Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
Abbey, Edward, 185–88; anarchism of, 160–61, 188, 189fig; anti-immigration stance, 196, 204; and Black Mesa, 211, 212; vs. Bookchin, 192, 197, 234; on the breakdown of representative democracy, 222; on cowboy life, 172; Desert Solitaire, 187, 234; and Earth First!, 121–22, 124, 185, 189fig, 204; and the Glen Canyon Dam, 123; Hayduke Lives!, 185, 234; The Journey Home, 123; The Monkey Wrench Gang, 121–22, 129, 141, 185, 269; on patriotism, 281; on terrorism vs. sabotage, 142
Alaska: Alaska Natives, 109, 127, 212–13; atomic bombs tested in, 130–31; battle over public lands, 108–10, 114, 116, 117, 127, 149, 324–25n23; highlighted in 1969 wilderness conference, 39–40; trans-Alaska pipeline, 58
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971), 109
Alliance for the Wild Rockies, 266
Allison, James Robert, III, 336n67
All-Species Projects, 100
Alternatives (journal), 103
Amchitka atomic testing ground (Alaska), 130–31
America and the New Era (SDS), 32
American Indian Movement (AIM), 211–12
anarchism, 188–92; as critique of democratic principles, 310n65; deep ecology criticized by anarchists, 204–8; Earth First! and, 144–45, 159, 160–61, 164, 188, 189fig, 204–6 (see also Earth First!); Fifth Estate editors’ views, 197–98 (see also Fifth Estate); radical environmentalism and, 7, 144–45, 160–61, 188–92, 189fig, 233 (see also radical environmentalism); Rousseau and, 188, 331n15
Ancient Forest Alliance, 243, 244
Arizona: EMETIC activities in (Arizona Five), 214–17, 229, 262; environmental threats to the Grand Canyon, 23–24, 57, 150, 213, 214, 298n31; fight over Black Mesa coal, 24, 209–13; uranium mining in, 213–15. See also Lake Powell
Army Corps of Engineers, 133
Association of Forest Service Employees for Environmental Ethics, 178, 240
Atomic Energy Commission, 130–31
Bari, Judi, 7, 219–21, 220fig, 339n116; alliance with loggers attempted, 219, 225–26, 228, 338n111; bombed and arrested, 229–30, 262, 339n121; on Foreman’s departure, 231; Redwood Summer event, 228–30, 233, 254; on sabotaging bulldozers, 232; and tree spiking, 221, 225–28
Big Green (Calif. Proposition 128), 253
The Birth Control Handbook, 87
Black Mesa Defense Fund, 210–11
The Black Panther (newsletter/newspaper), 47
blockades: of Forest Service offices, 138–39; of mining equipment, 211–12; of Salt Creek oil drilling location, 161–62; of timber roads and logging equipment, 136–38, 140, 158, 221–22, 254; useless in rangeland activism, 173
Blueprint for Survival (Goldsmith, et al.), 68
Bonnie Abzug Feminist Garden Club, 222–23
Bookchin, Murray, 7, 51, 192–93, 332n21; on anthropocentric vs. non-anthropocentric environmentalism, 313n21; and Earth First!, 192–93, 195–98, 217, 233; humanism of, 200–202; on overpopulation as a social problem, 92; social ecology of, 51, 192–95, 200–203, 332–33n23, 333n27
BP Deepwater Horizon spill, xi–xii
Brothers, W. Robert (“Bobcat”), 176–78
Brower, David: and the Arizona Five, 217; as bridge between mainstream and radical environmental groups, 267; and Clinton, 267–68; on combining human self-interest with the interests of wildlife, 40–41; and dams, 20–25, 22fig, 123, 150, 268–69; development of wilderness areas opposed, 15–17, 20–25; Earth First! deemed vital, 280; and Eiseley, 39; essential points made by, 187–88; on freedom within limits of the natural world, 286; and the Headwaters Forest, 256; holism of, 63; on human beings as part of nature, 184; on the importance of wilderness, 125; Lampe’s letters to, 262; and Mineral King Valley, 97, 150; need to restrain human action espoused, 53; Newhall quoted, 180; and population policy and immigration, 64, 67, 276; progress, economic growth questioned, 24–26; as Sierra Club board member, 266, 267–69; as Sierra Club executive director, 11, 20, 26–27, 57, 58, 115; on Smokey Bear, 38; and TWP, 258; and the wilderness conferences, 38; and zero cut, 265. See also Sierra Club
Bureau of Land Management (BLM): authority, mandate and holdings, 148; Earth First!’s criticism of, 181; grazing fees/permits, 173; injunction against logging old growth on BLM lands, 245; jurisdiction over, 175; oil and gas drilling rights auction, 283; and the sagebrush rebellion, 143, 149–51 (see also sagebrush rebellion); and tree spiking, 224; wilderness review, 114
