

43. Winship, Cambridge Press, 151–221. Lepore, Name, 29–38. Drake, BOI, 2:50–1. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 340–55. Hale, Tercentenary, 17–19. Silverman, Faith, 52. Monaghan, Learning, 78, 88–90. See also Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts. Great thanks to Michael Kelly for clarifying specific details and the great accomplishment of this endeavor. Note that special type had to be ordered in order to accommodate printing of the Indigenous language. See Lopenzina, Red Ink, 89.

44. Michael Wigglesworth, Day of Doom: or A Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment (1662) (Boston: Charles Ewer, 1828). Lepore, Name, 35. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 69; see also 62–72. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 349–50. Szasz, Indian Education, 117. Winship, Cambridge Press, 162. Monaghan, Learning, 34, 105–6.

45. Wigglesworth, Day of Doom, 13–19, 56 (Stanzas 8, 12–19, 21, 34, 183). Biblical references: John 5:28–29; Revelation 6:15–16; 2 Corinthians 5:10.

46. Craig Womack, Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 7.

47. A translation of Eleazar’s elegy for minister Thomas Thatcher is published in Wolfgang Hochbruck and Beatrix Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores’: Native American Students and Two Seventeenth-Century Texts in the University Tradition,” in Early Native American Writing: New Critical Essays, ed. Helen Jaskoski (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For another recent translation, see Robert Dale Parker, Changing Is Not Vanishing: A Collection of Early American Indian Poetry to 1930 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 47–50. An excerpt appears in ch. 9 herein. On the recent finding of Larnell’s poem, see Stuart M. McManus and Tom Keeline, “Benjamin Larnell, The Last Latin Poet at Harvard Indian College,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 108 (2014). Caleb’s address was included in a letter from John Winthrop Jr. to Robert Boyle in 1663, accompanied by a piece by Joel, which has not yet been recovered. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 2; Lopenzina, Red Ink, 129.

48. Boyle Correspondence (BL 2.12), Archive of the Royal Society, London, by permission of the Royal Society. This is a new, poetic translation of Caleb’s address, produced with great insight and collaboration from Mark Schiefsky and Cassandra Hradil, to whom I owe great thanks for helping me to understand the Latin language and literary expression. Another translation can be found in Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 3. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 355. Thanks to Patrick Johansson for gifting me with a copy of the original.

49. John Block Friedman, “Eurydice, Heurodis, and the Noon-Day Demon,” Speculum 41, no. 1 (Jan. 1966): 22. John Friedman, “Syncretism and Allegory in the Jerusalem Orpheus Mosaic,” in Traditio 23 (1967): 3–6. Gary G. Gibbs and Florinda Ruiz, “Arthur Golding’s Metamorphoses: Myth in an Elizabethan Political Context,” Renaissance Studies 22, no. 4 (September 2008): 557–75. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 7. Mukhtar Ali Isani, “Edward Taylor and Ovid’s ‘Art of Love’: The Text of a Newly-Discovered Manuscript” Early American Literature 10, no. 1 (Spring 1975): 68. Raphael Lyne, “Ovid in English Translation,” in Cambridge Companion to Ovid, ed. Philip Hardie (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 249–55. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 176–7. W. H. D Rouse, Shakespeare’s Ovid: Being Arthur Golding’s Translation of the Metamorphoses (London: De La More Press, 1904), i−vi. Thanks to Mark Schiefsky for pointing me to Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Virgil’s Georgics as the primary sources for the Orpheus myth.

50. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 6. For an alternative reading of Caleb’s address, see Drew Lopenzina, Red Ink, 129–33.

51. G. P. Goold, ed., Frank Justus Miller, trans., Metamorphoses (Harvard University Press, 1984), 71–2. Rouse, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 203–4. “Barbarian,” Oxford English Dictionary, http://dictionary.oed.com. “Barbǎrus,” Lewis and Short, Latin Dictionary, Pollux Archimedes Project Dictionary Access, http://archimedes.fas.harvard.edu/pollux/. Virgil (Georgics, Book IV) relates, in the translation by A. S. Klein, “They say he wept for seven whole months, /beneath an airy cliff, by the waters of desolate Strymon, /and told his tale, in the icy caves, softening the tigers’ mood, /and gathering the oak-trees to his song.” http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilGeorgicsIV.htm#_Toc534524384. It may be significant that in Caleb’s native language, trees and animals are categorized as animate, and the word animantia contains a similar connotation regarding the living beings’ animacy. Feras denotes “wild animals” versus domesticated ones. Thanks again to Mark Schiefsky and Cassandra Hradil for interpretive insight.

52. Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. Gibbs and Ruiz, “Golding’s Metamorphoses,” 569. Friedman, “Syncretism,” 2, 7–8. Graham and Golia, “Caleb’s Footsteps,” 123–43. Silverman, Faith, 20–6, 34–5. Liebman, Indian Converts, 102, 98–9.

53. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 6. Penna and Wright, eds., Remaking Boston, 108, 221. William B. Meyer, “Harvard and the Heating Revolution,” New England Quarterly 77, no. 4 (December 2004): 588–606.

54. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 64–7. Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. Note that Virgil names both Pluto and Proserpina, while Ovid names “Persephone.” Golding refers to “Persephone” as Pluto’s “lady”; Sandys calls her “Hell’s Queen.” Rouse, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 201–2. George Sandys, Ovid’s Metamorphosis (Cambridge, MA: Chadwyck-Healey, 1992), 339.

55. Rouse, Shakespeare’s Ovid, 201–2. Wiggleworth, Day of Doom, stanza 37. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 5. Friedman, “Eurydice,” 22–4. Friedman, “Syncretism,” 1–3, 7–10. Gibbs and Ruiz, “Golding’s Metamorphoses,” 557–75. Sandys follows Golding in describing Hades as “Hell.” Sandys, Ovid’s Metamorphosis, 338. In the Christian “philosophers’” readings, “Christ had finished” what Orpheus could not accomplish, bringing the human soul, symbolically associated with Eurydice, “home” to heaven.

56. Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. Gibbs and Ruiz, “Golding’s Metamorphoses,” 201. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 65. Sandys, Ovid’s Metamorphosis, 338. Friedman, “Eurydice,” 24. On the horned snake and three worlds, see, for example, Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650, 187–190, 202; Daniel Heath Justice, “Notes Toward a Theory of Anomaly,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 16, no. 1–2 (2010): 207–42; George E. Lankford, “World on a String: Some Cosmological Components of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex,” and F. Kent III Reilly, “People of Earth, People of Sky: Visualizing the Sacred in Native American Art of the Mississippian Period,” in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South, ed. Richard F. Townsend and Robert V. Sharp (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 125–37, 207–18; Charles Godfrey Leland, Algonquin Legends (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884); John R. Swanton, Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1929), 21, 30–5; Womack, Red on Red, 32, 200–3, 239–51.

57. Simmons, Spirit, 173–203. Silverman, “Indians, Missionaries,” 141–74. Silverman, Faith, 30–4. Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650, 187–90, 202.

58. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 75. Gibbs and Ruiz, “Golding’s Metamorphoses,” 204. Friedman, “Syncretism,” 5. Silverman, Faith, 32–4. Silverman, “Indians, Missionaries,” 141–74. Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650, 188–95, 206–8. Salisbury, “Religious Encounters.”

59. Note that Caleb’s use of “tigers” suggests, as other allusions do, that he was familiar with Virgil’s version of the Orpheus myth, while the rhetoric of force follows Golding. Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. The same philosophy was applied to children in the preparatory schools. See Liebman, Indian Converts, 20, 59–60.

60. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 38. I am indebted to Mark Schiefsky for these insights regarding parallelism and Caleb’s creative use of “matephorisin.”

61. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 75.

62. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 3.

63. Hochbruck and Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores,”’ 6. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 69.

64. Friedman, “Eurydice,” 23. On the doctrine of “weaned affections,” see Liebman, 48. Note that while in Ovid’s telling, the gods of the underworld were “conquered by the song” of Orpheus, the Christian philosophers like William of Conches warned that Orpheus was ultimately “conquered” by the gods of hell, his own earthly desires turning his mind from the proper object of heaven above. Goold, ed., Metamorphoses, 67.

65. On “saints” and “goats,” see Wigglesworth, Day of Doom, stanzas 22, 27, 34, and Liebman, Indian Converts, 35–9.

66. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 90–7. Personal communication, Christina Hodge, “Archeology of Harvard Yard” exhibit, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. “Table Troubles,” in “Digging Veritas” online exhibit, https://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/2007.

67. Silverman, Faith, 51, 68. Liebman, Indian Converts, 58, 64, 69–73, 128–9, 111–5. See also Bragdon, Native People, 1500−1650. James Axtell, The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A Documentary History of the Sexes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981). R. Todd Romero, “Colonizing Childhood: Religion, Gender, and Indian Children in Southern New England, 1620–1720,” in Children in Colonial America, ed. James Alan Marten (New York: New York University Press, 2007).

68. Morison, Three Centuries, 28–9. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 94. Meyer, “Heating Revolution,” 588–606.

69. Sibley, Biographical Sketches, 163–204. Gookin, Historical Collections, 34. Graham and Golia, “Caleb’s Footsteps,” 125. Caleb was apparently still living in Cambridge, although he “died of consumption in Charlestown,” according to Gookin, “where he was placed by Thomas Danforth, who had inspection over him.” Gookin notes that “Of this disease of the consumption sundry of those Indian youths died, that were bred up to school among the English.” Yet it was not their encounter with civilization, but rather the social and environmental changes of colonization that most likely caused their deaths, including the radical change in diet, as well as “crowding and poor sanitation” in Boston and Cambridge. Penna and Wright, eds., Remaking Boston, 57–8, 221. Eric Jay Dolin, Political Waters (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008), 5–7, 10. Charles W. Schmidt, “Linking TB and the Environment: An Overlooked Mitigation Strategy,” Environmental Health Perspectives 116, no. 11 (November 2008): A478–A485. See http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/harvard-indian-college.

70. Susan Power, “First Fruits,” in Roofwalker (Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 2002), 132–3.

71. Silverman, Faith, 49–52, 56–60, 70. Liebman, Indian Converts, 21–2, 69–73. Segel and Pierce, Wampanoag Genealogical, 106, 122, 132–3, 142–4, 288, 330, 335–6.

72. Silverman, Faith, 57, 24–6. Len Travers and John Cotton Jr., “The Missionary Journal of John Cotton, Jr., 1666–1678,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 109 (1997): 74, 80. Note that Caleb’s father Cheeshateaumuck was tied politically to Towanquatick, the “first Christian sachem” on the island. Segel and Pierce, Wampanoag Genealogical, 132, 177, 335. Liebman, Indian Converts, 95, 113–5, 129, 173–6.

73. Silverman, Faith, 57. Travers and Cotton, Journal, 68, 71, 74, 88. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 128–9.

74. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 129, 177, 185–9. Segel and Pierce, Wampanoag Genealogical, 142, 330.

75. Caleb Seaton was the grandson of Abigail, and likely the son of Thomas Sissetom. He lived at Sanchakantacket. Liebman, ed., Indian Converts, 111–4, 239–42, 254–6. Segel and Pierce, Wampanoag Genealogical, 106, 144, 279, 335–6.

76. Gookin, Historical Collections, 44–5, 48–9. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 481. Ford, Some Correspondence, 28–9. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 403–4. “A Memorandum of Indian Children Put Forth into Service to the English, August 10, 1676,” Proceedings of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts 19 (1916–17): 25–8. Morison, Seventeenth Century, 356–7. On Wampus, see Connole, Nipmuck, ch. 8.

INTERLUDE: NASHAWAY

1. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 14, 209. David Jaffee, People of the Wachusett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 34–5, 38–40, 48–9. Henry Nourse, ed., Early Records of Lancaster 1643–1725 (Lancaster, MA: self-published, 1884), 9–10, 33. Henry Nourse, Lancastriana I. A Supplement to the Early Records and Military Annals of Lancaster Mass (Lancaster, MA: self-published, 1900) 6. Samuel Morison, “The Plantation of Nashaway—An Industrial Experiment,” in Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts: Transactions 1927–1930 (Boston, Published by the Society, 1932), 23:205–15. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarlane, 2007), 52, 141–3. For maps, documents, images and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/interlude-nashaway.

2. Nathaniel Shurtleff, ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston: W. White, 1853), 2:11. Nourse, Records, 10–13. Connole, Nipmuck, 52, 143. Jaffee, Wachusett, 32–4. Morison, “Nashaway,” 23:205–15. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 12–13, 17. Neal Salisbury, “Contextualizing Mary Rowlandson: Native Americans, Lancaster and the Politics of Captivity,” in Early America Re-explored: New Readings in Colonial, Early National and Antebellum Culture, ed. Klaus H. Schmidt and Fritz Fleishmann (New York: Peter Lang International Academic Publishers, 2002), 107–50. The 1641 Act for Encouraging Mines supported resource extraction, but also required “purchase of the interest” from Native people.

3. Connole, Nipmuck, 52, 61–5. Jaffee, Wachusett, 41. Nourse, Records, 10–13. Salisbury, “Contextualizing,” 112–4. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 12. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733,” (PhD diss. Union Institute, 1998), 130–3.

4. Shurtleff, Massachusetts Records, 3:365–6. Jaffee, Wachusett, 44, 47, 51–3. Nourse, Records, 10, 25–7. Salisbury, “Contextualizing,” 112–4. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 7–10, 15–6.

5. Jaffee, Wachusett, 44, 49, 55–8. Nourse, Records, 10, 17, 41–4, 60–1, 66, 68–9, 91, 261–4. Salisbury, “Contextualizing,” 119–20. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 18. John Pendergast, The Bend in the River (Tyngsborough, MA: Merrimac River Press, 1992), 46, 67.

6. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 24–7, 53. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 17–20.

7. Gookin, Historical Collections, 24–7, 53. Salisbury, “Contextualizing,” 119–20. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 17–20. For a different account of the raid, highlighting Mohawk perspectives, see Ruben G. Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1896–1901), 53:137. See also Jon Parmenter, The Edge the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2014), 137.

3. THE QUEEN’S RIGHT AND THE QUAKER’S RELATION

1. Letter by John Easton to Josiah Winslow, Mss C 357, R. Stanton Avery Special Collections, New England Historic and Genealogical Society (NEHGS). For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter3.

2. Arthur Phillips, “Pocasset and the Pocassets,” Dec. 15, 1931, Rhode Island Historical Society (manuscript), 2–14. Arthur Phillips, The Phillips History of Fall River (Fall River, MA: Dover Press, 1941–1946), fascicle 1 (1941): xv, 7–8, 29; fascicle 3 (1946): 1, 9. Benjamin Church, The History of King Philip’s War, ed. Henry Dexter (Boston: John Wiggin, 1865), 14.

3. Easton to Winslow, NEHGS.

4. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (PCR) (Boston: William White, 1855), 5:159, 167. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (CMHS) (Boston: The Society, 1792–1888), 1st ser., 6 (1800): 94. John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 7–8. John Brown to Josiah Winslow, June 11, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 89, Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS). Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 3:10–12. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 21–5. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 294–6. Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001), 88–101.

5. Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Indian Deeds: Land Transactions in Plymouth Colony, 1620–1691 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2008), 452, 465–7, 474–8. PCR, 7:191, 5:162, 170–1. Francis Baylies, A Historical Memoir of the Colony of New Plymouth (Boston: Hilliard, Gray, Little, and Wilkins, 1830), 2:62–5.

6. Phillips, “Pocasset,” 14. Drake, BOI, 3:64–6. Bangs, Deeds, 159–60, 282, 434, 458, 460, 465, 477–9. PCR, 7:191. Richard Bowen, Early Rehoboth (Rehoboth, MA: Rumford Press, 1945), 58. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, xviii−xviv, 2–5, 11. Society of Colonial Wars in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Purchase of Lands in Little Compton RI 1672/3 from the Saconet Indians, tr. Philip Baldwin Simonds (Providence, RI: Society of Colonial Wars, 1977). Benjamin Church, “Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip’s War,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 395.

7. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 397. Almy held “rights” at Sakonnet and Pocasset Neck. He was living in the area by 1669, his settlement protested by Wampanoag people, in part due to damage his cattle caused. Bangs, Deeds, 402–3. He claimed further land from Awashonks through debt, and by the spring of 1675 was planting on Pocasset Neck, the site of the “pease field fight,” narrated by Church.

8. Bangs, Deeds, 414–5, 417–420, 426–7, 453, 460–3, 465–6, 471, 477–83. PCR, 5:126. B Church, History, ed. Dexter, xvii−xviv, 2–5, 11. Phillips, Fall River, 100. See also David J. Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 100.

9. Jill Lepore, “Plymouth Rocked: Of Pilgrims, Puritans and Professors,” New Yorker (April 24, 2006), http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/04/24/060424crat_atlarge.

10. PCR, 3:216, 5:73–5, 64. B Church, History, ed. Dexter, 2–5, 26. CMHS, 1st ser., 5 (1798): 193–4. Ebenezer Peirce, Indian History, Biography and Genealogy (North Abington, MA: Zerviah Gould Mitchell, 1878), 247–54. Thomas Hinckley and Nathan Bacon to Governor Prence, July 7, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (Hyannis, MA: Parnassus Imprints, 1996), 27.

11. PCR, 5: 75. CMHS, 1st ser., 5 (1798): 193–7. Peirce, Indian History, 247–54.

12. CMHS, 1st ser., 5:195–7. Peirce, Indian History, 247–54. Awashonks’s brother Tatacomuncah “appeared” in Plymouth Court in November, “with Phillip,” to sign a similar agreement. PCR, 5:80.

13. PCR, 7:191. Bangs, Deeds, 452, 465–7. Drake, BOI, 3:72. Peirce, Indian History, 247. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, xviii, 2–5. For a deed to Sakonnet with Awashonks’s mark, excepting her town at the point, see Society of Colonial Wars, “Purchase of Lands.” By 1675, Mammanuah signed a deed relinquishing the same territory, from Pocasset Neck “south to Sakonnet Point” and the “Main Sea,” extending “east to Dartmouth bounds.” Bangs, Deeds, 477–9.

14. PCR, 7:191. Drake, BOI, 3:67. Bangs, Deeds, 460–1, 452.

15. PCR, 7:190–1.

16. Bangs, Deeds, 342, 463, 472–3. “Massachusetts Land Records, 1620−1986,” images, Family Search, (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QS7–89Z7-GQ9?cc=2106411&wc=MCBR-PWY%3A61612701%2C362501701: 22 May 2014), Plymouth > image 417 of 677; county courthouses and offices, Massachusetts. According to this document, John Cooke gave Namumpum “one third of the pay” (the remainder allotted to Wamsutta and Ousamequin) and engaged her “promise” to “remove the Indians of[f] from those lands,” a stipulation in the original Dartmouth deed.

17. Bangs, Deeds, 460–3, 471. Peirce, Indian History, 189.

18. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment, ed. Slotkin and Folsom, 87. Lepore, Name, 23. Kawashima, Igniting, 99–100.

19. PCR, 5:138. Bangs, Deeds, 463–4, 469–71.

20. Peirce, Indian History, 189. The deed records that “the Indians of Assowamsett” had “agreed amongst themselves” to “leave out homelots,” from a larger grant to the colony, however, the only “Indians” allotted lots in these deeds were Sassamon and his daughter and son-in-law. Bangs, Deeds, 469.

21. Bangs, Deeds, 467–8. Easton, “Relacion,” 7. Note that Winslow’s claim that Sassamon reported Philip’s “endeavouring to engage all the Sachems round about in a war against some of the English” appears only in the narratives written after the war began, not in any of the documents surrounding the trial. PCR, 10:362.

22. Bangs, Deeds, 476–7, 481–4.

23. Lepore, Name, 24. Southworth and Thompson simultaneously acquired consent to settle Nemasket from Thomas Hunter and Popanahoe, or Peter, allegedly for the Massachusett people under Josiah Wampatuck, who died in the 1669 raid against the Mohawks. Bangs, Deeds, 480.

24. Easton to Winslow, NEHGS. Easton does not specify which river(s) Weetamoo referred to.

25. Frederick Smith, et al., A Look at Westport Through Four Centuries (Westport, RI: Westport Bicentennial Commission, 1976).

26. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, 11. Phillips, “Pocasset,” 2–14, 49–52.

27. Bangs, Deeds, 467.

28. Easton to Winslow, NEHGS.

29. Easton to Winslow, NEHGS.

30. PCR, 5:167. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 87. Easton, “Relacion,” 8. Lepore, Name, 22

31. PCR, 5:169.

32. Easton, “Relacion,” 8. Leach, Flintlock, 34. Brown to Winslow, June 11, 1675, MHS. PCR, 10:363. For insightful analysis regarding the impact of this “trial” on Wampanoag jurisdiction (and the opening of war), see Silverman, Faith, 103.

33. CMHS, 1st ser., 6:94. PCR, 10:363–4. Leach, Flintlock, 34. Glenn LaFantasie, The Correspondence of Roger Williams (Providence, RI: Brown/Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988), 691. Hubbard later claimed that “no answer could be obtained” from Philip “otherwise than threatening of war.” Hubbard, Narrative, 72.

34. Josiah Winslow to “Weetamoo, and Ben her husband, Sachems of Pocasset,” June 15, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 89, MHS. Leach, Flintlock, 37–40. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53. Although he cited it, Leach essentially disregarded Winslow’s letter to Weetamoo, its content and implications, instead privileging Church’s account. To his credit, Drake foregrounds the letter in his analysis of Pocasset’s “waver[ing]” position on the eve of war, although it appears he was not aware of the letter from Easton. James Drake, King Philip’s War: A Civil War in New England 1675–76 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 97–8. See document at http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/right-relation.

35. PCR, 10:363. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 397–8, 400. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, xix.

36. Brown to Winslow, June 11, 1675, MHS. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 400.

37. Nathaniel Saltonstall, The Present State of New England With Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1675), 3. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 400. Winslow to Weetamoo, June 15, 1675, MHS. If Weetamoo did report to Church that they had all gone “to the dances,” she may have strategically hid the number of her “men” from him, preventing him from attempting to make a count.

38. Slotkin and Folsom eds., Dreadfull, 400. Winslow to Weetamoo, June 15, 1675, MHS.

39. PCR 12: 242. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 400. Bangs, Deeds, 489. Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1997), 142. Samuel G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America (New York: Hurst, 1880), 189.

40. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 400. Peirce, Indian History, 44. Josiah Winslow to John Freeman, June 28, 1675, Winslow family papers II, item 91, MHS.

41. John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 7. Note that Easton’s orthography has been modernized for ease of reading. Easton wrote his narrative, recalling this meeting and other events of the war, in February 1676, still advocating for mediation. Lepore, Name, 49. For significant readings, see Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 233–4. Silverman, Faith, 89, 99–100. Jennings, Invasion, 295–7. For Easton’s “Relacion,” see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/right-relation.

42. Easton, “Relacion,” 9.

43. Easton, “Relacion,” 6–9. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 115.

44. Easton, “Relacion,” 9. PCR, 5:63–80. CMHS, 1st ser., 6 (1800): 211. William Hubbard, A Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New England (1677) (Brattleboro, VT: William Fessenden, 1814), 61–4. Drake, BOI, 18–19. Silverman, Faith, 89, 100–2. Jennings, Invasion, 293. Peirce, Indian History, 56–7. Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics Among the New England Indians (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991), 49, 54, 60–4. Anderson, Creatures, 232. Personal communication, Elizabeth Perry, October 19, 2015.

45. CMHS, 1st ser., 5 (1798): 196, 198, 200–1. Silverman, Faith, 84–5, 102. Jenny Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 95. Anderson, Creatures, 232.

46. PCR, 5:63–80. Drake, BOI, 3:18–21. Hubbard, Narrative, 61–4. Silverman, Faith, 89, 100–102. Peirce, Indian History, 56–7. Easton, “Relacion,” 8–9.

47. CMHS, 1st ser., 5:195–8, 201–3. PCR, 5:64–5, 76–9. Drake, BOI, 3:21. Peirce, Indian History, 58. Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission to the Indians Before King Philip’s War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 201–3. Jennings, Invasion, 293–4. Pulsipher, Subjects, 96–8. Silverman, Faith, 85, 102.

48. PCR, 5:77. Silverman, Faith, 85. CMHS, 1st ser., 5:199–200. Jennings, Invasion, 293–4. Cogley, Eliot, 202–3. Pulsipher, Subjects, 97–8.

49. CMHS, 1st ser., 5:199. PCR, 5:76–9. Drake, BOI, 19–23. Leach, Flintlock, 28. Anderson, Creatures, 232–3. Cogley, Eliot, 200–3. Jennings, Invasion, 292–4. Pulsipher, Subjects, 99–100. Silverman, Faith, 102. Kawashima, Igniting, 59–65.

50. Easton, “Relacion,” 10–11. See, for example, Leach, Flintlock, 26–9; Pulsipher, Subjects, 94–100. Ebenezer Peirce maintained that Metacom “never had intended to carry out the agreement.” Peirce, Indian History, 59.

51. PCR, 5:63–80. Easton, “Relacion,” 9. Hubbard, Narrative, 61–4. Leach, Flintlock, 15, 25–9. Jennings, Invasion, 294. Silverman, Faith, 85, 84–101. Bangs, Deeds, 421–31. Pulsipher, Subjects, 95. Also, according to the agreement, Metacom could not sell land or engage in war without their approval. Note that Plymouth used the agreement in precisely this way postwar, asserting that Montaup was theirs not by right of conquest but because Philip broke the articles. See PCR, 2:369 and Salisbury, Manitou, 120.

52. Easton, “Relacion,” 10.

53. Easton, “Relacion,” 10–11.

54. Easton, “Relacion,” 7–8, 10–11. Silverman, Faith, 89, 100, 102. Cogley, Eliot, 200–3.

55. Easton, “Relacion,” 11. Silverman, Faith, 100–1.

56. Easton, “Relacion,” 11. Anderson, Creatures, 233.

57. Anderson, Creatures, 233. See, for example, the case of Samuel, who drowned after drinking in Portsmouth, which Wootensauke witnessed. Inquest and verdict, July 17, 1670, manuscript 9001-Sa, Rhode Island Historical Society.

58. Charles Lincoln, editor of the “Relacion,” remarks, “In no contemporary account of the war do we find more evidence of a desire to be impartial.” Lincoln, ed., Narratives, 5.

59. CMHS, 4th ser., 7 (1865): 630.

60. Easton, “Relacion,” 7.

61. Saltonstall, Present, 9.

62. Salstonstall, Present, 9. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press, 2000), 21.

63. Hubbard, Narrative, 72. See also Mather, “Brief History,” 88; Lepore, Name, 50–1, 106–10.

64. Thomas Church, The History of King Philip’s War, ed. Samuel Drake (Exeter, NH: J & B Williams, 1843), 30–1. Lepore, Name, 17.

65. Easton, “Relacion,” 12.

4. HERE COMES THE STORM

1. Note that fictionalized historical reconstruction/storytelling is indicated here and throughout the text by italics. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter4.

2. Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 1–4. Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 90–1. My understanding of the conditions on the eve of war is informed by conversations at Montaup and in Wampanoag territory with Elizabeth and Jonathan Perry, to whom I am grateful.

3. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 88. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (Hyannis, MA: Parnassus Imprints, 1996), 37. John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” (1675), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 10, 12. Glenn LaFantasie, ed., The Correspondence of Roger Williams (Providence, RI: Brown/Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988), 694.

4. William Bradford, A Letter from Major William Bradford to the Rev. John Cotton (Providence, RI: S.P.C. for the Society of Colonial Wars, 1914), 15. Richard Bowen, Early Rehoboth (Rehoboth, MA: Rumford Press, 1945), 73, 71. Roger Williams, A Key in the Language of America (1643) (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books 1997), 182.

5. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4. Howard Chapin, Sachems of the Narragansetts (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1931), 75–6. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (CMHS) (Boston: The Society, 1792–1888), 5th ser., 9 (1885): 74–6. Elisha Potter, Early History of Narragansett (Providence, RI: Marshall, Brown, 1886), 71.

6. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press, 2000), 41. Leach, Flintlock, 41.

7. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4.

8. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4. See also Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 75–6.

9. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 690–2.

10. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4.

11. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53–4.

12. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 55. John Brown to Josiah Winslow, June 11, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 89, Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS). J. Hammond Trumbull and Charles J. Hoadly, eds., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 1636–1776 (Hartford, CT: Lockwood and Brainard, 1850–90), 2:336.

13. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 54–5, 68, 76.

14. A Court Martial Held at Newport (Albany, NY: Munsell, 1858), 12–3. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (Boston: William White, 1855), 5:169, 10:364. William Hubbard, A History of the Indian Wars in New England, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Roxbury, MA: W. E. Woodward, 1865), 39. Patrick Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics Among the New England Indians (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1991), 18, 29. The historical narratives by Hubbard and Winslow conflate and confuse John Archer and John Lawton, both of whom were living at Pocasset on the eve of war.

15. Court Martial, 12–13.

16. Court Martial, 12–13.

17. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society 2 (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 441. Bodge, Soldiers, 27, 48, 80−1. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 120. Alonzo Lewis, The History of Lynn (Lynn, MA: George Herbert, 1890), 39, 40. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604−1733” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 86. Sidney Perley, The Indian Land Titles of Essex County Massachusetts (Salem, MA: Essex Book and Print Club, 1912), 8−9. For location of Winisimet, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/revolt-map.

18. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53, 55–62. Leach, Flintlock, 37–40, 45–7. Bodge, Soldiers, 27, 59–63, 88–90, 460. Malone, Skulking, 54–64.

19. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 122. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 24–7. Malone, Skulking, 20–4, 52, 59, 61, 66, 80, 82, 100. Barbara Mann, Iroquois Women: The Gantowisas (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 117, 179–82. Arthur Parker, “The Constitution of the Five Nations,” in Parker on the Iroquois, ed. William Fenton (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1968). Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2010), 137.

20. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62. George Ellis and John Morris, Easton’s Relation of the Causes of King Philip’s War (New York: Grafton Press, 1906), 20n21. For eclipse, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/mapping-war.

21. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62. Leach, Flintlock, 43, 47–8, 53. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 438.

22. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 4. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62–3. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 98–101. Leach, Flintlock, 42–3. Thomas Church, The History of King Philip’s War, ed. Samuel Drake (Boston: Thomas Wait and Son, 1827), 30–3.

23. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 5. Josiah Winslow to John Freeman, June 28, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 91, Massachusetts Historical Society. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 55, 57–8. Church, History, ed. Drake, 31–3. Leach, Flintlock, 43, 50. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 62–3, 101–2. Ebenezer Peirce, Indian History, Biography and Genealogy (North Abington, MA: Zerviah Gould Mitchell, 1878), 84. Benjamin Church, The History of King Philip’s War, ed. Henry Dexter (Boston: John Wiggin, 1865), 20. Thomas Williams Bicknell, A History of Barrington, Rhode Island (Providence, RI: Snow and Farnham, 1898), 159. Note that two more men were “ambushed and killed when they rode” toward Rehoboth “in search of a surgeon” following the ambush.

24. Bodge, Soldiers, 80–1. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62–3. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 441. Church, History, ed. Drake, 32–3.

25. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 122. Malone, Skulking, 21–2, 52, 59, 61, 66, 80, 82, 100.

26. Those colonial soldiers still using matchlocks were especially hindered by rainfall, as rain often “extinguished burning match tips” and “could also ruin one’s spare match” and soak priming powder. As Malone notes, Native men discerned long before settlers that the flintlock, which did not require a lighted match and was “faster” and less cumbersome “to fire,” was more adaptable to woodland warfare, putting them at a military advantage. Malone, Skulking, 33.

27. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom, eds., So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press, 1978), 88–9. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 62. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 441–2. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 99–104.

28. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 63. Malone, Skulking, 21. See also Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 401, 403.

29. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 403. Bodge, Soldiers, 87. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 59, 63. Leach, Flintlock, 53. Note that Church’s account, in this instance, appears more likely than Hubbard’s, as Drake concluded in his 1827 edition of Church. Church, History, ed. Drake, 34.

30. Massachusetts Archives 67:207. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 63–4. Leach, Flintlock, 53.

31. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 64. Church, History, ed. Drake, 34–5. Leach, Flintlock, 43, 54. Lepore, Name, 99–104, 118–9. Personal communication, Linda Coombs, April 21, 2017.

32. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 64, 55. Church, History, ed. Drake, 35. Josiah Winslow to James Cudworth, July 6, 1675, Winslow Family Papers, item 92, Massachusetts Historical Society. Anderson, Creatures, 234. Leach, Flintlock, 40, 55–6.

33. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 64–5. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 5. Leach, Flintlock, 40, 54.

34. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 65. Leach, Flintlock, 54. Bodge, Soldiers, 90.

35. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 120. Peirce, Indian History, 85. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 65. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 441–2.

36. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 64. Church, History, ed. Drake, 26.

37. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 5. Church, History, ed. Drake, 26–33, 39. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, 26. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 58, 69. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 442. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/mapping-war.

38. James Cudworth to Josiah Winslow, July 9, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 93, Massachusetts Historical Society. Church, History, ed. Drake, 39–47. B. Church, History, ed. Dexter, 30–4. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 238–41. Malone, Skulking, 21, 90. Arthur Phillips, The Phillips History of Fall River (Fall River, MA: Dover Press, 1941–1946), fascicle 1 (1941), 34, 100, 103

39. Cudworth to Winslow, July 9, 1675, MHS. Winslow to Cudworth, July 6, 1675, MHS. Church, History, ed. Drake, 47.

40. Malone, Skulking, 22, 80. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 114–7. Lepore, Name, 78. Leach, Flintlock, 66. The garrison house of John Cooke was among those few excepted.

41. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 65, 73. Nathaniel Saltonstall, The Present State of New England With Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1675), 13. Lepore, Name, xxv. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 115.

42. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 66. LaFantasie, Correspondence (Providence, RI: Brown/Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988), 701. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 305. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 444. Wait Winthrop, A Letter Written by Capt. Wait Winthrop from Mr. Smiths in Narragansett to Govr. John Winthrop of the Colony of Connecticut (Providence, RI: Standard Printing for the Society of Colonial Wars, 1919), 13.

43. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 701–2. Charles Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 13. Howard Chapin, Sachems of the Narragansetts (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1931), 77. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 56, 66, 77. Jennings, Invasion, 302–7. Bodge, Soldiers, 59–62. Drake, BOI, 79. “Acts of the Massachusetts Council about Narragansett Sachems, Sept. 5, 1668,” Rhode Island Historical Society manuscript 9004, 2:43. Wait Winthrop and Richard Smith represented Connecticut.

44. Chapin, Sachems, 77. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 58–9, 66. Jennings, Invasion, 306.

45. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 67–8. Josiah Winslow to John Leverett, July 18, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 97, Massachusetts Historical Society.

46. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 56. Jennings, Invasion, 306. Wait Winthrop had traveled on a parallel mission to secure a pledge of “neutrality” from Ninigret, whose counselor Cornman was present at the Pettaquamscut meeting. Chapin, Sachems, 77.

47. Winslow to Leverett, July 18, 1675.

48. Easton, “Relacion,” ed. Lincoln, 12. Ellis and Morris, Easton’s Relation, 18n20. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Indian Deeds: Land Transactions in Plymouth Colony, 1620–1691 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2008), 486.

49. Easton, “Relacion,” ed. Lincoln, 12–14. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 96. Bangs, Deeds, 486. Church, History, ed. Drake, 26, 36. Easton and Peter Awashonks’s accounts provide an important counterpoint to Church’s narrative, wherein he insists he went over to Sakonnet in part to fulfill a promise of protection he made to Awashonks.