California: coastal commission, 36; Earth First! in, 134–36, 218, 219–22, 226, 228–29, 238, 247–57 (see also Bari, Judi; Earth First!); environmental ballot initiatives, 253; Hetch Hetchy Valley, 14, 123; immigration politics in, 274–76; Mineral King Valley, 97–100, 98fig, 150; Mount San Gorgonio resort, 15–16, 97, 99; New Melones Dam, 133; People’s Park, 44–48, 50–51, 303n108; power line tower sabotaged, 129; Proposition 128, 253; and RARE II (California v. Block), 119–20, 163; redwoods in, 236–39 (see also redwoods); Redwood Summer event, 228–30, 254; timber wars in, 247–58 (see also forest protection); tree spiking in, 222–23; Yosemite National Park, 14–15, 17–18, 257. See also Pacific Coast forests; University of California; and specific locations, organizations, and individuals
California Redwood Park, 238
Callicott, J. Baird, 105–6
capitalism: anarchists skeptical about, 197–98; in Bookchin’s thought, 193, 195, 197 (see also Bookchin, Murray); and climate change, 287; critiques of, 69–70; and environmentalism, 164–69; Lampe on phasing out, 85; ranchers and, 173 (see also ranchers and cattle ranching). See also consumption; economic growth; industry; the market; oil and gas drilling; private property; timber industry; and specific companies
Cathedral Forest Action Group (CFAG), 138, 225, 284
Cellarius, Richard, 71–72
Chavis, Benjamin, Rev., 273
Citizens’ Clearinghouse for Hazardous Wastes, 271
civil disobedience: activists arrested/prosecuted for, 138–39, 140–41, 284 (see also under radical environmentalism); blockades, 136–40, 158, 161–62, 173, 211–12, 221–22, 254; vs. ecotage, 221–22, 225–27 (see also sabotage, environmental); limits of, 161–62, 227; tree sitting, 139, 140, 221, 251–52, 256. See also direct action; and specific protests, organizations, and individuals
Clean Air and Clean Water Acts, 58
Commission on Population Growth and the American Future, 102
Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, 131
compromise: dangers of, 187; and the Glen Canyon Dam, 21–23, 123; mainstream organizations’ acceptance of, 1, 61, 67, 93, 120 (see also lobbying, environmental; RARE II); politics as art of, 32; radical environmentalists’ rejection of, 6, 95, 120, 121, 124 (see also radical environmentalism)
Congress: 1970 campaigns, 54; and Alaskan public lands, 109–10; and ancient (old-growth) forests, 243; and the BLM, 149; environmental lobby and, 28, 56–58, 116; and forest roads, 176; Koehler on working with, 281; and the NREPA, 267; Oregon wilderness bill passed, 138; and population policy, 65, 86; and RARE II, 116–20; salvage logging rider passed, 254, 264; “superfund” toxic cleanup act weakened, 167; temporary ban overturned, 162; and the Wilderness Act, 111. See also specific acts and individuals
conservation movement: amateur/philanthropic tradition in, 12–13; anthropocentrism of, 104 (see also anthropocentrism); balancing public appeal vs. public impact, 16–17, 18, 19; Brower on, 25–26; conservatism and, 146–47; democracy and, 25–26; ecological/evolutionary turn, 38–41; environmentalism and, 27 (see also environmentalism: emergence of); limits of, 24; and the New Left in the San Francisco Bay Area, 42–44; and overpopulation, 38, 63, 64–65 (see also population policy and politics); Sierra Club at center of, 11 (see also Sierra Club); working within the system, 36–37
Council on Environmental Quality, 58
Council on Population & Environment, 88–89
crisis environmentalism: and authoritarianism, 76–77, 169, 309n63, 310n65; crisis and survival, 71–74, 77, 87–88, 308n55; critiques of, 102–3; and democracy, 74–77, 190; ecocentrism and, 100–101 (see also ecocentrism); economic growth criticized by, 70–71, 84 (see also economic growth); ideas and history of, x–xi, 66–71, 92–94, 307nn40–41; overlap between radical environmentalism and, 196–97; and population fears/policy, 68, 70–71, 84–92, 196–97 (see also population policy and politics; Zero Population Growth); as term, 307n41; wilderness degradation as sign/cause of environmental disaster, 125. See also ecocentrism; radical environmentalism
dams, 123; dam removal, 268–69; Glen Canyon Dam, 20, 21–23, 24–25, 123–24, 268–69; New Melones Dam, 133; proposed for Grand Canyon, 23–24, 57, 298n31; proposed in Dinosaur National Monument (Echo Park), 19–21, 57; Tuolumne River (Hetch Hetchy Valley), 14, 123. See also water