50. Cudworth to Winslow, July 9, 1675, MHS. Bangs, Deeds, 486, 490. Church, History, ed. Drake, 47, 50. Mammanuah later testified that “himself and his men, in number fifteen, had, during our late troubles, continewed faithfull to the English, and some of his men had all the time bin in our service.” See also Mammanuah’s grant of 100 acres to Alderman, “now liveing neer Punckatest pond,” “for service done . . . in the late warr.” Dorothy Worthington, Rhode Island Land Evidences, 1648−1696 (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1921), 1:263.

51. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Church, History, ed. Drake (1827 ed.), 50. Malone, Skulking, 10–11, 87.

52. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 73, 77. Church, History, ed. Drake, 48−9. Bodge, Soldiers, 81, 395. Peirce, Indian History, 94. Bangs, Deeds, 479–81. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 441–4. Malone, Skulking, 53–4, 58–66. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 238–9.

53. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 441. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71. Malone, Skulking, 20–1, 52. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 238–9.

54. Cudworth to Winslow, July 9, 1675. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Church, History, ed. Drake (1827 ed.), 49. Malone, Skulking, 21, 30–2, 34–5, 65–6, 89.

55. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Malone, Skulking, 11.

56. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Church, History, ed. Drake, 49. Church later claimed they had “come within hearing of the Crys of their Women, and Children” but “were commanded back by their Captain.” No evidence in Cudworth or Bradford’s letter supports this romanticized claim. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 411.

57. Malone, Skulking, 7, 22, 58, 60. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 15. Kevin Sweeney, “Military Uses of Firearms in Seventeenth-Century New England,” 17th Century Warfare, Diplomacy, & Society in the American Northeast Conference, Pequot Museum, Connecticut, October 2013. Kevin Sweeney, personal communication, April 14, 2017. Elizabeth Perry, personal communication, October 19, 2015.

58. John Freeman to Josiah Winslow, July 18, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 95, Massachusetts Historical Society. Josiah Winslow to James Cudworth, July 18, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 96, Massachusetts Historical Society. Josiah Winslow to John Leverett, July 18, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, item 97, Massachusetts Historical Society. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71.

59. Freeman, “Freeman to Winslow, July 18, 1675”. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 81.

60. Freeman, “Freeman to Winslow, July 18, 1675”. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73.

61. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 73. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 5–6, 16. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 444. Bodge, Soldiers, 81. On location of Pocasset swamp, see Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 121–4.

62. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71.

63. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 8, 16. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 56–7, 71, 73, 77. Church, History, ed. Drake (1827 ed.), 50. Leach, Flintlock, 68.

64. Saltonstall, Present State, 13. Malone, Skulking, 66. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 444. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 126.

65. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 16. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 444. Lepore, Name, 97–100, 104, 118–9.

66. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 16. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Church, History, ed. Drake (1827 ed.), 50.

67. Bradford, Letter to Cotton, 8, 16. Church, History, ed. Drake, (1827 ed.), 50. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 71, 73. Leach, Flintlock, 69.

68. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 72, 82, 89–91, 94, 96. Phillips, Fall River, 3:95–6. Church, History, ed. Drake (1827 ed.), 50. Leach, Flintlock, 71–2. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 124.

69. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 91–2, 94. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 445. Leach, Flintlock, 71–2, 75–7. Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 174–5. Nathaniel was the son of Captain Thomas.

70. For more on Nipsachuck, see Christine Delucia, “The Memory Frontier: Uncommon Pursuits of Past and Place in the Northeast after King Philip’s War (1675–1678),” Journal of American History 98:4 (March 2012): 975–97; and National Park Service, American Battlefield Protection Program, Technical Report: “The 1676 Battle of Nipsachuck: Identification and Evaluation” (GA-2255–11–016), April 12, 2013, 27–9, 40–1, 83–5, 91, 94, 108, http://kpwar.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/FINAL-REPORT-Nipsachuck.pdf.

71. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 78, 91, 94–5. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 445–6. Leach, Flintlock, 76. Lepore, Name, 86.

72. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 95. Oberg, Uncas, 176. Leach, Flintlock, 76–7. Malone, Skulking, 21.

73. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 83, 98–99. A captured Pocasset man, apparently Metacom’s “uncle,” reportedly returning “to Pocasset” when Mosely’s company “met him,” reported that the troops had killed 23 men, including the 4 captains.

74. Lincoln, ed., Narratives, 26.

5. THE PRINTER’S REVOLT

1. Samuel Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), 69. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 2:455–9. Henry Nourse, ed., Early Records of Lancaster 1643–1725 (Lancaster, MA: W. J. Coulter, 1884), 99. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 137. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter5.

2. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 45.

3. Gookin, Historical Collections, 45, 48–9, 54. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 480. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (PCR) (Boston: William White, 1855), 10:323–31, 356. John Ford, ed., Some Correspondence between the Governors and Treasurers of the New England Company in London and the Commissioners of the United Colonies in America (London: Spottiswood and Co., 1896), 28. Michael Clark, ed., The Eliot Tracts (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 403–4. Richard W. Cogley, “A Seventeenth-Century Native American Family: William of Sudbury and His Four Sons,” The New England Historical and Genealogical Register, 153 (April 1999), 174–5. “A Memorandum of Indian Children Put Forth into Service to the English,” in Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 144.

4. Massachusetts Archives, 30:146. For map, document, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/1668-covenant.

5. Massachusetts Archives, 30:146. See, for example, Jenny Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 108.

6. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England, 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 2001), 20–3. Louis Roy, Quaboag Plantation alias Brookefield: A Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts Town (Brookfield, MA: L. E. Roy, 1965), 9–11. Levi Chase, The Bay Path and Along the Way (Norwood, MA: Plimton Press, 1919) 175–211. Gookin, Historical Collections, 45–52. Josiah Howard Temple, History of North Brookfield, Massachusetts (Brookfield, MA: North Brookfield, 1887), 24–6.

7. “Wotowsaukwas to Massachusetts Governor and Council, October 1667,” facsimile copies of the Records of the Massachusetts Archives, #140, Massachusetts Historical Society. Gookin, Historical Collections, 50–2. Connole, Nipmuck, 79–82. Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 169. Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884), 23.

8. Massachusetts Archives, 30:146. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 436. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 403. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733,” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 136, 155, 161–9. David Jaffee, People of the Wachusett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 59–66. Personal communication, Kahntineta Horn, Norridgewock and Kahnawake, August 2013 and November 2014. See also Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2010).

9. Connole, Nipmuck, 55. Oberg, Uncas, 169. John Pendergast, The Bend in the River (Tyngsborough, MA: Merrimac River Press, 1992), 50, 67, 69. William Willis, History of Portland from 1632 to 1864 (Portland, ME: Bailey and Noyes, 1865), 134. Gookin, Historical Collections, 37. Nathaniel Shurtleff, Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston: W. White, 1853), vol. 4, pt. 2, 385–6. Elias Nason, A History of the Town of Dunstable, Massachusetts (Boston: Alfred Mudge and Son, 1877), 9–11. Willard’s son married Tyng’s daughter.

10. Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 152. Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts, 15–16, 368, 387–9. Jean O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 26–43. Pam Ellis, Tribal Historian for Natick Nipmuc Tribal Council, personal communication, May, 2009.

11. O’Brien, Dispossession, 12, 44–8. Laurent, Dialogues, 54. James Hammond Trumbull, Natick Dictionary (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 6, 104. As O’Brien notes, Christian Nipmucs continued to rely on hunting and fishing, which made the maintenance of their land at the falls and along the river even more critical to their survival.

12. “Letter of John Eliot, July 3, 1667,” facsimile copies of the Records of the Massachusetts Archives, #138, Massachusetts Historical Society. Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 1–3.

13. O’Brien, Dispossession, 27.

14. Gookin, Historical Collections, 45–9. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 2:51.

15. Massachusetts Archives: 30:169. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 104. Pulsipher, Subjects, 108. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 73–4. Temple, Brookfield, 74. Curtis’s expedition went out at the same time as Hutchinson’s first commission to Narragansett, with the same purpose.

16. For a reading that emphasizes “ethnicity” and racial “identity,” see Pulsipher, Subjects, 108.

17. Massachusetts Archives 30:169. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5.

18. Temple, Brookfield, 75–80. Lucius R. Paige, History of Hardwick, Massachusetts (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1883), 6–7. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 436, 442–3, 445. For map, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/revolt-map.

19. Temple, Brookfield, 75–80. Paige, Hardwick, 6–7. Oberg, Uncas, 174. J. Hammond Trumbull and Charles J. Hoadly, eds., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 1636–1776 (CT Records) (Hartford, CT: Lockwood and Brainard, 1850–90), 2:336. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 442, 445.

20. Temple, Brookfield, 76. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 450.

21. Temple, Brookfield, 76. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5. Eric B. Schultz and Michael J. Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 2000), 143–5. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/menimesit_quaboag.

22. Temple, Brookfield, 100.

23. Temple, Brookfield, 76–7. Connole, Nipmuck, 22.

24. Temple, Brookfield, 77–8.

25. Temple, Brookfield, 77.

26. Temple, Brookfield, 77.

27. Temple, Brookfield, 77–8.

28. Temple, Brookfield, 77–8. Bodge, Soldiers, 104–5.

29. Bodge, Soldiers, 105. Gookin described Matoonas as a “grave and sober Indian,” chosen to serve as “constable” at Pakachoag. Gookin, Historical Collections, 52–3. The title “constable” may have been given to men who were already war chiefs, since several led raids during the war, including Black James and Matoonas.

30. Temple, Brookfield, 79.

31. Temple, Brookfield, 78–80. Bodge, Soldiers, 106. Massachusetts Archives, 67:227. This report later “proved false.” Connole, Nipmuck, 166.

32. Richard Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in this Plymouth Colony Township (Rehoboth, MA: Rumford Press, 1945), 97–9. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 446. Temple, Brookfield, 99. Leach, Flintlock, 76–7. Oberg, Uncas, 176.

33. Temple, Brookfield, 79. Gookin Historical Collections, 49–50. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 447. The sons of Hassanamesit ruler Robin Petavit, Sampson had first taught with Job at Okkanamesit, and by 1674 he taught at Webquasset while Joseph taught at Chabanakongkomun. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/menimesit_quaboag.

34. Temple, Brookfield, 79–81. Connole, Nipmuck, 135, 166, 281. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 447–9. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 142, 147–8. These settlers included John Ayres, William Pritchard, and Richard Coy.

35. Temple, Brookfield, 32, 91, 100. Connole, Nipmuck, 164, 167. Paige, Hardwick, 79.

36. “Great David,” The New England Indian Papers Series (NEIPS), Paul Grant-Costa and Tobias Glaza, eds., Yale University Library Digital Collections, http://images.library.yale.edu/walpoleweb/footnote.asp?db=a&id=202. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 456–8. Drake, BOI, 3:81–2.

37. Virginia DeJohn Anderson, “King Philip’s Herds: Indians, Colonialism, and the Problem of Livestock in Early New England,” William and Mary Quarterly 51:4 (Oct. 1994): 614.

38. Temple, Brookfield, 81, 89. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 147–55. Gookin “Historical Account,” 447–8. Roy, Quaboag, 9–11. Special thanks to Ed Lonergan for guiding me through the crucial sites of Quaboag and Menimesit.

39. Temple, Brookfield, 79, 81, 91. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 150–5.

40. Temple, Brookfield, 81–2, 89–90. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 447–8, 456–7. William Hubbard, A History of the Indian Wars in New England, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Roxbury, MA: W. E. Woodward, 1865), 98.

41. Temple, Brookfield, 82, 89–90. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 447–8. Halsey Thomas, Notes from The Diary of Samuel Sewall: 1674–1729 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1973), 1:23.

42. Temple, Brookfield, 89. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 91.

43. Drake BOI, 2:29. Temple, Brookfield, 89. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 447–8. Thanks to Pam Ellis for observing that “Memecho” was likely Camecho, a common Nipmuc surname, appearing in the records after the war. See O’Brien, Dispossession, 95.

44. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 94–8, 107.

45. Bodge, Soldiers, 50. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 94–8. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 94–5.

46. Temple, Brookfield, 83, 91. Drake BOI, 3:29. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 99. Roy, Quaboag, 73, 158–9. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 155, 157–8. Personal communication, Ed Lonergan, West Brookfield.

47. Temple, Brookfield, 83–7, 90. Drake BOI, 3:29–30. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 99. Roy, Quaboag, 73, 158–9. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 155, 157.

48. Temple, Brookfield, 83–5, 90. Drake BOI, 3:29. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 99. Roy, Quaboag, 73, 158–9, 161. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 157.

49. Temple, Brookfield, 85. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 94–8.

50. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 98–101. Temple, Brookfield, 83–8. Leach, Flintlock, 83–4. Personal communication, Ed Lonergan, West Brookfield, June 25, 2013. My reading is a reversal of Wheeler’s original attempt to turn a defeat into a victory. Asserting that the warriors’ goal was to “destroy them by fire,” he created a narrative of divine intervention, marked by the rain and Willard’s arrival, despite the fact that Willard was driven inside and the rain did not stop the warriors from burning the church. He wrote, “When they saw their divers designs” to “destroy” them “unsuccessful, and their hopes therein disappointed, they then fired” the remaining buildings and left “towards the breaking of the day,” as if in defeat. Wheeler either obfuscated or missed the point of the “siege,” although he sorely felt its impacts. Wheeler seemed especially concerned with portraying himself in good light, having failed in both of his missions. Although attributing their salvation to God, he did give himself credit for sending Curtis to seek help. Temple, Brookfield, 87–8.

51. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 91–2. Drake, BOI, 3:30. Temple, Brook field, 100–1.

52. Drake, BOI, 3:30, 32. Nathaniel Saltonstall, The Present State of New England With Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1675), reprinted in Old Indian Chronicle: Chronicles of the Indians from the Discovery of America to the Present Time, ed. Samuel Drake (Boston: Antiquarian Institute, 1836), 13. Henry Nourse, ed., The Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson, 1903), 89. See also Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 101, and Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England 1675–1678 (Oxford University Press, 1991), 126–9.

53. Joseph Nicolar, The Life and Traditions of the Red Man (Bangor, ME: C. H. Glass, 1893), 64. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 13. For the Great Beaver see “Amiskwôlowôkoiak—the People of the Beaver-tail Hill,” http://1704.deerfield.history.museum/voices/stories.do; Margaret Bruchac, “Earthshapers and Placemakers: Algonkian Indian Stories and the Landscape,” Indigenous Archaeologies: Politics and Practice, ed. H. Martin Wobst and Claire Smith (London: Routledge Press, 2003); and Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 17–24.

54. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (Boston: The Society, 1792–1888), 3rd ser., 3 (1833): 154. Salisbury, Manitou, 13, 49, 231, 236. See also Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 206–8. Brooks, Common Pot, 59–64.

55. Great thanks to J. Kēhaulani Kauanui for helping me to clarify and develop these ideas.

56. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 99. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 95. Drake, BOI, 3:30.

57. Bodge, Soldiers, 66–7. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 95, 104–5. CT Records, 2:353.

58. Bodge, Soldiers, 66, Gookin, “Historical Account,” 443, 464. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 95–6, 103–4. James Phinney Baxter, ed., Documentary History of the State of Maine (Baxter Manuscripts) (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1900), 6:88–9.

59. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 443, 455, 460. Drake BOI, 3:81–2. Note Gookin describes Aaron as Andrew’s “son-in-law.”

60. Saltonstall, Present State, 25. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 448, 456–7. Drake BOI, 81–2. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 150.

61. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 458–9. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 92. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 21.

62. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 457. Drake BOI, 3:81. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 86. Leach, Flintlock, 148. “Great David,” NEIPS.

63. CT Records, 2:353. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 94. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 450. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 103–5. Drake BOI, 3:31. Bodge, Soldiers, 128–9. Temple, Brookfield, 91–2. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 161–3. Leach, Flintlock, 85–7. Oberg, Uncas, 154, 171, 177–8. Alice Nash, “Quanquan’s Mortgage of 1663,” in Cultivating a Past: Essays on the History of Hadley Massachusetts, ed. Marla R. Miller (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2009), 31. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/connecticut-river-valley-1675.

64. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 455–61. Drake, BOI, 3:81. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 86. Oberg, Uncas, 179. Lepore, Name, 137. Leach, Flintlock, 148–9.

65. CT Records, 2:355. Oberg, Uncas, 178. Drake, BOI, 3:81. Gookin, Historical Collections, 53. Gookin notes “some conjecture” that this arrest was motivated by Marlborough settlers’ desire for adjoining Okkanamesit, a “fair tract of land” “belonging to” the Native inhabitants “not only by natural right but by a grant from the General Court.” Gookin, “Historical Account,” 456.

66. Lepore, Name, 138, 299. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 450–1, 455. Anderson, Creatures, 235.

67. Temple, Brookfield, 101. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 450, 455.

68. Husband to the poet Anne Bradstreet, Simon was also on the court that banished Anne Hutchinson.

69. Records of the Court of Assistants of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1901) 1:52–4. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 459–60. Saltonstall, Present State, 26–7. Lepore, Name, 138. Leach, Flintlock, 148–9.

70. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 465.

71. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 96–7. Leach, Flintlock, 87. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 106–7. Drake BOI, 3:31. For more on the Connecticut River Valley, see Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005); Calloway, Western Abenaki; Brooks, Common Pot; Margaret M. Bruchac, “Historical erasure and cultural recovery: Indigenous people in the Connecticut River Valley” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts, 2007).

72. Oberg, Uncas, 178–9. Hubbard, Indian Wars, 108. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 98. Leach, Flintlock, 87. Court of Assistants, 1:52.

73. Court of Assistants, 1:53–4. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 458–9. Saltonstall, Present State, 27. Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 145. See also Margaret Ellen Newell, “The Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England, 1670–1720,” in Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience, ed. Colin Calloway and Neal Salisbury (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 106–29.