deep ecology: Bookchin vs., 192, 195–96, 198–203; conflated with mainstream environmentalism, 165; criticisms and responses, 102–4, 195–96, 198, 199–201, 204–9; defined, and core principles, 2, 96–97, 101–2; ethical dilemmas of, 102–6, 202–9; reason for rise of, 313–14n21. See also ecocentrism
Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered (Devall and Sessions), 102
democracy: Abbey on the breakdown of, 222; anarchist critique of, 188–90; antidemocratic “coercion,” 76–81, 87, 102; Brower on democracy, development, and wilderness, 16–17, 25–26; crisis environmentalism’s critique of, 74–77, 92–93, 309n63, 309–10n65 (see also crisis environmentalism); environmentalists’ questioning of, 55, 190; limits of, 7, 74–75, 92–93; need for compromise in, 61; New Left and, 31–32, 299n47; Sierra Club’s democratic goals, 13, 15–17
Democratic National Convention (1968), 34
Department of the Interior: and Alaskan public lands, 109 (see also Alaska); and the Central Arizona Project, 23–24, 210; and dam construction, 19–21, 23 (see also dams); environmentalists’ criticism of, 150; during the Nixon administration, 59; Salt Creek opened to oil drilling, 162 (see also Salt Creek Wilderness); Watt as head of, 154–56, 157fig, 174–75. See also Bureau of Land Management; Bureau of Reclamation; National Park Service
Dinosaur National Monument, 19–21, 57
direct action: activists arrested/prosecuted for, 138–39, 140–41, 214–17, 284 (see also under radical environmentalism); anarchism and, 190; blockades, 136–40, 158, 161–62, 173, 211–12, 221–22, 254; by Earth First!, 128, 134–42, 158–59, 161–62, 164, 176, 213–15, 221–28, 248, 252–56 (see also Earth First!); by EMETIC, 215–17 (see also EMETIC); environmental sabotage, before Earth Day, 129, 319n107 (see also sabotage, environmental); by Greenpeace, 130–32; preferred by radical environmentalists, 2, 95, 96, 128–42, 190; tree sitting, 139, 140, 221, 251–52, 256; tree spiking, 1–2, 221–28, 338nn98, 101. See also specific organizations, locations, and individuals
Dumping in Dixie (Bullard), 271
Dwyer, William (Judge), 246
Earth Day, 28, 35; and environment lobbying, 56–57, 60, 62, 66; New Left’s criticism of, 35; Sierra Club and, 36; tenth-anniversary stock-taking, 152–53. See also Nelson, Gaylord
Earth First!: Abbey and, 121–22, 124, 185 (see also Abbey, Edward); and anarchism, 144–45, 159, 160–61, 188, 189fig, 204–6 (see also anarchism); Arizona Five arrests and trial, 214–17, 229; Bookchin vs., 192–93, 195–98, 201–3; and the California timber wars, 247–56; coexistence of wildness and human civilization advocated, 260; and conservation biology, 235, 252 (see also conservation biology); contradictory approaches of, 162–64, 173–74, 181; core principles, 6–7, 107, 120–22, 125–26, 139, 141, 183, 199; criticism of, 7, 126, 139–42, 185, 200, 204–5; direct action by, 128, 134–42, 158–59, 161–62, 164, 176, 213–15, 221–28, 248, 252–56; divisions within, 183, 185, 203–6, 218–28, 230–33; ecocentrism of, 6–7, 124–26, 174, 183–85, 232, 235, 314n21 (see also ecocentrism); and EMETIC, 214–17; vs. the Forest Service, 107, 174–79, 181, 245, 247 (see also forest protection; and specific protest locations); and Glen Canyon Dam, 123–24; government criticized, 152; on the human-nonhuman relationship, 107, 125–26, 139, 184–85, 199, 202, 233–34; importance and legacy of, 261–64; influence of, 96, 262–64, 279–81 (see also specific organizations); and James Watt, 156; mainstream organizations criticized, 6, 124, 156–58, 162, 247; and market relationships, 145; membership (following), 203; and Native peoples, 211, 212–13; and the New Right, 145; Nomadic Action Group formed, 140; origins of, 6, 120–22, 122fig, 141; and the purchase of private lands, 248–49, 257 (see also Sally Bell Grove); rangeland activism, 169–74; on Republicans’ attempts to discredit them, 165; rewilding advocated, 127–28; Round River Rendezvous, 158, 180, 204, 215, 216, 234; on the sagebrush rebellion, 151; and social issues, 7, 183, 196, 202–5, 219, 231, 232 (see also Bari, Judi); state-by-state strategy criticized, 163; supporters’ zeal, 95; traditional and radical strategies both used, 163–65; and tree spiking, 221–28, 338n98; wilderness politics before, 106–20 (see also wilderness preservation); wilderness preservation the primary goal of, 124–26; women in, 221. See also crisis environmentalism; direct action; radical environmentalism; and specific individuals
Earth First! Journal, 312n1; Bookchin’s criticism of articles in, 196; on carrying on the fight, 217; on dissension within the Forest Service, 240; on divisions within Earth First!, 230; Forest Service critiqued, 177; on grazing on public lands, 171; mainstream organizations criticized, 247, 264; one reader’s enthusiasm, 95; responses to Alien-Nation, 204–5; on the sagebrush rebellion, 151; sample appeals form published, 163; Schmookler on government as paradox, 159; scientific research reported, 241; and zero cut, 265
Earth Island Institute, 254
Earth Liberation Front (ELF), 228
ecocentrism, 96–106; alternate terms for, 2, 96, 293n2; anthropocentrism vs., 97, 99–105, 313–14n21; and crisis environmentalism, 100–101; critiques of, 103–4, 314n28; defined, and core principles, x–xi, 2, 6, 96–97, 101–2, 278, 288–89, 293n2; of Earth First!, 6–7, 124–26, 174, 183–85, 232, 235, 314n21 (see also Earth First!); embraced by radical environmentalists, 151 (see also radical environmentalism); history of ecocentric thought, 101–6, 313–14n21; holism a risk of, 6–7, 183–85, 232–33 (see also holism); Sierra Club and, 97–99, 102; wilderness and ecocentric thought, 125. See also biocentrism; deep ecology
Ecodefense: A Field Guide to Monkeywrenching (Foreman and Haywood), 222
The Ecology of Freedom (Bookchin), 193–94, 201
economic growth: critiqued/questioned, 25, 55, 68–70, 83–84, 93, 165; growth liberalism, 4, 82–83, 93, 287, 311n80; as imperative, 82–83, 167; steady-state economy as alternative to, 69, 307n41. See also capitalism; consumption; industrialization; industry; the market
Ehrlich, Paul: at the biodiversity forum, 241; critiques of, 81, 84, 88, 103, 197, 307n41, 310n77; and immigration and population politics, 91, 276; ’“Nature bats last,” 180; on overpopulation and crisis, 40, 41, 67–68; The Population Bomb, 63, 67–68, 73, 87, 309n58, 310n77; and race and population politics, 87, 88, 89; and Stanford, 72–73, 309n60; and ZPG, 78, 78
Environmental Action (organization), 55, 319n107
The Environmental Handbook (DeBell, ed.), 84–85
environmentalism: and the 1970 Congressional campaigns, 54; anarchism and, 161 (see also anarchism); in the Anthropocene, xii–xiii; anthropocentrism of mainstream environmentalism, 102–5, 171–72 (see also anthropocentrism); anti-environmentalists criticized, 149–50; anti-Watt campaign, 154–56; backlash against (see sagebrush rebellion); Bookchin’s criticism of, 195 (see also Bookchin, Murray); call for humility, restraint, and connectedness at heart of, 286; capitalism and, 164–69; concept of collective humanity in, 80–82; connections between mainstream and radical environmentalism, 236, 262–69, 279–81, 284–86 (see also specific organizations and topics); conservation and, 27, 52 (see also Sierra Club); conservatism and, 145–48, 165; and the “cultural turn,” viii–x; as distraction from social problems, 28; and economic growth, consumption, and capitalism, 55, 83–85, 93, 165–69 (see also capitalism; consumption; economic growth); emergence of, 52–53; and Forest Service reform, 178–79 (see also Forest Service, U.S.); fundamental philosophical debates within, 7 (see also democracy: limits of; individual freedom: limits of; the market); and holism (see holism); humanism vs., 2–3; ignored/disparaged by New Left and SDS, 29, 32–33, 34–35, 43, 300n53; and immigration, 90–91, 236, 273–77 (see also immigration); and laissez-faire economics, 179–80, 329n107; and Left/Right politics, 143–45; limits as central concern of, 3, 55–56; lobbying by environmental organizations, 56–58, 60–61, 95, 109–10, 113, 115–16; mainstream groups criticized by radicals, 6, 95–96, 119, 124, 142, 156–58, 162, 247; mainstream groups criticized from within, 263–64; modern society questioned by, 55–56, 262–63; momentum declining, in 1980, 152–53, 324–25n23; and Native sovereignty in the Southwest, 209–14, 215; and the New Left, 28–29, 42–44, 48–49 (see also New Left; People’s Park); optimism, 7–8; organizations’ relationship with the federal government, 58–62, 150–53, 159–60, 182; and population issues/politics, 62–66, 80–81, 83–84 (see also population policy and politics); primary concerns of, 27; professionalization of environmental groups, 57, 60–61, 115–16, 151; and the sagebrush rebellion, 149–51; skepticism central to, 7–8; and social ecology, 51–52 (see also social ecology); and social justice, 29, 34–35, 103, 203, 236, 271, 307n41 (see also social justice); state power’s effectiveness questioned, 144; tensions between liberalism and, 3–5, 293–94n3, 294n4 (see also growth liberalism; individual freedom; liberal humanism); traditional cultures esteemed, 191–92, 209, 212 (see also Native Americans). See also crisis environmentalism; radical environmentalism; Sierra Club