6. THE ROADS LEADING NORTH

1. Richard LeBaron Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in This Plymouth Colony Township (Concord, NH: Rumford Press, 1945), 101. See also Daniel Berkeley Updike, Richard Smith: First English Settler of the Narragansett Country, Rhode Island (Boston: The Merrymount Press, 1937), 110. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter6.

2. Updike, English Settler, 111. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press, 2000), 246. Julie Fisher and David Silverman, Ninigret, Sachem of the Niantics and Narragansetts (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 118.

3. The Council of Connecticut to Richard Smith, August 8, 1675. Charles Hoadly, comp., Hoadly Memorial Early Letters and Documents Relating to Connecticut 1643–1709 (Hartford, CT: Connecticut Historical Society, 1932), 18. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (Hyannis, MA: Parnassus Imprints, 1996), 113. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 53.

4. Updike, English Settler, 110–11. Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 119, 121. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (CMHS) (Boston: The Society, 1792–1888) 4th ser., 7 (1865): 578–9, my emphasis. OED, “kind,” www.oed.com.

5. Robert Stanton to Richard Smith, September 19, 1675 and Stanton to John Winthrop Jr., September 22, 1675, Winthrop Family Papers, reel 11, box 20, Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS). Leach, Flintlock, 115. Updike, English Settler, 50, 110–11. David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733,” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 184.

6. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 67. Updike, English Settler, 50, 110–11. CMHS, 4th ser., 7:578–9. Stanton to Smith and Stanton to Winthrop, September 1675, MHS. Leach, Flintlock, 115. Jenny Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 120, 133.

7. Stanton to Winthrop, September 22, 1675, MHS. CMHS, 4th ser., 7:578–9. Leach, Flintlock, 115. Pulsipher, Subjects, 133. Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 115, 121.

8. Stanton to Smith and Stanton to Winthrop, September, 1675, MHS. CMHS, 4th ser., 7:578–9. Massachusetts Archives, 30:177. Edward Rawson, “Massachusetts General Court Decision against William Smith, September 29, 1675” (1675.09.29.03). Grant-Costa, Paul, et al., eds., The New England Indian Papers Series (NEIPS), Yale University Library Digital Collections, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1675.09.29.03/1675.09.29.03.html. Nathaniel Saltonstall, “The Present State of New England with Respect to the Indian War” (1675), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 44–5. Leach, Flintlock, 115. Pulsipher, Subjects, 120, 133. Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 122–3.

9. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 2:467. Gookin notes that their orders were to “destroy the enemies’ cornfields that they had deserted” and that “they were cautioned by their instructions not to spoil anything belonging to the poor Christian Indians, that lived among us.” As he notes, they did just the opposite, destroying the harvest at the praying towns, and leaving those at Pakachoag and Quaboag “untouched, which after, in the winter, afforded relief to the enemy.”

10. James Phinney Baxter, ed., Documentary History of the State of Maine (Baxter Manuscripts) (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1900), 6:91–2. William Hubbard, A History of the Indian Wars in New England, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Roxbury, MA: W. E. Woodward, 1865), 96–8, 154–5. Emerson Baker and John Reid, “Amerindian Power in the Early Modern Northeast: A Reappraisal,” William and Mary Quarterly 61, no. 1 (January 2004): 85. Kenneth Morrison, The Embattled Northeast (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 89, 109. Emerson Baker, “Trouble to the Eastward: The Failure of Anglo-Indian Relations in Early Maine” (PhD diss., College of William and Mary, 1986), 173, 188–9. Alvin Morrison, “Tricentennial, Too: King Philip’s War Northern Front (Maine, 1675–1678)” in Actes Du Huitième Congrès Des Algonquinistes (1976), ed. William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1977), 208–12. William Williamson, History of the State of Maine (Hallowell, ME: Glazier, Masters and Co., 1832) 518–9. John Noble Jr., “King Philip’s War in Maine” (master’s thesis, University of Maine, 1970), 13–5, 21–2. Gardner had operated the Pemaquid trading post for about a decade. He was from a merchant family in Salem and had previously traded on the Penobscot and in Acadia. Baker, “Trouble,” 117–9.

11. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:92, 118, 178. Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York: Vintage Books, 2003), 86–7. Baker, “Trouble,” 173, 188–9. Hubbard, History, 92–3. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 3:104. Morrison, Embattled, 89, 108–9.

12. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:92–3. Baker, “Trouble,” 188. Morrison, Embattled, 89, 108–9.

13. Massachusetts Archives, 30:182. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 86, 87, 175, 179. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 46. Michael Clark, ed., Eliot Tracts (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 404–5. Colin Calloway, “Wanalancet and Kancagamus: Indian Strategy and Leadership on the New Hampshire Frontier,” Historical New Hampshire 43, no. 4. (1988): 274. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/winnipesaukee.

14. Massachusetts Archives, 30:182. Henry Nourse, ed., Early Records of Lancaster 1643–1725 (Lancaster, MA: W. J. Coulter, 1884), 16. Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884), 51–4. John Daly, “No Middle Ground: Pennacook-New England Relations in the Seventeenth Century” (masters thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1997), 56–7.

15. Calloway, “Wanalancet,” 268–9, 273–4. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 34. Emerson Baker, “Finding the Almouchiquois: Native American Families, Territories, and Land Sales in Southern Maine,” Ethnohistory 51, no. 1 (2004): 91.

16. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 462. P.-André Sévigny, Les Abénaquis: habitat et migrations, 17e et 18e siècles (Montréal: Bellarmin, 1976), 201. See also Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, “Watanummon’s World: Personal and Tribal Identity in the Algonquian Diaspora c. 1660–1712,” in Papers of the Twenty-fifth Algonquian Conference, ed. William Cowan (Ottawa: Carlton University, 1994), 212–24. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/wannalancet.

17. Massachusetts Archives, 30:182. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 296. Hubbard, History, 275–7. Noble, “Phillips War” 23–8.

18. Hugh McLellan, History of Gorham, ed. Katharine Lewis (Portland, ME: Smith and Sale Printers, 1903). Lisa T. Brooks and Cassandra M. Brooks, “The Reciprocity Principle and ITEK: Understanding the Significance of Indigenous Protest on the Presumpscot,” International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies 3, no. 2 (2010). Gideon Ridlon, Saco Valley Settlements and Families: Historical, Biographical, Genealogical, Traditional, and Legendary (1895) (Somersworth, NH: New England History Press, 1984), 15, 19. Baker notes that Francis Small ran a trading post at the confluence “as late as the 1660s” but it was not in operation in 1675. Baker, “Trouble,” 96–7. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/1676-raid.

19. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:89. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 74–6, 83. Emerson Baker and Mary Beth Norton, “The Names of the Rivers: A New Look at an Old Document,” New England Quarterly 80, no. 3 (September 2007), 178, 186. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 86–7. Williamson, History of Maine, 520–2. William Willis, History of Portland from 1632 to 1864 (Portland, ME: Bailey and Noyes, 1865), 196. Charles P. Isley Manuscript, coll. 79, ch. 5, box 1/5, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Note that Thomas Wakely was John’s elderly father.

20. Drake, BOI, 3:102. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 100. Hubbard, History, 263, 269, 291–2. Morrison, Embattled, 108. Sévigny, Les Abénaquis, 152–4, 173. Baker, Almouchiquois, 87.

21. Hubbard, History, 269. Baker, “Trouble,” 5. Hubbard’s dramatic story of “Squando’s” revenge is repeated more often than his confusing account of the nameless Indian killed near Casco Bay. No surviving documents confirm the drowning of Squando’s son, which may have been merely a circulating story. One 1677 document does suggest that some “injury” was committed against “his child at Saco,” to which Massachusetts would not answer, but it likely occurred during the war. See Baxter Manuscripts, 6:187–8.

22. F. S. Reiche, “Past activities at the mouth of Presumpscot River” (1978), Special Collections, Maine Historical Society. Willis, History of Portland, 98, 102–3, 106–8, 113, 138, 157. William Barry and Patricia Anderson, Deering: A Social and Architectural History (Portland: Greater Portland Landmarks, 2010), 32. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 83–4. Brooks and Brooks, “The Reciprocity Principle,” 12. Willis records Jenkin Williams and Humphrey Durham as the other two, but only includes a deed for Williams, authorizing the sale of a large tract of land between the south boundary of Munjoy’s deed and Wakely’s house. There is no reference to a deed for Wakely.

23. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:90–5. York Deeds (Portland, ME: John T. Hull, 1887–1910), 2:114. Baker, Almouchiquois, 84–6. Emerson Baker, The Clarke and Lake Company (Augusta, ME: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1985), 12. Willis, History of Portland, 197. Williamson, History of Maine, 523. William Southgate, “History of Scarborough,” in Collections of the Maine Historical Society (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1853), 1st ser., 3:101–6.

24. Drake, BOI, 3:102–3. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:94. Hubbard, History, 271. Mather, Brief History, 100. Williamson, History of Maine, 522–3. Bodge, Soldiers, 297. Some of these raids may have been carried out by Wabanaki men who appeared on Saco River deeds, including Mogg Hegone, a leader in the war. York Deeds, 8:220–1, 2:45–6. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 86–7. Baker, “Trouble,” 96–7, 196–8. Drake, BOI, 3:126.

25. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 85. Ridlon, Saco Valley, 191. Hubbard, History, 250. Baker, “Trouble,” 81. See also James Sullivan, History of District of Maine (Boston: Thomas and Andrews, 1795), 246.

26. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:99. Hubbard, History, 278–9, 280–1. Noble, “Phillips War” 28. Williamson, History of Maine, 525. Bodge, Soldiers, 297. Sullivan, History, 246, 249.

27. Drake, BOI, 3:115. Baker “Trouble,” 142–6, 144–5. Morrison, “Tricentennial,” 208–12. Morrison, Embattled, 89.

28. Hubbard, History, 275, 280–1. Calloway, “Wanalancet,” 276. Bodge, Soldiers, 300. Chester Price, Historic Indian Trails of New Hampshire (1974), in The Indian Heritage of New Hampshire and Northern New England, ed. Tadeusz Piotrowski (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002), 160.

29. Hubbard, History, 275, 280–1, 283. Drake, BOI, 3:110. Williamson, History of Maine, 524–7. Baker, “Trouble,” 189. Jeremy Belknap, History of New Hampshire (Dover, NH: Crosby and Varney, 1812), 1:111–14. Sullivan, History, 249.

30. Baker, “Almouchiquois,” 74, 82, 91. Baker and Reid, “Amerindian Power,” 79–80. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 10.

31. Williamson, History of Maine, 516. Charles Starbird, The Indians of Androscoggin Valley: Tribal History, and Their Relations with the Early English Settlers of Maine (Lewiston Journal Printshop, 1928), 35. For maps, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/wannalancet.

32. Nathaniel Shurtleff, Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (MA Records) (Boston: W. White, 1853), 4:45, 57. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 471–2. The court included Leverett, Gookin, Willard, Edward Tyng, Dennison, and Hathorn.

33. Massachusetts Archives, 30:182. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 471, 482. “Nathaniel,” the leader of this first raid on Chelmsford, would continue to lead raids on the colonial town.

34. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 472–5. MA Records, 4:58, 5:68. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 179–82. Massachusetts Archives, 30:184a. “Memorandum from the Committee of the Massachusetts Court Regarding the Wives and Children of Indian Captives,” November 5, 1675, (NEIPS). http://images.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1675.11.05.00/1675.11.05.00.html.

35. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 462–4, 475. MA Records, 4:58. Gookin, Historical Collections, 46–7. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 180. Gookin suggests more men may have been deemed “suspicious” strangers, estimating that only “about twenty” men returned to Wamesit. Knight was subsequently tried and acquitted.

36. MA Records, 4:46–7, 54–7. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (PCR) (Boston: William White, 1855), 2:360–1. Bodge, Soldiers, 301, 303. On Deer Island, see Gookin, “Historical Account”; Christine Delucia, “The Memory Frontier: Uncommon Pursuits of Past and Place in the Northeast after King Philip’s War (1675–1678),” Journal of American History (Spring 2012); Lepore, Name, 138–45.

37. Glenn LaFantasie, ed., The Correspondence of Roger Williams (Providence, RI: Brown/Rhode Island Historical Society, 1988), 2:704–6. On “Idolatrous Quakers” and the October Court, see Mather in Slotkin and Folsom, eds., So Dreadfull, 105. By November, the court passed numerous restrictive orders, including an order to imprison anyone found at a Quaker meeting. During the October court, they also made strict rules for soldiers, not only regarding military conduct, but offenses such as “blasphemy” and “fornication.” MA Records, 4:49–50, 60.

38. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 704–6. “Commotion,” www.oed.com. Lepore, Name, 91, 113.

39. Lepore, Name, 74

40. Lepore, Name, 60. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 705. CMHS, 5th ser., 1 (1871): 105–6.

41. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:91, 96. Updike, English Settler, 113. Lepore, Name, 83, 91. Bodge, Soldiers, 298.

42. Baxter Manuscripts, 4:348–9. Isley Manuscript, 83–4. MA Records, 4:51.

43. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 705, 707. Leach, Flintlock, 115. Pulsipher, Subjects, 120.

44. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 705, 707. Roger Williams, A Key in the Language of America (1643) (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books 1997), 108–9.

45. Further Letters on King Phillips War (Providence: E. L. Freeman for the Society of Colonial Wars, 1923), 12, 14–16.

46. Massachusetts Archives, 30:184a. “Memorandum,” NEIPS.

47. CMHS, 4th ser., 7:578–9. PCR, 10:361. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 247.

48. CMHS’ 5th ser., 1:106–9.

49. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 475–7. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 121.

50. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 475.

51. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 473–4, 485. Lepore, Name, 136, 138–9. Pam Ellis, quoted in Julia Spitz, “Nipmucs Add History to Memorial to Deer Island Internment,” MetroWest Daily News, October 24, 2010, http://www.metrowestdailynews.com/article/20101024/NEWS/310249951. Jean O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 61–2. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 121. In the November 3 session, the court prohibited Indians from leaving the island, “upon pain of death,” and also passed an order to provide provisions to prevent “their perishing” by “extremity” for “want of absolute necessities.” The first order was enforced, the second only sporadically. MA Records, 4:64.

52. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 476. Daniel Gookin to Richard Smith, November, 1675, Facsimile Copies of Records of Massachusetts Archives (Photostats), #188, Massachusetts Historical Society. Special thanks to Andrea Cronin for assistance in locating this document. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 121. Leach, Flintlock, 118. Pulsipher, Subjects, 147.

53. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 476.

54. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 121. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 476–7. Lepore, Name, 138.

55. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 476–7. Lepore, Name, 136–45. James Drake, King Philip’s War: A Civil War in New England 1675–76 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 104.

56. Leach, Flintlock, 118. Pulsipher, Subjects, 146–7. Updike, English Settler, 112.

57. Gookin to Smith, November, 1675, MHS. Leach, Flintlock, 118. Pulsipher, Subjects, 146–7.

58. Updike, English Settler, 112–3. Leach, Flintlock, 118. Pulsipher, Subjects, 146–7.

59. Gookin to Smith, November, 1675, MHS.

60. PCR, 10:357. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:99. Leach, Flintlock. Douglas Leach, “A New View on the Declaration of War Against the Narragansetts,” Rhode Island History 15 (April 1956): 33–41.

61. CMHS, 3rd ser., 1 (1825): 67. CMHS, 4th ser., 7:579. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:100. PCR, 10:357, 361.

62. Saltonstall, “Present State,” 25. This image contrasts with more recent historical portrayals, which described Weetamoo as a “noncombatant” and emphasized her need for “protection,” constructing a more conventional gender role for the saunkskwa. See Leach, Flintlock, 85, 113–4; Douglas Leach, ed., A Rhode Islander Reports on King Philip’s War: The Second William Harris Letter of August, 1676 (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1963), 24n14; and Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England 1675–1678 (Oxford University Press, 1991), 125.

63. Saltonstall, “Present State,” 34.

64. Saltonstall, “Present State,” 34, 44–5, 48. Church’s narrative elides this motivation, attributing the military expedition to justified suspicion that the Narragansetts “designed mischief” and needed to be “suppressed.” Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 412. Note that Saltonstall confused Cornman and Quinnapin in this report.

65. Saltonstall, “Present State,” 48.

66. Saltonstall, “Present State,” 48. PCR, 10:357. CMHS, 5th ser., 9:98. Bodge, Soldiers, 177, 180–4. Many of the soldiers who fought at Great Swamp became original proprietors of the “Narragansett townships” in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine, listed in early records and histories as “Narragansett No. 1,” “Narragansett No. 2,” etc. For a list of soldiers who claimed these lands, see Bodge, Soldiers, appendix 1, 406–41.

67. Nathaniel Saltonstall, “A Continuation of the State of New England” (1676), in Lincoln, ed., Narratives, 55. Note that Saltonstall incorrectly identified Weetamoo’s new husband as “Ninicroft’s Eldest Son.”

68. Bodge, Soldiers, 53–4, 267. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 477.

69. Bodge, Soldiers, 267. CMHS, 5th ser., 1:105–10. Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 163–8.

70. John Metcalf, comp., Annals of the Town of Mendon from 1659–1880 (Providence, RI: E. L. Freeman, 1880), 172–3. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 478–9. Bodge, Soldiers, 54–5. Gookin to Smith, November 1675, MHS. Leach, Flintlock, 118. Pulsipher, Subjects, 146–7.

71. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 477–8. Bodge, Soldiers, 268. Gookin letter, Nov. 1675.

72. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 478.

73. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 478–80. Bodge, Soldiers, 268. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 120.

74. Metcalf, Annals of Mendon, 73–4. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 480. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 123.

75. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 480–1.

76. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 480.

77. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 481. Bodge, Soldiers, 55, 398.

78. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 483.

79. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 482–5. Daly, “No Middle Ground,” 53. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 86, 134, 175. Proceedings of the Littleton Historical Society, no. 1, 97. Sarah was the daughter of a Wamesit sachem, John, “who was a great friend to the English,” and she had been married consecutively to two “pious” rulers. Two of the Chelmsford men were “afterward” tried for murder, but “the jury pretended want of clear evidence” and they were acquitted. Note that some of Numphow’s people did return to Wamesit the next month, reportedly going no further than Penacook. See http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/sarah-of-wamesit.

80. David Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook-Pawtucket Relations: The Cycles of Family of Alliance on the Merrimack River in the 17th century,” in Actes Du Vingt-cinquième Congrès Des Algonquinistes, ed. William Cowan (Ottawa, Ontario: Carleton University Press, 1995), 457.

81. Bross, Dry Bones, 146–8, 156, 167–9. Elizabeth was John Wakely’s daughter, carried north in the raid.

82. Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 31.

83. Slotkin and Folsom, eds., Dreadfull, 106. Salisbury, Manitou, 48–9, 232–3. James Axtell, The Indian Peoples of Eastern America: A Documentary History of the Sexes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 71. Morrison, Embattled, 31. Robert Grumet, “Sunksquaws, Shamans, and Tradeswomen: Middle Atlantic Coastal Algonkian Women During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” in Women and Colonization, ed. Mona Etienne and Eleanor Leacock (New York: Praeger, 1980), 53. Gordon Sayre, “Native American Sexuality in the Eyes of the Beholders, 1535–1710,” in Sex and Sexuality in Early America, ed. Merril D. Smith (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 39–40. Richard Godbeer, “Eroticizing the Middle Ground: Anglo-Indian Sexual Relations,” in Sex, Love, Race, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999). Plane, Colonial Intimacies, 5, 30. Miantonomi had pursued a similar strategy, with less success. See Salisbury, Manitou, 41.

84. Bodge, Soldiers, 203. Franklin B. Hough, ed., “Record of a Court Martial held in Newport, R.I. in August 1676,” in A Narrative of the Causes that Led to Philip’s Indian War, 1675 and 1676, by John Easton with Other Documents (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 178. Paul Robinson, “A Narragansett History from 1000 B.P. to the Present,” in Enduring Traditions: The Native Peoples of New England, ed. Laurie Lee Weinstein (Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 1994), 83.

85. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 57–8. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 713. Bourne, Red King, 155. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 247.

86. Baxter Manuscripts, 23:1. Sybil Noyes, Charles Libby, and Walter Davis, Genealogical Dictionary of Maine and New Hampshire (Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing, 1979), 711–2. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 89. Baker, “Trouble,” 194. Frank T. Siebert Jr., “The First Maine Indian War: Incident at Machias,” in Actes du 14e Congrès des Algonquinistes, ed. William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1983), 139–40. As Baker notes, it is not clear if Waldron received Gardner’s warning. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/machias.

87. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:118. Noyes, Genealogical Dictionary, 1. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 89. Baker, “Trouble,” 194.

88. Williamson, History of Maine, 1:530. Hubbard, History, 287. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 56. Bodge, Soldiers, 303.

89. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 57. Bodge, Soldiers, 192. Hubbard, History, 128.

90. Bodge, Soldiers, 192. Leach, Flintlock, 125. Hubbard, History, 127–8.

91. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 180–1, 192. Leach, Flintlock, 125–6. Hubbard, History, 128.

92. Schultz and Tougias observe that Smith seemed entirely unaware of any preparations or “fort construction” at Great Swamp, which might seem “unlikely, until we recognize that neither Smith nor any of his countrymen ever discovered the Queen’s Fort, a Narragansett installation located less than four miles from Smith’s trading post.” Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 247–8.

93. Sidney Rider, The Lands of Rhode Island, Providence, 1904. Native American Archaeology in Rhode Island (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Preservation and Heritage Commission, 2002), 53–4. Howard Chapin, “Queen’s Fort,” Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, 24, no. 4 (Oct. 1931), 144. “The Queen’s Fort” (pamphlet), presented by “The Old Stone Bank,” Providence, RI, Rhode Island Historical Society (RIHS). Susan F. Berman, “Towards a History of Exeter” (manuscript), RIHS. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 57. Bodge, Soldiers, 180–1, 192. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 252–4. Leach, Flintlock, 126. Hubbard, History, 128.

94. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 711. “Pessicus his messenger’s examination, April 29, 1676,” Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society (Hartford, CT: 1924) 21:241–242. Paul Robinson, “The Struggle Within: The Indian Debate in Seventeenth-Century Narragansett Country” (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1990), 251. Colin A Porter, “The Jireh Bull House at Pettaquamscutt: Archaeology of a Fortified House in Narragansett Country,” public talk given at the Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, RI, October 26, 2011. Thanks to the author for sharing his manuscript. Bodge, Soldiers, 174. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 255. Peirce, Indian History, 128. Hubbard, History, 129.

95. Peirce, Indian History, 128. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 181. A Court Martial Held at Newport, Rhode Island (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858). LaFantasie, Correspondence, 711–2. Hubbard, History, 129. Leach, Flintlock, 127. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 255. Porter, “Jireh Bull.”

96. Bodge, Soldiers, 174.

97. Leach, Flintlock, 126. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 192. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 57. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 252–4.

98. Bodge, Soldiers, 192. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 255.

99. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 192–3. Leach, Flintlock, 125–6. Davenport was commander of 5th Massachusetts company, including Cambridge and Watertown men. “Great Swamp Fight Regiments,” http://minerdescent.com/2011/12/04/great-swamp-fight-regiments/.

100. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 193.

101. Mather, Brief History, 108. Bodge, Soldiers, 58, 193–4. Leach, Flintlock, 126.

102. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 58.

103. Bodge, Soldiers, 193–4.

104. Bodge, Soldiers, 187.

105. Bodge, Soldiers, 193–4.

106. Bodge, Soldiers, 174, 187, 191. See also Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 312.

107. Delucia, “Memory Frontier,” 980.

108. Saltonstall, “Continuation,” 66. Bodge, Soldiers, 175. Leach, Flintlock, 133.

109. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 712–3. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488. J. Hammond Trumbull and Charles J. Hoadly, eds., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 1636–1776 (Hartford, CT: Lockwood and Brainard, 1850–90), 2:403. Lepore, Name, 131–3.

INTERLUDE: “MY CHILDREN ARE HERE AND I WILL STAY”

1. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 2:486. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 399–400. Neal Salisbury, “The Examination and Relation of James Quannapaquait,” in Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 119–20. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/interlude-my-children.

2. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 121–2.

3. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 122. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 487.

4. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 122. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 487–9. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (Boston: The Society, 1861), 4th ser., 5:1. Massachusetts Archives 30:211, 215–7.

5. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 121. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 489.

6. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 122, 126. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488–9.

7. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 24, 123–4. Colin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 77. Gordon Day, In Search of Native New England’s Native Past: Selected Essays (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), 142. Nathaniel Saltonstall, “A New and Further Narrative of the State of New England” (1676), in Narratives of the Indian Wars, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966), 87–8. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 314.

8. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 123–4. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488. Gordon Day, The Identity of the St. Francis Indians (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1981), 13, 15. Nathaniel Saltonstall, “A Continuation of the State of New England” (1676), in Lincoln, ed., Narratives, 64, 68. Jennings, The Invasion, 313. Ruben G. Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols.) (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1896–1901), 60:133–5.

9. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 124.

10. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 125–6. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488.

11. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 126–7. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488–9.

12. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 127. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 489.

13. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 127. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 487–9.

14. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 123. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 488.

15. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 489–90. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 24, 64, 68. Douglass Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 157–8. Abijah Perkins Marvin, History of Worcester County, Massachusetts (Boston: CF Jewitt and Company, 1879), 2:103–7.

16. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 24–5. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 489–90. Leach, Flintlock, 157–8.

17. David Jaffee, People of the Wachusett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 48–9.

7. THE CAPTIVE’S LAMENT

1. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 70–1. Samuel Eliot Morison, “The Plantation of Nashaway,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1932), 28:205, 209. David Jaffee, People of the Wachusett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 34. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter7.

2. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 71. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 2–3, 8, 34, 37. Mark David Spence, Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). Pauline Turner Strong, Captive Selves, Captivating Others (Boulder CO: Westview Press, 2000), 35. Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 65. Jaffee, Wachusett, 17–19.

3. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 70. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts. 1650–1790 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 22. Yael Ben-Zvi, “Ethnography and the Production of Foreignness in Indian Captivity Narratives,” American Indian Quarterly 32, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 5–32. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian, “A Note on Mary (White) Rowlandson’s English Origins,” Early American Literature 24 (1989): 70–2. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian and David L. Greene, “Additions and Corrections to ‘A Note on Mary (White) Rowlandson’s English Origins,’” Early American Literature 25 (1990): 306.

4. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 74.

5. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 74.

6. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 75. Strong, Captive Selves. See also Margaret Davis, “Mary White Rowlandson’s Self-fashioning as Puritan Goodwife,” Early American Literature 27 (1992): 56. Teresa Toulouse, “‘My Own Credit’: Strategies of (E)Valuation in Mary Rowlandson’s Captivity Narrative,” American Literature 64, no. 4 (1992): 656–8. Michelle Burnham, “The Journey Between: Liminality and Dialogism in Mary White Rowlandson’s Captivity Narrative,” Early American Literature 28 (1993): 60–75.

7. Gordon M. Day, Western Abenaki Dictionary (Hull, PQ: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1995), 1:47. Joseph Aubery and Stephen Laurent, Father Aubery’s French Abenaki Dictionary (Portland, ME: Chisholm Brothers, 1995), 513, 232. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 15–17, 97.

8. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 76.

10. William Smith Tilden, History of the Town of Medfield, Massachusetts, 1650–1886 (Boston: G. H. Ellis, 1887), 83–6, 42–3. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarlane, 2007), 185. Massachusetts Archives, 30:205–6.

11. Noah Newman to John Cotton, March 14, 1676, Curwen Family Papers, American Antiquarian Society. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 494. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 3:37. Massachusetts Archives, 30:205–6. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 89–94, 283.

12. Tilden, Medfield, 23, 34–5. Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 235–6. Drew Lopenzina, Red Ink: Native Americans Picking Up the Pen in the Colonial Period (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2012), 179. See also Lisa Brooks, The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2008), ch. 1

13. Bross, Dry Bones, 168. Anonymous, A True Account of the Most Considerable Occurrences that have happened in the Warre between the English and the Indians in New-England (London: Benjamin Billingsley, 1676), 5.

14. Tilden, Medfield, 82. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 80–1, 84–5. Samuel Eliot Morison, Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), 418. Nathaniel Shurtleff, Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston: W. White, 1853), 5:31. Matt Cohen, The Networked Wilderness: Communicating in Early New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 7. Oakes had served under Prentiss in the Montaup and Pocasset campaigns.

15. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 504.

16. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 86. Cathy Rex, “Indians and Images: The Massachusetts Bay Colony Seal, James Printer, and the Anxiety of Colonial Identity,” American Quarterly 63 (2011): 83–4. Hilary Wyss, Writing Indians: Literacy, Christianity and Native Community in Early America (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts, 2003), 31. Philip Round, Removable Type: Histories of the Book in Indian Country, 1663–1880 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 41, 42.

17. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 494. See also Lepore Name, 89–94. Ben-Zvi, “Production of Foreignness,” 5–32.

18. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 76.

19. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 98.

20. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 77. Connole, Indians, 186. Josiah Howard Temple, History of North Brookfield, Massachusetts (Brookfield, MA: North Brookfield, 1887), 118–9. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 500–5.

21. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 78. Mabel Cook Coolidge, The History of Petersham, Massachusetts (Hudson, MA: Powell Press, 1948), 18. Henry Nourse, ed., The Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson, 1903), 92. Douglass Leach, “The ‘Whens’ of Mary Rowlandson’s Captivity,” New England Quarterly 34, no. 3 (1961): 356. William Bright, Native American Placenames of the United States (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 326.

22. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 78.

23. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 78–9.

24. Henry Nourse, ed., The Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson, 1903), 92.

25. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 96–7.

26. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 29−30, 96–7.

27. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 32. Ben-Zvi, “Production of Foreignness,” 5–32.

28. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 85.

29. John Pynchon, The Pynchon Papers, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1982), 1:167.

30. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 80. Nourse, Narrative, 92. J. H. Temple and George Sheldon, A History of the Town of Northfield, Massachusetts (Albany, NY: Joel Munsell, 1875), 50.

31. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 72, 80. Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 50. Nourse, Narrative, 92. Coolidge, Petersham, 18.

32. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 80.

33. Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 73, 79; see also ch. 1 and 2. William Haviland and Marjory Power, The Original Vermonters: Native Inhabitants, Past and Present (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1994), 149, 152, 227–8. Nourse, Narrative, 92. Colin Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 76–7. Gordon Day, The Identity of the Saint Francis Indians (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1981), 12–15. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 80–1.

34. On Sokwakik see Brooks, Common Pot, ch. 1; Calloway, Western Abenakis; Day, Identity; Margaret M. Bruchac, “Historical Erasure and Cultural Recovery: Indigenous People in the Connecticut River Valley” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts, 2007), ch. 2 and 3; Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 2.

35. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 81, 83.

36. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 32, 81–2. Nourse, Narrative, 92. Charles Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966), 133n2. Coolidge, Petersham, 18. Temple, Brookfield, 110. Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 41.

37. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 32. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 78. Nourse, Narrative, 92. Coolidge, Petersham, 18. Temple, Brookfield, 110.

38. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 83. Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 41. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 78. Michelle Burnham, “The Journey Between: Liminality and Dialogism in Mary White Rowlandson’s Captivity Narrative,” Early American Literature 28, no. 1 (1993): 65–6.

39. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 83, 96. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Images and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650–1750 (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1982), 8.

40. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, “Captured Subjects, Savage Others: Violently Engendering the New American,” Gender and History 5, no. 2 (June 1993): 183. Davis, “Mary White,” 50. Ben-Zvi, “Production of Foreignness,” 5–32.

41. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 40. See also Joseph Nicolar, The Life and Traditions of the Red Man (1893), ed. Annette Kolodny. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), and Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel (formerly Melissa Jayne Fawcett), Medicine Trail: The Life and Lessons of Gladys Tantaquidgeon (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2000).

42. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 82–4. Elizabeth Chilton, “‘Towns They Have None’: Diverse Subsistence and Settlement Strategies in Native New England,” in Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700−A.D. 1300, ed. J. P. Hart and C. B. Reith (Albany, NY: New York State Museum Bulletin, 2002), 293, 295. Elizabeth Chilton, “Mobile Farmers of Pre-Contact Southern New England: The Archaeological and Ethnohistoric Evidence,” in Current Northeast Paleoethnobotany, ed. John P. Hart (New York: New York State Museum Bulletin, 1999), 163. Temple and Sheldon, Northfield, 32–54. See also Brooks, Common Pot; Bruchac, “Historical Erasure”; Calloway, Western Abenakis.

43. J. Hammond Trumbull, The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut (1636–1776) (CT Records) (Hartford, CT: F. A. Brown, 1852), 2:48–9, 397–8, 406. “Statement of Thomas Warner Concerning His Captivity with the Indians,” in The Andros Papers: 1674–1676, ed. Peter Christoph and Florence Christoph (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1989), 1:330–1. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 143–5. Rueben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols.) (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1896–1901), 60:133. Edmund O’Callaghan, The Documentary History of the State of New York (NYCD) (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1850), 3:255, 13:528. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 67–77. Brooks, Common Pot, 14–24. Robert S. Grumet, Historic Contact: Indian People and Colonists in Today’s Northeastern United States in the Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 97. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1975), 313–14. Nathaniel Saltonstall, “A New and Further Narrative of the State of New England” (1676), in Narratives of the Indian Wars 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 87–8. George Sheldon, History of Deerfield: The Times When and the People by Whom it was Settled, Unsettled and Resettled (Deerfield MA: 1895), 128–9, 142.

44. Robert Stanton to Richard Smith, September 19, 1675, Winthrop Family Papers, reel 11, box 20, Massachusetts Historical Society. Saltonstall, Narrative. CT Records, 2:406. NYCD, 13:528, 3:254–65. Jennings, Invasion, 313–4. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 78. Franklin B. Hough, ed., A Narrative of the Causes that Led to Philip’s Indian War, 1675 and 1676, by John Easton with Other Documents (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 146. Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2010), 149–51. Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 188. Michael Oberg, Dominion and Civility: English Imperialism, Native America, and the First American Frontiers, 1585–1685 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 163.

45. NYCD, 13:491. CT Records, 2:398. Gookin, Historical Collections, 26–7. Jennings, Invasion, 313–4. Ted Brasser, Riding on the Frontier’s Crest: Mahican Indian Culture and Cultural Change (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1974), 22–4. Parmenter, Edge, 137, 143–4. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 52:123, 135–57. Darren Bonaparte, “Turtles, Bears, and Wolves: Mohawk Resettlement of the Northern Frontier,” Wampum Chronicles, http://www.wampumchronicles.com/sevennations.html.

46. CT Records, 2:397–406, 436. NYCD, 3:255, 257, 265, 13:494, 528–9. Robert Livingston, The Livingston Indian Records, 1666–1723 (Gettysburg, PA: Pennsylvania Historical Association), 165–6. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 89. Jennings, Invasion, 314–15. Parmenter, Edge, 149–51. No documents support Increase Mather’s claim that Mohawk action was prompted by a failed ruse by Philip to kill some Mohawks and blame it on the English. See George Ellis and John Morris, King Philip’s War (New York: Grafton Press, 1906), 167. By April 15, Andros reported that the Mohawks “had returned from following the North Indians,” NYCD, 13:496.

47. Christoph, Andros Papers, 330–1. Saltonstall, Narratives, 87–8. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 77. Gordon M. Day, In Search of New England’s Native Past, ed. Michael K. Foster and William Cowan (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), 141–7. Judy Dow, personal communication. See also Margaret Bruchac and Peter Thomas, “Locating ‘Wissatinnewag’ in John Pynchon’s Letter of 1663,” Historical Journal of Massachusetts 34, no. 1 (Winter 2006): 56–82; Margaret Bruchac, “Historical Erasure.”