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 36, 58, 167
Environmental Protection Information Center (EPIC), 248–49, 252–55
environmental regulation: Endangered Species Act (ESA), 58, 246–47, 256; environmental impact statements (EIS), 58, 98–99, 111, 131; EPA, 36, 58, 167; Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA), 148, 150 (see also Bureau of Land Management); industry opposition to, 55, 165–67 (see also industry); National Forest Management Act (NFMA), 243–44; during the Nixon administration, 58–60, 167–68, 305n13; during the Reagan administration, 154; salvage logging rider and, 254, 264, 268. See also lobbying, environmental; National Environmental Policy Act; and specific agencies and federal laws
Environmental Study Conference, 117
Evans, Brock: on the benefits of compromise, 61; on Earth First!, 224, 280, 280; on the failure of the regulatory approach, 153, 165; and the RARE II campaign, 116; and the sagebrush rebellion, 172; on the Sierra Club’s influence, 56; on the environmental movement at the end of the 1970s, 153, 154; on the spiritual and aesthetic aspects of forests, 261; on whether environmentalists should be revolutionaries, 41
Fain, Mike (“Mike Tait”), 216
federal government: and Alaskan public lands, 109–10; conservative views on federal power, 147–48; corporate influences, 165–66; EMETIC and Earth First! activists arrested and prosecuted, 216–17 (see also Arizona Five); environmental organizations’ relationship with, 58–62, 150–53, 159–60, 181–82 (see also lobbying, environmental); and the purchase of private lands for conservation, 256–57; skepticism and distrust of, 144, 151–52, 158–61 (see also anarchism); Westerners’ relationship with, 143, 145, 148, 323n12 (see also sagebrush rebellion). See also Congress; environmental regulations; Supreme Court; and specific departments, agencies, administrations, and individuals
Federal Lobbying Act (1946), 57
fire, and forest health, 38
FOR (Friends of the River), 133
Foreman, Dave, 135fig, 189fig, 220fig; in Abbey’s Hayduke Lives!, 234; arrested by FBI, 216–17; on biodiversity, 241; on bioreligionism, 332n20; and Black Mesa, 211; Bookchin vs., 192, 195–96; on Clinton-era roadless area management reform, 279; departure from Earth First!, 231; direct action defended, 142, 151; Earth First! founded, 120, 122fig, 185; on the effectiveness of traditional methods, 163–64; on the Glen Canyon Dam, 124; on green anarchists, 208; on human limits, 180; on the human-nonhuman relationship, 199; on immigration and foreign aid, 196, 276, 285; interviewed by author, xvi; on James Watt, 156; on mainstream environmental groups, 162, 164; on the need for criticism, 183; on O’Toole’s critique of the Forest Service, 177; on radicalizing the environmental movement, 133–34; on ranching, 172, 173; on relations with Native Americans, 213; and the rifts within Earth First!, 205–6; on Russell Means, 192; as Sierra Club board member, 266; ’on tree spiking, 222, 227; and TWP, 258, 260–261; violence against, 137; on wilderness preservation, 125; and the Wilderness Society, 115–16, 119, 120; and zero cut, 265
forestry practices: clear-cutting, 178, 240–42, 246, 248–50, 253; fire and forest health, 38; forest reform, 178; selective cut and sustained yield, 249–50, 252; traditional, 239–40. See also Forest Service, U.S.; timber industry