48. Christoph, Andros Papers, 330–1. Saltonstall, Narratives, 87–8. Day, Search, 142.

49. Christoph, Andros Papers, 330–1. Saltonstall, Narratives, 87–8. Warner reported that Philip’s men were “not above one Hundred” and that Philip was “very sickly” at that time.

50. Bodge, Soldiers, 236.

51. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 84. Nourse, Narrative, 91, 93. Saltonstall, Narratives, 90–1. CT Records, 2:420–32. Richard LeBaron Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in This Plymouth Colony Township (Concord, NH: Rumford Press, 1945), 12–14, 19. William Hubbard, A Narrative of the Indian Wars in New England (Brattleboro, VT: William Fessenden, 1814), 156–62. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Norton, 1966), 171–2. Ebenezer Peirce, Indian History, Biography and Genealogy (North Abington, MA: Zerviah Gould Mitchell, 1878), 48. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press, 2000), 286–7.

52. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 85. These included raids on Groton, in Nipmuc territory, Clark’s garrison, in Wampanoag territory, and Warwick, in Narragansett territory. Leach, Flintlock, 153, 165. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 124–5. CT Records, 2:421. See also Craig S. Chartier, Plymouth Archaeological Rediscovery Project, “Clarke Garrison House Massacre.” http://plymoutharch.tripod.com/id16.html.

53. Brooks, Common Pot, ch. 1. Temple, Brookfield, 110. Lisa Brooks, Donna Moody, and John Moody, “Native Space,” in Where the Great River Rises: An Atlas of the Upper Connecticut River Watershed in Vermont and New Hampshire, ed. Rebecca Brown (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2009), 136. Personal communication, Judy Dow, Brattleboro, VT, March 18, 2016.

54. This disease killed several colonial leaders and speculators, including Simon Willard and John Winthrop Jr. Leach, Flintlock, 170. Mather, “Brief History,” 118, 121.

55. John Easton, A Relacion of the Indyan Warre (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 10.

56. John A. Strong, “Algonquian Women as Sunksquaws and Caretakers of the Soil: the Documentary Evidence in the Seventeenth Century Records,” in Native American Women in Literature and Culture, ed. Susan Castillo and Victor DaRosa (Porto, Portugal: Fernando Pessoa University Press, 1997), 191–2. Gordon Sayre, “Native American Sexuality in the Eyes of the Beholders, 1535–1710,” in Sex and Sexuality in Early America, ed. Merril D. Smith (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 39.

57. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 82, 86, 88.

58. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 86.

59. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 87.

60. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 87–9, 91.

61. Noel Sainsbury, ed., Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies, 1669–1674, preserved in the Public Record Office (New York: Kraus Reprint Ltd., 1964), 406. See also Calloway, Western Abenakis; Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), 129. Both Ktsi Mskodak and Koasek fit within the framework of Quinnapin’s promised return in “three days.”

62. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 89

63. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 91.

64. See Christine Delucia, “The Sound of Violence: Music of King Philip’s War and Memories of Settler Colonialism in the American Northeast,” Common Place 13, no. 2 (Winter 2013).

65. Mary Beth Norton, Founding Mothers & Fathers: Gendered Power and Forming of American Society (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1996), 143. Marilyn C. Wesley, “Moving Targets: The Travel Text in A Narrative of the Captivity and Restauration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson,” Essays in Literature 23, no. 1 (1996): 42–61.

66. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 92–4, 132–3.

67. Henry Nourse, The Military Annals of Lancaster, Massachusetts (Clinton, MA: W. J. Coulter, 1889), 135–6.

68. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 97–98, 130–5.

69. Daniel Gookin, “Historical Account,” 498, 500, 508. CT Records, 2:438–9. John Allyn, “Examination of Pessicus’s Messenger, Wuttawawaigkessuek Sucqunch,” April 29, 1676, Paul Grant-Costa, et al., eds., The New England Indian Papers Series (NEIPS), Yale University Library Digital Collections, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.04.29.01/1676.04.29.01.html. Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society (Hartford, CT, 1924), 21:241–2. Leach, Flintlock, 178–9. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 33–4, 98, 134. Connole, Nipmuck, 200–1.

70. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 136. On use of “I,” see, for example, Hilary Wyss, Writing Indians: Literacy, Christianity and Native Community in Early America (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts, 2003), 42; Connole, Nipmuck, 201; Lopenzina, Red Ink, 179; Brooks, Common Pot, 114, 129, 155, 158. James was responding on behalf of the sachems to the council’s second letter, now lost, a reply to the letter the sachems sent with Tom Neponet on his return. See Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 132–3.

71. Lepore, Name, 146. On Peter Jethro, see chapter 9. See also Gookin, Historical Collections, 53. Jaffee, Wachusett, 63.

72. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 506. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 105. Leach, Flintlock, 170. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 723. Calendar of State Papers, 9:350, 371 (items 816, 876).

73. LaFantasie, Correspondence, 720–4. Drake, BOI, 3:90. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 508. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 202. Hubbard, Narrative, 176–7. Connole, Nipmuck, 188. Leach, Flintlock, 165. Williams, Letter. Neal Salisbury, “Embracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America,” Ethnohistory 50, no. 2 (2003): 248.

74. Massachusetts Archives, 30:190a. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 501–2. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 130–1. The widow may have been a daughter or kinswoman of Pumham, in whose house Job’s children were living in January.

75. Massachusetts Archives, 30:190a. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 130–1. Lepore, Name, 141–2.

76. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 500–1, 505–6. Salisbury, “Embracing Ambiguity,” 249. Drake, BOI, 124–5. Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Records of the Colony of New Plymouth, in New England (Boston: William White, 1855), 10:294. Bodge, Soldiers, 97. Leach, Flintlock, 153. Lisa Brooks, “Peace medal,” in Infinity of Nations: Art and History in the Collections of the National Museum of the American Indian, ed. Cecile Ganteaume (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2010), 189.

77. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 501.

78. Massachusetts Archives, 30:190a. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 501.

79. Others suspected Job of informing the “enemy” of the army’s impending arrival, to explain their failure at Menimesit, however Gookin reported the opposite from both Savage and the army’s minister, arguing that these were false rumors. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 501, 502, 505, 506. Lepore, Name, 142.

80. Lepore, Name, 142. Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 152. Massachusetts Archives, 30:200.

81. Gookin’s report is inconsistent as to the number of Joseph’s children.

82. Lepore, Name, 142–3. Bross, Dry Bones, 156. Anderson, Creatures, 235. Salisbury, “Embracing Ambiguity,” 251.

83. Lepore, Name, 142.

84. Salisbury, “Embracing Ambiguity,” 257.

85. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 100. Lepore, Name, 97–8.

86. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 506, 509. Brooks, “Peace Medal,” in Infinity of Nations: Art and History in the Collections of the National Museum of the American Indian, ed. Cecile Ganteaume (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), 189. My understanding of the men who served in this company is informed by attendance at the Deer Island memorial, and informal conversations with descendants of the people who were interned, including Natick Nipmuc tribal historian Pam Ellis.

87. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 510.

88. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 100. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 511. Nathaniel Saltonstall, The Present State of New England With Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1675), 91–2. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 206–19. Bodge, Soldiers, 213–6, 218–31. Leach, Flintlock, 174. Connole, Nipmuck, 189–90.

89. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 511–2. Leach, Flintlock, 174–5.

90. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 100−1. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 506. Bodge, Soldiers, 223. Jaffee, Wachusett, 67.

91. Jaffee, Wachusett, 66.

92. Leach, Flintlock, 165, 168, 170. James Drake, King Philip’s War: A Civil War in New England 1675–76 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 124. Bodge, Soldiers, 98, 99, 101. Brooks, Common Pot, 13–14, 25, 34–5. Both of these proposals were “shouted down” or ignored by settlers from towns in the Connecticut River Valley or outside the perimeter. Plymouth, too, considered and rejected an invitation to remove to Cape Cod. Bowen, Early Rehoboth, 3:16.

93. Leach, Flintlock, 170. Bodge, Soldiers, 99. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 507–8. Connole, Nipmuck, 200.

94. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 101.

95. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 495–6. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 102–4, 136.

96. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 104. Connole, Nipmuck, 202. Nourse, Military Annals, 112.

97. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 509.

98. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 107. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 501–3.

99. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 103. Massachusetts Archives, 30:202. “Peter Ephraim’s Report to the Massachusetts Council on the Allegience of the Narragansett, June 1, 1676,” NEIPS, http://findit.library.yale.edu/yipp/catalog/digcoll:3617.

8. UNBINDING THE ENDS OF WAR

1. An allusion to Ovid’s Amore, Book III Elegy IX: “Elegy for the Dead Tibullus,” http://poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/AmoresBkIII.htm#_Toc520536665. Thanks to Cassandra Hradil for this insight and for poetic vision and precision. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter8.

2. The elegy for minister Thomas Thatcher was originally published by Eleazar’s classmate, Cotton Mather, in Magnalia Christi Americana (1702). This excerpt is from an original translation of Eleazar’s poem, with major contributions by Cassandra Hradil, Sally Livingston, and Vanessa Dube. Our work was informed by the translation in Wolfgang Hochbruck and Beatrix Dudensing-Reichel, “‘Honoratissimi Benefactores’: Native American Students and Two Seventeenth-century Texts in the University Tradition,” in Early Native American Writing: New Critical Essays, ed. Helen Jaskoski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). For another recent translation, see Robert Dale Parker, Changing Is Not Vanishing: A Collection of Early American Indian Poetry to 1930 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 47–50.

3. See William Hubbard, A Narrative of the Indian Wars in New England (Brattleboro, VT: William Fessenden, 1814), 203–4, 206–7. David Jaffee, People of theWachusett (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 67. Eric Schultz and Michael Tougias, King Philip’s War: History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: The Countryman Press, 2000), 59. Jenny Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2007), 201, 205. Although providing substantive analysis, James Drake concludes that “the will to fight fizzled among most of the rebels before it had a chance to among the English,” while more recently Katherine Grandjean proclaims, “What happened, it seems, was that Native people lost heart.” James Drake, King Philip’s War: A Civil War in New England 1675–76 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 141. Grandjean, American Passage: The Communications Frontier in Early New England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 164.

4. Douglas Leach, ed., A Rhode Islander Reports on King Philip’s War: The Second William Harris Letter of August, 1676 (Providence, RI: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1963), 60.

5. Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884), 66. Jean O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 55–6.

6. J. Hammond Trumbull, Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut (Hartford, CT: F. A. Brown, 1852) (CT Records), 2:425, 435, 438–40, 466. Henry Nourse, ed., Early Records of Lancaster 1643–1725 (Lancaster, MA: W. J. Coulter, 1884) 16, 112–3. Massachusetts Archives, 30:202. “Peter Ephraim’s Report to the Massachusetts Council on the Allegience of the Narragansett,” June 1, 1676, (1676.06.01.00), Paul Grant-Costa, et al., eds., The New England Indian Papers Series (NEIPS), Yale University Library Digital Collections, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.06.01.00/1676.06.01.00.html. Nathaniel Shurtleff, ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay (MA Records) (Boston: William White, 1854), 5:82–3, 93–4. Franklin B. Hough, ed., “Papers Relating to King Philip’s War,” in A Narrative of the Causes that Led to Philip’s Indian War, 1675 and 1676, by John Easton (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 165. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarlane, 2007), 199–204.

7. “Letter from the Residents of Hadley Giving Notice of the Release of Mrs. Rowlandson,” May 15, 1676, (1676.05.15.00), NEIPS, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.05.15.00/1676.05.15.00.html. Colonial War Series 1, vol. 1:71, Connecticut State Archives. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 244. Nathaniel Saltonstall, A New and Further Narrative of the State of New England, in Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699, ed. Charles Lincoln (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 94. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 34, 108. Great thanks to Paul Grant-Costa and NEIPS for generously sharing a draft transcription of the Hadley letter. The sachems’ collective letter apparently has not survived.

8. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Bodge, Soldiers, 236–8, 241–4; Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 89–90. Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), 12, 15–19. George Sheldon, History of Deerfield: The Times When and the People by Whom it was Settled, Unsettled and Resettled (Deerfield, MA: 1895), 12–4. Elizabeth Chilton, Tonya B. Largy, and Kathryn Curran, “Evidence for Prehistoric Maize Horticulture at the Pine Hill Site, Deerfield, Massachusetts,” Northeast Anthropology 59 (2000). Elizabeth Chilton, personal communication, April 29, 2014. O’Brien, Firsting. On Mather’s editorial influence, see also Billy J. Stratton, Buried in Shades of Night: Contested Voices, Indian Captivity, and the Legacy of King Philip’s War (Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2013). On just war doctrine, see Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), 105–13; and Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 10.

9. Great thanks to Melissa Tantaquidgeon Zobel for discussion and insights on these concepts. See, for example, The Mohegan Tribe and Stephanie Fielding, aquyá and áwipun in the Mohegan-English Dictionary and the English-Mohegan Word Finder on http://www.moheganlanguage.com; wlakamigen, wlakamigezo, and wlakamigenok in the Western Abenaki online dictionary, www.westernabenaki.com; olakamigenoka, olakamigenokawôgan, olakamigezo, and olakamigezowôgan in Gordon Day, Western Abenaki Dictionary (Hull, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994), 1:399, 2:283; Aquene in John C. Huden, Indian Place Names of New England (New York: Museum of the American Indian/Heye Foundation, 1962), 377; Roger Williams, A Key in the Language of America (1643) (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books 1997), 182.

10. MA Records, 5:82–3. Nourse, Lancaster, 112–3. CT Records 2:439.

11. MA Records, 5:93–4. Nourse, Lancaster, 112–3. Connole, Nipmuck, 202–3.

12. MA Records, 5:93–4. Nourse, Lancaster, 112–3. Connole, Nipmuck, 199–200, 203. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS.

13. Massachusetts Archives, 30:279. Nourse, Lancaster, 113–4. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 140–1. Ephraim’s Report, June 1, 1676, NEIPS. A True Account of the Most Considerable Occurrences that have happened in the Warre between the English and the Indians in New-England (London: Benjamin Billingsley, 1676), 3. Connole, Nipmuck, 203–4. Lemuel Shattuck, A History of the Town of Concord, Middlesex County, Massachusetts (Acton, MA: Russell, Odiorne, and Company, 1835), 60. Captives had been steadily released from Wachusett since Rowlandson’s return, and the remaining captives held there were returned with this council.

14. True Account, 3. CT Records, 2:471. Bodge, Soldiers, 236, 244–6. Connole, Nipmuck, 204. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Howard Mansfield, Turn and Jump: How Time and Place Fell Apart (Rockport, ME: Downeast, 2010), 153–7. “Assault on Peskeompskut,” Raid on Deerfield: The Many Stories of 1704, http://1704.deerfield.history.museum/scenes/scene.do?title=Peskeompskut. Marge Bruchac, personal communication, Turner’s Falls, August 3, 2014. Hope Atherton, Caleb’s classmate, served as the chaplain. John Langdon Sibley, Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University (Cambridge, MA: Charles William Sever, 1873), 2:194.

15. True Account, 3–4. CT Records, 2:471. Bodge, Soldiers, 241–7. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Leach, Flintlock, 200. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 63. Mansfield, “Turn and Jump,” 153–7. “Peskeompscut.” Marge Bruchac, personal communication, Turner’s Falls, August, 2014. Captured Native women later reported four hundred died at the falls. Turner died while crossing the Green River, northwest of the falls.

16. Connecticut had also urged against an “attack on the enemy whilst so many captives remain in their hands.” CT Records, 2:440; Bodge, Soldiers, 244–5. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS.

17. MA Records, 5:94–5. Bodge, Soldiers, 77. CT Records, 2:444, 455. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1975), 319.

18. CT Records, 2:466. MA Records, 5:97. True Account, 3–4. Bodge, Soldiers, 270–1. Connole, Nipmuck, 204. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 62, 66.

19. True Account, 5–6. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 140–1. Connole, Nipmuck, 204–5. Leach, Flintlock, 205–6, 214. Jaffee, Wachusett, 68. George Ellis and John Morris, King Philip’s War (New York: Grafton Press, 1906), 242. Abenaki and Mohegan concepts of “stillness” are related to the words for peace and peacemaking; see note 9 above. Special thanks to Timothy Gaura for vital conversations that informed this reading.

20. Massachusetts Archives, 30:204. Bodge, Soldiers, 303–4. MA Records, 5:92, 96–7.

21. When Massachusetts had first sent its messengers to Wachusett, Shoshanim said, “Philip and Quinnapin sent [said?] to kill them,” but Shoshanim had said that “if any kill them,” it would be him, asserting jurisdiction in his territory. In a third letter, Magunkaquog leader Pomham conveyed that the Numphows and Wamesit men blamed Philip for drawing “so many people to him” and had even been willing to “kill Philip.” Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 141. True Account, 6–7. Connole, Nipmuck, 204–5.

22. True Account, 6–7. MA Records, 5:97. CT Records, 2:447. Massachusetts Archives, 30:202a, 203. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (CMHS) 4th ser., 5 (1861): 9.

23. CT Records, 2:465. True Account, 4. Bodge, Soldiers, 57, 270–1. Connole, Nipmuck, 204. Leach, Flintlock, 206. True Account says they took 27 and killed 6, but the official Massachusetts report notes the “surprisal of thirty sixe Indians.” The numbers above are taken from Bodge. Shoshanim was betrayed not only by Massachusetts but also by their messenger, Tom Dublet, who is credited with revealing to Henchman the location of the people who were fishing at Weshawkim. For maps, documents, images, and connections for this chapter section, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/cambridge-boston-nipmuc.

24. Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 2:513. CMHS, 4th ser., 5:9. CT Records, 2:450, 465, 469. Bodge, Soldiers, 226, 348. Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 187–9. The Mohegans were reluctant to rejoin the Connecticut forces; they had not been properly compensated and were grieving the recent loss of Uncas’s son Attanwood.

25. True Account, 3–5, 7. CT Records, 2:469. MA Records, 5:84–7. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 513, 524–5. Shattuck, History of Concord, 61–2. Bodge, Soldiers, 226. Pulsipher, Subjects, 195. Massachusetts Archives, 30:201b.

26. Massachusetts Archives, 30:172. Daniel Gookin, Historical Collections of the Indians of New England (1674) (North Stratford, NH: Ayer, 2000), 53. J. H. Temple, History of Framingham, Massachusetts (Town of Framingham, 1887), 60. J. H. Temple, History of North Brookfield, Massachusetts (Brookfield, MA: North Brookfield, 1887), 24. Shattuck, History of Concord, 62.

27. Massachusetts Archives, 30:172. Temple, Framingham, 6–7, 45, 58–61, 83. Connole, Nipmuck, 22, 206–7. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 139.

28. The “election” was on the same day that Rowlandson arrived in Boston, with the sachems’ message. All other magistrates held their seats. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Massachusetts Archives, 30:172, 203, 204, 205. Temple, Framingham, 60. Connole, Nipmuck, 206–7. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 139. Lepore, Name, 143–4.

29. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 528–9. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 137–8.

30. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 528–9. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 137–8.

31. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 140. Connole, Nipmuck, 206, 208. See Lepore, Name, 144. for gender analysis of Tom’s judgment and the release of both Rowlandson and Nehemiah’s wife.

32. Lisa Brooks, “Peace Medal,” in Infinity of Nations: Art and History in the Collections of the National Museum of the American Indian, ed. Cecile Ganteaume (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), 189. Newell, Brethren, 167.

33. True Account, 4–5. The Diary of Samuel Sewall: 1674–1729, ed. M. Halsey Thomas (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1973), 1:18. Massachusetts Archives, 30:203. Temple, Framingham, 61. Connole, Nipmuck, 207. Lepore, Name, 145.

34. True Account, 5.

35. Massachusetts Archives, 30:207, 215. True Account, 5.

36. Increase Mather, “A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New England,” in So Dreadfull a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War 1676–1677, ed. Richard Slotkin and James Folsom (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Press 1978), 130. On Mather and Hubbard’s narratives and colonial narration of just war, see Lepore, Name, 48–60, 105–13.

37. Hubbard, Narrative, 211–2.

38. Hubbard, Narrative, 211–3. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 2:50–1. Lepore, Name, 47. Note that Hubbard further displaced this context in his narrative, as he moved rhetorically from Massachusetts’s declaration to the military expeditions against Philip and Quaiapin, claiming that those who did not come in understood they were guilty. Thus, the offer of amnesty was portrayed as a stage in just war, with “mercy” offered before assaults were carried out.

39. Sewall, Diary, 18. True Account, 5. Church portrayed Awashonks’s surrender with great romanticism, emphasizing his chivalry in offering her amnesty, but Peter Awashonks testified that their primary purpose in surrendering was their “desire” to “settle” at Sakonnet “again,” insisting that they had not fought with Philip but were rather driven from their places. Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Indian Deeds: Land Transactions in Plymouth Colony, 1620–1691 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2008), 485–7.

40. True Account, 5. Hubbard, Narrative, 202–3. In early May, Henchman’s troop had killed eleven or twelve people about Hassanamesit, the scouts credited with having “well acquitted themselves as men and friends to the English.” True Account, 3. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. On June 5, Talcott’s Connecticut and Mohegan forces attacked people who had newly planted fields at Chabonkongamog, where “they killed and captured 52.” Peter Ephraim reported that he had been in the midst of meeting with the sachems in “the Nipmug woods” on June 4, as part of the peace negotiations, when the “Connecticut Army fell upon us seized our party my horse and cart.” Massachusetts Archives, 30:203. On June 7, they took “27 women and children, prisoners” from Quaboag, all on their way to Hadley to reconnoiter with the Massachusetts troops. CT Records, 2:453

41. Massachusetts Archives, 30:211, 215–7. William T. Forbes, “Manteo and Jackstraw,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society (December 1901), 14:240–7. Temple, Framingham, 41–3, 57, 61–2, 65, 70–79.

42. Massachusetts Archives, 30:211, 216–7. Forbes, “Manteo and Jackstraw,” 245–6. Temple, Framingham, 38, 45, 49–50, 61–5, 72–83, 91–7, 109–10. Drake, BOI, 3:80. “Historic USGS Maps of New England & New York,” Framingham, MA Quadrangle, UNH Dimond Library, Documents Department and Data Center, http://docs.unh.edu/nhtopos/Framingham.htm.

43. Massachusetts Archives, 30:211, 211a, 215–7. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Temple, Framingham, 73–8, 90–3. Forbes, “Manteo and Jackstraw,” 245–7. William Barry, A History of Framingham, Massachusetts, Including the Plantation, from 1640 to the Present Time (Boston: James Munroe, 1847), 24–5.

44. True Account, 8. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 141–4. Hubbard, Narrative, 221. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 532. Drake, BOI, 3:79–80. Connole, Nipmuck, 208–10, 228.

45. Temple, Framingham, 76–7. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 141–4. Newell, Brethren, 5–7, 12–13, 53, 109. Daniel Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 25–37, 47.

46. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 141–4. Hubbard, Narrative, 240. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 513, 532. Connole, Nipmuck, 209. Newell, Brethren, 12–13.

47. Massachusetts Archives, 30:216–7. Temple, Framingham, 77–8.

48. Massachusetts Archives, 30:211, 215–7. Temple, Framingham, 77–8. Lepore, Name, 116–7. In their testimony, the Wannukhows had a court-appointed interpreter, James Speen, suggesting they were not highly fluent.

49. Forbes, “Manteo and Jackstraw,” 245. Temple, Framingham, 90, 93, 96–7. Increase Mather, Diary, ed. Samuel A. Greene (Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson, 1900), 46. Sewall, Diary, 22. Shattuck, History of Concord, 63. On the murder of the wives and children of scouts, including Andrew Pittimee and Thomas Speen, see Gookin, “Historical Account,” 513–4, and Jenny Pulsipher, “Massacre at Hurtlebury Hill, William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 53, no. 3 (July 1996): 450–86.

50. Massachusetts Archives, 30:224a. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 144. Sewall, Diary, 25. Increase Mather’s Brief History had recently been published and formal reports, such as William Harris’s letter, were circulating. For Stoughton and Buckley’s mission, see also Nathaniel Bouton, ed., New Hampshire Provincial Papers (Concord, MA: George E. Jenks, 1867), 1:333–8, 345, and Pulsipher, Subjects, 197–9. On the continuation of “involuntary servitude,” including of children, see Margaret Ellen Newell, “The Changing Nature of Indian Slavery in New England, 1670–1720,” in Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience, ed. Colin Calloway and Neal Salisbury (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 117, and in the same volume, Ruth Wallis Herndon and Ella Wilcox Sekatau, “Colonizing the Children: Indian Youngsters in Servitude in Early Rhode Island,” 137–73.

51. Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies 1675–1676 (1893), ed. W. Noel Sainsbury (Vaduz: Kraus Reprint, 1964), 9:467. Lepore, Name, 126, 136, 147–8. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 48–9, 135. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian, “The Publication, Promotion, and Distribution of Mary Rowlandson’s Indian Captivity Narrative in the Seventeenth Century,” Early American Literature 23 (1988): 239–61. Richard W. Cogley, “A Seventeenth-Century Native American Family: William of Sudbury and His Four Sons,” The New England Historical and Genealogical Register 153 (April 1999): 177–8. Cheryll Toney Holley, personal communication, Hassanamisco, June 21, 2014. Thanks also to Bruce Curliss for many conversations about James Printer and Nipmuc continuance. “Hassanamesit” changed to “Hassanamisco” over time. As Nipmuc leaders explained it to me, Hassanamesit was the original place name, but Hassanamisco has emerged as the name of the community. It also now refers to the small reservation which that community still holds.

52. Massachusetts Archives, 30:265, 300. Grafton (Mass.) Records, 1743–1948, folders 1 & 2, John Milton Earle Papers, box 1, American Antiquarian Society. CMHS, 1st ser., 10:134. Cogley, “Seventeenth-Century,” 178. Jean O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts. 1650–1790 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 74–8. Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 25–36, 43–7. Drew Lopenzina, Red Ink: Native Americans Picking up the Pen in the Colonial Period (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2012), 191–3. Connole, Nipmuck, 124–37, 232–50. Cheryll Toney Holley, personal communication, Hassanamisco, June 21, 2014 and July 27, 2015.

53. CT Records, 2:447–9, 458–9. National Park Service, American Battlefield Protection Program, Technical Report: “The 1676 Battle of Nipsachuck: Identification and Evaluation” (GA-2255–11–016), April 12, 2013, 27–9, 40–1, 83–5, 91, 94, 108, http://kpwar.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/FINAL-REPORT-Nipsachuck.pdf. “Dress,” Oxford English Dictionary, www.oed.com.

54. CT Records, 2:447–50, 458–9, 466. Jennings, Invasion, 320. Mather, “Brief History,” 136–7. Hubbard, Narrative, ed. Fessenden, 242. Leach, Flintlock, 210, 215, 221. Oberg, Uncas, 190. “Battle of Nipsachuck,” 85, 87, 91–2. Collections of the Connecticut Historical Society (Hartford, CT: 1924), 21:241–2. John Allyn, “Examination of Pessicus’s Messenger, Wuttawawaigkessuek Sucqunch,” April 29, 1676, NEIPS, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.04.29.01/1676.04.29.01.html.

55. CT Records, 2:459, 466, 473–4. “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS. Hough, “Papers,” 165–7. Calendar of State Papers, 9:444. Jennings, Invasion, 320–1. Leach, Flintlock, 211–2. Independent of this research, the Nipsachuck Battlefield Project report suggests that “it is quite possible the Connecticut War Council (or Talcott at his discretion) targeted Quaiapan and Potucke to derail any peace overtures,” pointing to the “respect and fear” Quaiapan commanded and the threat her “return to Narragansett Country” to “possibly seek a peace agreement with Massachusetts Bay” posed to “Connecticut’s plans to claim Narragansett territory by the doctrine of Right of Conquest and Vacuum Domicilium.” “Battle of Nipsachuck,” 37, 21–2. See also Paul Robinson, “The Struggle Within: The Indian Debate in Seventeenth-Century Narragansett Country” (PhD. diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1990), 257.

56. Sheila McIntyre and Len Travers, ed., The Correspondence of John Cotton Junior (Boston: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2009), 154, 164–5. Leach, Rhode Islander, 68. Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., July 18, 1676, John Davis Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS).

57. McIntyre and Travers, Correspondence, 159. Leach, Flintlock, 215–6. Leach, Rhode Islander, 83–4. Bodge, Soldiers, 263. See also Church’s account of his expeditions in Drake, ed., History, 92–140. Wootonakanuske and Philip’s son was sold into slavery, after months of imprisonment and colonial debate over his fate. No surviving sources record what happened to Wootenanuske. Lepore, Name, 150–3.

58. Franklin B. Hough, ed., “Record of a Court Martial held in Newport, R.I. in August 1676,” in A Narrative of the Causes that Led to Philip’s Indian War, 1675 and 1676, by John Easton (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 173–8, 183. Richard Hutchinson, The Warr in New-England Visibly Ended (1677), in Lincoln, ed., Narratives, 105. See also Hubbard, Narrative, 223; Mather, “Brief History,” 136. John Easton was present on the court that tried Quinnapin and several others. A “sister” of Weetamoo’s, not mentioned elsewhere, was also present, likely as a prisoner, testifying regarding another accused man.

59. Leach, Rhode Islander, 85. Edward Rawson to Josiah Winslow, August 28, 1676, Winslow Family Papers II, 103, Massachusetts Historical Society. CT Records, 2:471. See also Mather, “Brief History,” 138–9; Drake, History, 126.

60. Hubbard, Narrative, ed. Fessenden, 224. Leach, Flintlock, 210, 215, 218, 231. McIntyre and Travers, Correspondence, 159.

61. McIntyre and Travers, Correspondence, 154, 159. Hough, “Court Martial,” 187–8. Rawson to Winslow, August 28, 1676, MHS. Newell, Brethren, 152.

62. George Faber Clark, History of the Town of Norton (Boston: Crosby, Nichols and Company, 1859), 52–3. Samuel Hopkins Emery, History of Taunton, Massachusetts, From its Settlement to the Present Time (Syracuse, NY: D. Mason and Co., 1893), 388, 404–5, and “Map of Taunton, ALS Cohannet” (drawn by James Edward Seaver for Emery’s History), also Massachusetts Archives #4680. Great thanks to Andy Anderson, Maggie King, and Cassandra Hradil for locating the map and for thinking through its implications with me. Leach, Flintlock, 229, 231; Bodge, Soldiers, 263, 464. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 94. Ruth Goold, George Yelle, and Christopher Cox, “History of the Community,” Town of Norton Open Space and Recreation Plan, 2005–2010, http://www.nortonma.org/sites/nortonma/files/uploads/section_3_community_setting_.pdf. Michael Gelbwasser, “Historical War Site Marked in Norton,” Sun Chronicle, May 25, 2010, http://www.thesunchronicle.com/news/historical-war-site-marked-in-norton/article_e9e5808e-08fb-5bee-807b-55255f838074.html. For map and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/lockety-fight.

63. Mather, “Brief History,” 137–8, 71.

64. Mather, “Brief History,” 137–8. Hubbard, Narrative, 224.

65. Leach, Rhode Islander, 2, 83. For settlers’ “deference” to the “official” accounts of wartime violence, see Lepore, Name, 53.

66. Hubbard, Narrative, 224. Clark, Norton, 52–3. Emery, History of Taunton, 388, 404–5, “Map of Taunton.” Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 94. McIntyre and Travers, Correspondence, 226.

67. Bangs, Deeds, 485, 488–9, 495–502, 507, 517–20. “Boundaries of lots in Pocasset, April 1681,” Tiverton Town Records Collection, mss 219, folder 6, Rhode Island Historical Society. Arthur Sherman Phillips, The Phillips History of Fall River (fascicle 1) (Fall River, MA: Dover Press, 1941), 109–112. Duane Hamilton Hurd, History of Bristol County, Massachusetts with Biographical Sketches (Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis, 1883), 746. Arthur Sherman Phillips Papers, “Pocasset Purchase” folder, Fall River Historical Society.

68. See “Residents of Hadley,” May 15, 1676, NEIPS; Calendar of State Papers, 9: 250–5, 274–5, 317–23, 350–3, 366–88, 402–19.

69. Edmund O’Callaghan, The Documentary History of the State of New York (NYCD) (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1850), 4:744, 902; 13:497, 501–4, 514–30, 538. Colin Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 80–4. Gordon Day, Identity of the Saint Francis Indians (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1981), 19–20. Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 184. The Mohawks would continue to pursue raids under the Great Law for years to come, including on the praying towns, contrary to New England’s desires.

9. THE NORTHERN FRONT

1. Quoted in Jean O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 108. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/chapter9.

2. O’Brien, Firsting, xxi−xxiv, 27, 32–5, 42, 94, 108–9. Thomas Church, The History of King Philips War, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Boston: Howe and Norton, 1825), 25–6.

3. “Owaneco and Ben Uncas, “The Complaint and Prayer of Owaneco and Ben Uncas, 1700” in “Land Disputes between the Colony of Connecticut and the Mohegan Indians, 1736–1739,” Ayer ms 459, Edward Ayer Manuscript Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago. Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), 2, 28, 215. Emerson Baker and John Reid, “Amerindian Power in the Early Modern Northeast: A Reappraisal,” William and Mary Quarterly 61, no. 1 (January 2004): 102. See also Margaret M. Bruchac, “Historical Erasure and Cultural Recovery: Indigenous People in the Connecticut River Valley” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts, 2007); Colin Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990); David L. Ghere, “The ‘Disappearance’ of the Abenaki in Western Maine: Political Organization and Ethnocentric Assumptions,” in After King Philip’s War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, ed. Colin Calloway (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997), 72–89; Alvin Morrison, “Tricentennial, Too: King Philip’s War Northern Front (Maine, 1675–1678),” in Actes Du Huitième Congrès Des Algonquinistes (1976), ed. William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1977), 208–12; Kenneth Morrison, The Embattled Northeast (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Alice Nash, “The Abiding Frontier: Family, Gender and Religion in Wabanaki History, 1600–1763” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1997); Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York: Vintage Books, 2003); Frank Siebert, “The First Maine Indian War: Incident at Machias (1676),” in Actes Du Quatorzième Congrès Des Algonquinistes (1982), ed. William Cowan (Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1983), 137–9, 143; David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, 1604–1733,” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 52–61.

4. Massachusetts Archives, 30:204. George Madison Bodge, Soldiers in King Philip’s War (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1906), 304. Joshua Scottow to John Leverett, September 15, 1676, S-888, misc. box 33/21, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Charles P. Isley Manuscript, coll. 79, box 1/5, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Edward Rawson to Josiah Winslow, August 28, 1676, Winslow Family Papers II, item 103, Massachusetts Historical Society. William Williamson, History of the State of Maine (Hallowell, ME: Glazier, Masters and Co., 1832), 533–5. William Willis, History of Portland from 1632 to 1864 (Portland, ME: Bailey and Noyes, 1865), 200–3. William Hubbard, A History of the Indian Wars in New England, ed. Samuel Gardner Drake (Roxbury, MA: W. E. Woodward, 1865), 134–46. Samuel Gardner Drake, The Book of the Indians (BOI) (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1841), 3:110–2. Richard R. Westcott, A History of Harspwell, Maine (Harpswell, ME: Harpswell Historical Society, Curtis Memorial Library and Blackberry Books, 2010), 14. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 88. P.-André Sévigny, Les Abénaquis: habitat et migrations, 17e et 18e siècles (Montréal: Bellarmin, 1976), 17, 121. Church’s expedition from Portsmouth, Rhode Island, to Montaup began on the evening of August 11, and Philip was killed in the early morning of August 12, according to Leach. Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (Hyannis, MA: Parnassus Imprints, 1996), 232–5.