Forest Service, U.S.: author’s experience with, vii–viii; dissension within, 175, 178, 240; Earth First! vs., 107, 174–79, 181, 245, 247 (see also specific protest locations); ecosystem management, 246–47; grazing fees, 127, 173; jurisdiction over, 175; and Mineral King Valley, 98–99 (see also Mineral King Valley); and mining, 213; multiple-use mandate, 99, 111, 150, 177–78; studied, 242; and Oregon lands, 136–38, 140; and “purity policies,” 127; and RARE I, 111; and RARE II, 107, 110–12, 116–19, 316n49 (see also RARE II); roadbuilding “binge,” 175; roadless area management, vii–viii, 279; Sierra Club and, 17–18, 176; slow reform of, 178–79; Smokey Bear mascot, 38, 41, 302n92; and spotted owls, 243–47; and the timber industry, 111–12, 120, 136, 138, 177–78, 240, 242 (see also timber industry); traditional vs. ecological forestry, 239–40; and tree spiking, 222, 223, 225
Forests Forever (Calif. Proposition 130), 253
the Fox (ecoguerilla), 129
Friends of the Earth (FOE): and the Alaskan wilderness, 109, 114, 127; and the Bari investigation, 230; criticized by Earth First!, 124; Friends of the Earth-Canada, 103; growth of, 60; newsletter name, 286; and RARE II, 114, 118; and ZPG, 64
Friends of the River (FOR), 133
Gasquet-Orleans (G-O) Road (Calif.), 136
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 267–68
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. See GATT
Georgia-Pacific (G-P), 228, 248
Gulf Coast Tenant Leadership Development Project, 272
grassroots activism: appeal of, 190; and California ballot initiatives, 253; and environmental justice, 272; environmental movement’s shift to professionalism from, 60–61, 115–16 (see also professionalization of environmental groups); fervor/dedication of activists, 96; limits of, 161–62; as one of two strains of environmentalism, 102; SDS and, 32; and the Sierra Club, 236, 243, 262, 266–67; and Watt’s agenda, 154–55, 162; Wilderness Society and, 112, 113–14, 120, 243, 280–81; and zero cut, 264. See also civil disobedience; direct action; radical environmentalism; and specific groups and individuals
The Greening of America (Reich), 28–29
Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs), 256
Heartwood (organization), 263
Hetch Hetchy Valley, 14, 123
hierarchy, Bookchin on, 193–95
holism, xi, 285; of crisis environmentalism, 80–81, 93, 196–97; defined, xi; ecocentrism and, 6–7, 183–85, 232–33; of Ecology Action, 44; human beings and nonhuman nature viewed as mutually exclusive, 183–85; in light of climate change, 286–88; and overpopulation concerns, 63, 196–97 (see also population policy and politics); social and cultural differences ignored by, xi, 34, 81–82, 184, 232; as strength and weakness of environmentalism, 34, 50, 232; of ZPG, 80, 197
Hoosier National Forest, 263
How Deep Is Deep Ecology? (Bradford), 198
human beings: Abbey on relationship to nature of, 234 (see also Abbey, Edward); Bookchin on relationship to nature of, 193–95, 200–202 (see also social ecology); crisis environmentalism’s emphasis on, 72 (see also crisis environmentalism); debates over relationship to nonhuman world (generally), 7, 198–99, 202–9, 233–34; Earth First! on the human-nonhuman relationship, 107, 125–26, 139, 184–85, 199, 202, 233–34; nonhuman world (nature) valued equally with, x, 39, 96–97, 101, 104–5, 107; in opposition to the nonhuman world, xi, 40–41, 94, 103, 183–85, 198–99, 202, 208–9, 217, 233–34, 271 (see also crisis environmentalism; ecocentrism; holism); as part of/related to the nonhuman world, 103–4, 184–85, 200–202, 206–9, 233–34, 286; role of, in deep ecology, 103–4 (see also deep ecology); Sierra Club’s increasingly critical view of, 39–41, 301n80; women associated with nature, 194, 199–200. See also anthropocentrism; humanism; liberal humanism; misanthropy; social justice
hydroelectric power. See dams
individual freedom: anarchism and, 188–89, 332n18; cowboy myth, 172–73; crisis environmentalists’ questioning of, 40, 75–76, 309n63; culturally entrenched, 77; environmental activists’ questioning of, 55–56, 80; environmental concerns vs., 3, 55–56, 287 (see also coercion and environmental issues); Hayek’s questioning of, 180; limits of, 7; New Left and, 31–32, 33; ZPG’s questioning of, 78–80, 82. See also liberal individualism; liberalism; libertarianism
industrialism, Catton on, 334n37
IRS (Internal Revenue Service), 57–58
Kalmiopsis Wilderness and Bald Mountain (Ore.), 136–37, 140
Lappé, Frances Moore, 103
Leopold, Aldo: democratic justification for wilderness preservation, 108; and ecological thought, 62, 101; as hunter, 105, 315n32; on living in a wounded world, 128; on private property, 169; A Sand County Almanac, 24, 44