5. James Phinney Baxter, ed., Documentary History of the State of Maine (Baxter Manuscripts) (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1900), 6:118. “Indenture” between Warrabitta and Anthony Brackett, January 15, 1670, Waldo Papers, box 1, coll. 34, folder 1/1, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Hubbard, History, 134–46. Williamson, History of Maine, 533–5. Willis, Portland, 200–3. Bodge, Soldiers, 304. Emerson Baker, “A Scratch with a Bear’s Paw: Anglo-Indian Land Deeds in Early Maine,” Ethnohistory 36 (1989): 242. Hubbard is the main source for this account of Symon’s involvement in the raid, leaving it suspect. Drake notes that Brackett or other settlers had reported the cattle killing to Waldron, and that this “secret” application for “a force” may have prompted the raid. Drake, BOI, 3:112.

6. Nathaniel Bouton, ed., New Hampshire Provincial Papers (NHPP) (Concord, NH: George E. Jenks, 1867), 1:318. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:118. Nathaniel Shurtleff, ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay (Boston: William White, 1854), 5:106–7. Ruben G. Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1896–1901), 60:133. Hubbard, History, 134–46. Williamson, History of Maine, 533. Sévigny, Abénaquis, 153, 126, my translation. Bodge, Soldiers, 301–4. Solon B. Colby, Colby’s Indian History: Antiquities of the New Hampshire Indians and Their Neighbors (Conway, NH: Walkers Pond Press, 1975), 73, 104–7, 275. Gordon Day, Identity of the Saint Francis Indians (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1981), 16–17. Franklin B. Hough, ed., “Papers Relating to King Philip’s War,” in A Narrative of the Causes that Led to Philip’s Indian War, 1675 and 1676, by John Easton (Albany, NY: J. Munsell, 1858), 168. Nash, “Abiding Frontier,” 6–7. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 86. Willis, Portland, 202.

7. Williamson, History of Maine, 535–7, 540. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:116–20, 149–50. Isley Manuscript, coll. 79, box 1/5, Collections of Maine Historical Society. W. Southgate, “History of Scarborough,” in Collections of the Maine Historical Society (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1853), 1st ser., 3:109. Baker, “Scratch,” 240, 245. Emerson Baker, The Clarke and Lake Company (Augusta, ME: Maine Historic Preservation Commission, 1985), 6–15. Morrison, “Tricentennial,” 208–12. Siebert, “Indian War,” 137–9, 143. Thomas Lake participated in confiscating Kennebec guns at the beginning of war. Hubbard, History, 98.

8. Baxter Manuscripts, 6: 178–9. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 89–91. Siebert, “Indian War,” 147. Elizabeth was the wife of Kennebec River trader Richard Hammond. Spelling and punctuation in the document, likely written by Elizabeth Hammond, have been altered for the sake of clarity.

9. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:118–9. Hubbard, History, 211–23. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 82–93. Emerson Baker, “Trouble to the Eastward: The Failure of Anglo-Indian Relations in Early Maine” (PhD diss., College of William and Mary: 1986), 207–10. Bodge, Soldiers, 305–14. Colin Calloway, “Wanalancet, and Kancagamus: Indian Strategy and Leadership on the New Hampshire Frontier,” Historical New Hampshire 43, no. 4. (1988): 275, 282–3. Sybil Noyes, Charles Libby, and Walter Davis, Genealogical Dictionary of Maine and New Hampshire (Baltimore, ME: Genealogical Publishing, 1979), 711–2. Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, “Revisiting The Redeemed Captive: New Perspectives on the 1704 Attack on Deerfield,” in After King Philip’s War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, ed. Colin G. Calloway (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997), 41–5. As Baker notes, the events of February 1677 are difficult to discern, since the primary source is a perplexing account by Waldron, recounted by Hubbard, although Madoasquarbet’s statement sheds light on how Wabanaki people understood Waldron’s actions.

10. Anonymous, A True Account of the Most Considerable Occurrences that have hapned in the Warre Between the English and the Indians in New-England (London: Benjamin Billingsley, 1676), 5. Hubbard, History, 103–6. Bodge, Soldiers, 303, 307. Calloway, Western Abenaki, 81. Calloway, “Wanalancet,” 275. Day, Identity, 17. Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, “Wattanummon’s World: Personal and Tribal Identity in the Algonquian Diaspora c. 1660–1712,” in Actes Du Vint-cinquième Congrès Des Algonquinistes, ed., William Cowan (Ottawa: Carlton University Press, 1994), 215. Nourse, Annals, 114–5. Mary White Rowlandson, The Sovereignty and Goodness of God: With Related Documents, ed. Neal Salisbury (Boston: Bedford Books, 1997), 109–10, 170. Willis, Portland, 196. Rowlandson’s daughter was “brought to Seakonk” by a Native woman and “got home” shortly thereafter.

11. Richard Waldron to Massachusetts Council, September 6, 1676, coll. 77, “Autographs of Special Note,” box 2/42, Collections of Maine Historical Society, courtesy Kevin Sweeney. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 90. Jeremy Belknap, The History of New Hampshire (Dover, NH: S. C. Stevens and Ela & Wadleigh, 1831), 116–8. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:116–7, 119. Hubbard, History, 131–2. Bodge, Soldiers, 305, 271. Williamson, History of Maine, 1:538.

12. Waldron to Council, September 6, 1676, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:116–7, 119, 121. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 89–90. The same ruse (i.e. “under pretension of Imploying ym in ye Country Service” which “gave us ye fit opportunity of Surprisal”) is noted in Shapleigh and Daniel’s letter, written the same day on the opposite side of Waldron’s letter. Syll and Hathorne had recently arrived, joining with Waldron and Frost, of Kittery, to “protect the settlements” and “repel and destroy” the enemy. Belknap suggests their order was to “seize” all Indian enemies. Although many historians have taken Belknap’s narrative at face value, others, including Bodge and Norton, have questioned its validity, based on review of the primary sources. Stewart-Smith suggests Belknap may have recorded a settler “oral tradition.” “Pennacook,” 190.

13. Waldron to Council, September 6, 1676, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Bodge, Soldiers, 307, my emphasis. Norton, Devils’ Snare, 351. Both Norton and Bodge discerned from Waldron’s correspondence that the judgment took place in Boston, contradicting Belknap and Hubbard’s narratives regarding the “separation.” Norton further discerned that Waldron and the Massachusetts officers acted under orders from Boston, and did not devise the stratagem at Cocheco, as Hubbard suggested. As Norton observes, Hubbard’s narrative thus displaces blame for the deceit from the Massachusetts magistrates and ministers. See Hubbard, Narrative, 289, 324.

14. Waldron to Council, September 6, 1676, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:123–4. Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England,” in Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society (Cambridge, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1836), 2:515–6. Bodge, Soldiers, 307. Williamson, History, 1:538–9. Dennis Connole, Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England 1630–1750 (Jefferson, NC: McFarlane, 2007), 223.

15. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:116–7, 122–9, 138. NHPP, 1:360. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 515–6. Bodge, Soldiers, 271, 320–1. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 192. Siebert, “Indian War,” 144. Williamson, History, 1:539–40. Hubbard, History, 178–82.

16. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:116–131, 138, 150–1. Hubbard, History, 182–8. Bodge, Soldiers, 310–1. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 81. Southgate,” Scarborough,” 108–9. Willis, Portland, 210. Williamson, History of Maine, 1:540–1. Siebert, “Indian War,” 145, 151.

17. The Diary of Samuel Sewall: 1674–1729, ed. M. Halsey Thomas (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1973), 23. Drake, BOI, 3:83. This news arrived in a letter from John Reyner Jr. of Dover, sent from Salisbury, MA. NHPP, 1:365.

18. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 515–6. Massachusetts Archives, 30:214. “Massachusetts Council Order to Major Gookin regarding Spies,” August 28, 1676, (1676.08.28.00), Paul Grant-Costa, et al., eds., The New England Indian Papers Series (NEIPS) Yale University Library Digital Collections, http://jake.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.08.28.00/1676.08.28.00.html.

19. Bodge, Soldiers, 309. Temple, Framingham, 53. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 134. Gookin, Historical Collections, 53. Drake, BOI, 2:81. Connole, Nipmuck, 225. Peter Jethro had previously been recruited by Gookin and Eliot to extend their mission to Nashaway.

20. Increase Mather, A Relation of the Troubles Which Have Happened in New England, ed. Samuel G. Drake (Boston, 1864), 257–8. Diary of Increase Mather, March, 1675-December, 1676, ed. Samuel A. Green (Cambridge, MA: J. Wilson, 1900), 47. Hubbard, History, 133.

21. Bodge, Soldiers, 309. Drake, BOI, 3:82–3. Temple, Framingham, 52–3. J. H. Temple, History of North Brookfield, Massachusetts (Brookfield, MA: North Brookfield, 1887), 133. Connole, Nipmuck, 225.

22. Hubbard, History, 162, 165n190. Rufus King Sewall, Ancient Dominions of Maine (Bath, ME: Elisha Clark and Company, 1859), 162n1. Thomas Lake was a merchant in Boston but maintained a major trading post on the Kennebec with his partner, Thomas Clarke. Lake had helped disarm Wabanaki people at the outset of war. For more on Lake and his trading post, see Baker, Clarke and Lake. Alvin Morrison, “Tricentennial,” 8. Although at the time John believed his brother had been taken captive, Thomas was slain while attempting escape during the raid, as Hubbard later recorded.

23. Sewall, Diary, 23. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:118, 120. Temple, Framingham, 52. Drake, BOI, 3:83. Connole, Nipmuck, 225. With Gookin’s advocacy, Peter Jethro ultimately earned his “life and liberty,” later appearing on numerous deeds when Massachusetts needed to confirm its titles to land in Nipmuc country. Bodge, Soldiers, 309. See also Mary de Witt Freeland, The Records of Oxford, Massachusetts (Albany, NY: Joel Munsell’s Sons, 1894), 126.

24. Shurtleff, Massachusetts Records, 5:104–17. Hubbard, History, 132. Mather, Diary, 46. Sewall, Diary, 21. Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 10–3, 53, 109, 168–70. Of Mather’s report, the editor Green notes, “These were taken at Cocheco by a stratagem of Major Waldron.” Although none of the people he helped capture at Cocheco appeared in the court records, Hathorne’s rights to Native land were recognized by the court during the September session.

25. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 492. Massachusetts Archives, 30:219, 219a. Bodge, Soldiers, 304, 307–9. Drake, BOI, 2:117. Norton, Devil’s Snare, 90, 351. Salisbury, ed., Sovereignty, 141. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 190. For more on captives taken at Cocheco, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/wabanaki-coast.

26. Massachusetts Archives, 30:228. “Order re: Mary Namesit and Jacob Indian,” November 23, 1676, photostats, Massachusetts Historical Society. Bodge, Soldiers, 309. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 190. Sidney Perley, The Indian Land Titles of Essex County Massachusetts (Salem, MA: Essex Book and Print Club, 1912), 9, 10. “Biography of Kancamagus,” Farmer’s Monthly Visitor 13, no. 5 (Manchester, NH: Rowell, Prescott & Co., 1853). George may have been among those gathered at Cocheco because he had been married to Wanalancet’s sister. A group of documents from the 1680s, related to the title of Salem/Naumkeag, offer a glimpse of the kinship network to which the two men belonged. See Perley, Land Titles, 8–12.

27. Baxter Manuscripts, 4:378. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 520–1. Franklin Benjamin Hough, Papers Concerning the Attack on Hatfield and Deerfield by a Party of Indians from Canada September Nineteenth 1677 (New York: privately printed, 1859), 51–7. Martin Moore, ed., Memoirs of the Life and Character of Rev. John Eliot (Boston: Flagg and Gould, 1822), 126–9. Edward Ballard, “Character of the Penacooks,” Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society 8 (1866): 433. George Sheldon, A History of Deerfield, Massachusetts: The Times When and the People by Whom it was Settled, Unsettled and Resettled (Deerfield, MA: 1895), 183. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 81–2, 84–5. Calloway, “Wanalancet,” 276. Colby, Indian History, 104–6. Day, Identity, 17–8, 22–3, 29–30. Drake, BOI, 3:113–8. Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captive Histories: English, French and Native Narratives of the 1704 Deerfield Raid (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006), 34–48. Haefeli and Sweeney, “Wattanummon’s World,” 215–6. John Pendergast, The Bend in the River (Tyngsborough, MA: Merrimac River Press, 1992), 67. Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook,” 36, 199–214. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/connecticut-river-valley.

28. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:164, 177–9, 268. Siebert, “Indian War,” 147.

29. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:177–9. Baker, “Trouble,” 211.

30. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:178–9.

31. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:148–56, 169–76. NHPP, 1:361–4. Hubbard, History, 211–23, 226–37. Plymouth Council to John Leverett, June 6, 1677, Davis Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society. CT Records, 492–8, 502–4. MA Records, 5:138. Gookin, “Historical Account,” 516. Thwaites, ed., Jesuit Relations, 60:133. Baker, “Trouble,” 207–10. Bodge, Soldiers, 311–5. A. Morrison, “Tricentennial,” 10. K. Morrison, Embattled, 110. Pulsipher, Subjects, 229. Siebert, “Indian War,” 145–8. Williamson, History of Maine, 545–52. Jon Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2010), 151. Horation Hight, “Mogg Heigon—His Life, His Death, and its Sequel,” in Collections of the Maine Historical Society (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1895, 2nd ser., 6:256–80. Some of the “praying Indians under Captain Hunting” participated in Waldron’s February 1677 expedition (“their council not attended to”) and the June 1677 expedition. Kennebec leaders may have received word of Massachusetts’s petition to the Mohawks from their kin who traded on the St. Lawrence, where the French also expressed concern for the impact of Mohawk raids on Abenaki towns, and the threat to it posed to their own.

32. Baker and Reid, “Amerindian Power,” 84–5, 88–9. Gordon Day, Western Abenaki Dictionary (Hull, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1994), 1:31. Joseph Aubery and Stephen Laurent, Father Aubery’s French Abenaki Dictionary (Portland, ME: Chisolm Brothers, 1995), 299. Joseph Laurent, New Familiar Abenaki and English Dialogues (Quebec: L. Brousseau, 1884), 54. Note that the word conveying “ownership” in the Abenaki language, debaldamwôgan, conveys “independence” and “mastery,” which Wabanaki people asserted and achieved. Day, Dictionary, 1:160.

33. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:179–80, 185–6, 189–93; 4:376–8. Edmund O’Callaghan, The Documentary History of the State of New York (NYCD) (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1850), 3:248–9; 13: 497, 501–4, 538. Joshua Scottow, “Narrative of a Voyage to Pemaquid,” coll. 420, vol. 8, f.57, Collections of Maine Historical Society. Charles P. Isley Manuscript, coll. 79, ch. 5, box 1/5, Collections of Maine Historical Society, 91–2. Baker, “Trouble,” 219. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 82–3. Day, Identity, 16–21. Fannie Eckstorm, Indian Place-Names of the Penobscot Valley and the Maine Coast (Orono, ME: University of Maine, 1941), 102–3, 129. Hough, “Papers,” 166–7. Jennings, Invasion, 317. A. Morrison, “Tricentennial,” 10. K. Morrison, Embattled, 110–1. Parmenter, Edge, 149. Siebert, “Indian War,” 150. Williamson, History of Maine, 552. Helen Ainslie Smith, The Colonies: Historical Series, Book 2 (New York: Morse Company, 1899), 203.Hubbard undermines the importance of this treaty in his History, 238–9. For the New York commissioners’ experience in diplomacy, see, for example, NYCD, vols. 3 and 13. In pursuing diplomacy, Andros, who had a close relationship to James, the Duke of York, also sought to bolster his power and English defense against Quebec. Historians have revealed the ways in which the colonies highlighted and exaggerated the possibility of French involvement, in order to draw England’s attention. See Emerson Baker, “New Evidence on the French Involvement in King Philip’s War,” Maine Historical Society Quarterly 28, no. 2 (Fall 1988): 85–91.

34. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:171–6, 6:185–90.

35. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:189, 23:2. Siebert, “Indian War,” 140.

36. Scottow, “Narrative.” Baxter Manuscripts, 6:191. For maps, documents, images, and connections, see http://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/wabanaki-coast.

37. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:186–92. Scottow, “Narrative.” Baker, “Trouble,” 219.

38. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:191–3. Scottow, “Narrative.” NYCD, 3:249.

39. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:191–3, 23:2. Scottow, “Narrative.”

40. Baxter Manuscripts, 6:191–3, 4:378. Scottow, “Narrative.” Siebert, “Indian War,” 145.

41. NHPP, 1:365. Massachusetts Archives, 69:185. Isley Manuscript, 91–2. Baker and Reid, “Amerindian Power,” 85–6. Charles Starbird, The Indians of Androscoggin Valley: Tribal History, and Their Relations with the Early English Settlers of Maine (Lewiston Journal Printshop, 1928), 56. Williamson, History of Maine, 552–3. Willis, Portland, 214. George Ellis and John Morris, King Philip’s War (New York: Grafton Press, 1906), 314. Collections of the Maine Historical Society (Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society, 1868), 4th ser., vol. 8: 631−2. Mather, Diary, 52. In 1683, Joshua Scottow wrote to Increase Mather with news he had received of the deaths of Squando and Symon, concluding, “so let all thine enemies perish, O Lord!”

42. On “resisting” versus “replacement,” see O’Brien, Firsting, ch. 4.

43. Baker and Reid, “Amerindian,” 84, 102–3. See also Calloway, Western Abenakis and Dawnland Encounters: Indians and Europeans in Northern New England (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991).