The Limits to Growth (Meadows, et al.), 68, 101
litigation: administrative appeals, 163; Amchitka atomic bomb tests and, 130–31; environmental agenda advanced through, 55, 59–60; legal arguments used by sagebrush rebels, 323–24n13; over Pacific Coast forests, 137, 138, 243–47, 248, 252–53, 255; over RARE I and II, 111, 119–20; by the Sierra Club, 98–100, 111, 137
Living Creatures Associates, 100
local autonomy, as ecocentric principal, 101–2
“Lone Wolf Circles” (pseud.), 204–8
Louisiana-Pacific (L-P), 248
Malheur National Wildlife Refuge (Ore.), 171
Managing the Commons (Hardin and Baden), 169
the market: Earth First! and market relationships, 145; environmentalists’ skepticism toward, 164; free-market environmentalism, 167–74, 176–77, 179–80, 249–50; free-trade policies, 267–68, 276; as regulating force, 179–80, 329n108; solutions to environmental problems through, 7–8. See also private property
McCloskey, Michael: on the environmental movement, 28, 52–53; and environmental politics, 28, 56, 61–62, 95, 305n22; on the industrial backlash, 166; refusal to talk about Earth First!, 140; on the shift to managerial executives, 115; and Sierra Club priorities, 27; on the value of natural environment, 99; and wilderness preservation, 107, 111
Middle Santiam Wilderness (Ore.), 138–39, 284
Montana Wilderness Act (1984), 124
Muir, John: Abbey contrasted with, 186; on Alaska, 108; battles with Pinchot, 13; death, 14; and ecocentric philosophy, 101; forest fires opposed, 38; on interconnectedness, 244; as Sierra Club’s first president, 12; and the Yosemite Valley, 15
Muir Woods National Monument (Calif.), 238–39, 257
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), 267–68, 276
National Audubon Society: and the Alaskan wilderness, 109; and ancient forests and spotted owls, 243, 244–45; and the Bari investigation, 230; criticized by Earth First!, 124, 162; Echo Park dam opposed, 20; and immigration, 275; lobbying by, 58. See also Evans, Brock
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; 1969), 27, 58; embraced by environmentalists, 58–59, 61, 93, 98; Forest Service and, 98, 111; industry concerns about, 166–67; and RARE II, 119; and spotted owls, 243, 245. See also environmental impact statements
National Forest Management Act (NFMA), 243–44
National Green Gathering (Amherst, 1987), 195–96
National Industrial Pollution Control Council, 167–68
National Parks and Conservation Association, 20, 90–91, 109
National Park Service, 17–18, 20–21, 175, 187. See also specific parks and monuments
National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit, 272
Native Americans: and Alaskan lands, 109, 127; and ecocentric philosophy, 101; environmentalism and Native sovereignty, 209–14, 215, 336n67; esteemed/romanticized by environmentalists, 191–92, 209, 212; fire’s role in forest health recognized, 38; and Georgia-Pacific, 249; TWP and, 276–77
Native Forest Council, 263
Nature’s Metropolis (Cronon), ix
New Age (periodical), 133
New Left, 29, 299n47; Bookchin and, 51, 192 (see also Bookchin, Murray); and the Civil Rights Movement, 30–31; and conservationism and environmentalism in the Bay area, 42–44, 48–49 (see also People’s Park); environmentalism ignored/disparaged, 29, 32–35, 43, 300n53; environmentalism supported, 28, 48–49; and population politics, 35, 81; radical, antiestablishment turn, 33–35; SDS and, 29–33. See also social justice; Students for a Democratic Society; and specific individuals
New Melones Dam (Calif.), 133
New York Times Magazine, 278
NFMA (National Forest Management Act), 243–44
NIMBY (“not in my back yard”), 272–73
nonhuman world (nature): Abbey on, 185–87 (see also Abbey, Edward); animal liberation movement, 105–6, 315n32; Bookchin on relationship of humans to, 193–95, 200–202; debates over relationship of humans and (generally), 7, 202–9, 233–34, 286; environmentalism’s critics’ claims re, xi–xii; humans as part of/related to, 103–4, 184–85, 200–202, 206–9, 233–34, 286; humans in opposition to/as cause of destruction, xi, 40–41, 103, 183–85, 198–99, 202, 208–9, 217, 233–34, 271 (see also anthropocentrism; crisis environmentalism; ecocentrism; holism); interests seen as aligned with human interests, 102; legal rights for, 99–100; markets and, 168 (see also free-market environmentalism); revered/valorized, 8, 125–26, 181, 206; symbols of, to environmentalists, 239 (see also redwoods; wilderness); valued equally with humans, x, 39, 96–97, 101, 104–5, 107; women associated with nature, 194, 199–200. See also natural order; wilderness
North American Free Trade Agreement. See NAFTA
Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act (NREPA), 266–67
Northwest Forest Resource Council, 242–43
Northwest Passage (newspaper), 35, 129
NREPA (Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act), 266–67
The Old Mole (periodical), 52
Oregon: Earth First! actions in, 136–40, 175, 222–23; Kalmiopsis Wilderness and Bald Mountain, 140; Oregon wilderness bill, 140; Siskiyou Mountains, 134–37, 175; and the spotted owl controversy, 244, 246 (see also spotted owls); wilderness bill, 136, 138; Willamette National Forest, 148–49, 175, 223, 254, 284. See also forest protection; Pacific Coast forests
Oregon Natural Resources Council, 137
O’Shaughnessy Dam (Calif.), 14, 123
Our Synthetic Environment (Bookchin), 193
outdoor recreation: as anthropocentric value, 104; BLM and, 148; Forest Service, national forests and, 99, 111, 177–78, 279; opposition to development for, 15–18, 97–100, 214–15, 228; Park Service and, 187; privileged over subsistence hunting and Native sovereignty, ix; and roads, 15–18, 188
Pacific Coast forests, 134–36, 236–37; Bald Mountain and Little Santiam protests, 136–41; logging profitable in, 177, 219–21;old-growth forests, 236–39, 242–43 (see also old-growth forests); redwoods, 237–39, 248–51; spotted owls, 243–47, 252; timber wars, 247–57. See also forest protection; timber industry
Peace and Freedom Party, 43
The Place No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado (Porter), 24
Planned Parenthood, 64, 86
pollution: air pollution, 24, 84; as concern of environmentalism, 27–28, 54; conservative views on, xi–xii, 147; crisis environmentalism and, 73, 125; environmental justice movement and, 271–73; industrial pollution, 27, 28, 55, 166–67, 210, 271–72; markets in, 8; oil spills, xi–xii; regulation of, 35, 58–59, 62, 167–68 (see also Environmental Protection Agency); and wilderness, 125; YAF on, 147
population policy and politics: history of concern about overpopulation, 40, 41, 62–65, 67–68, 196–97 (see also crisis environmentalism); mainstream environmentalism and, 38, 63, 64–65, 83–84, 87, 90, 273–74, 285; New Left and, 35, 81; population and economic growth and consumption, 83–85; race and immigration and, 81, 87–92, 273–74 (see also immigration); tragedy of the commons and, 75–76; women and, 84, 85–87; ZPG (organization) and, 62–66, 78–82, 85–86 (see also Zero Population Growth). See also Ehrlich, Paul; immigration
private property: activism difficult on, 254–55; and the concept of wilderness, 253; free-market environmentalism and, 168, 169–70; and grazing rights, 170–71, 327n70 (see also ranchers and cattle ranching); and large-scale wildlands management, 259–60 (see also the Wildlands Project); libertarian belief in property rights, 329n107; and logging (timber wars), 247–58, 264; People’s Park and private ownership, 46 (see also People’s Park); privatization of public lands, 164, 169, 181; purchasing lands/rights for conservation, 248–49, 253, 255–58; rise of, in Bookchin’s thought, 195
Public Grazing Lands: Use and Misuse by Industry and Government (Voigt), 150
public lands: competing views re use of, 143, 149, 150; grazing lands, 127, 150, 169–74, 266 (see also grasslands; ranchers and cattle ranching); hard vs. soft release, 120; privatization of, 164, 169, 181; public opposition to resource extraction on, 265; roadless areas (see under Forest Service, U.S.); state attempts to seize, 149 (see also sagebrush rebellion). See also Bureau of Land Management (BLM); Bureau of Reclamation; forest protection; Forest Service, U.S.; wilderness preservation; and specific states and lands
race: anti-immigration sentiments, 90–91, 196, 204, 273–76 (see also immigration); Civil Rights Movement, 30–31; environmental movement predominantly white, 5, 42, 272; and outdoor recreation, 126, 215; and population policy/politics, 35, 81, 87–92, 273–77. See also Native Americans; social justice
radical environmentalism: activists arrested/prosecuted, 138–39, 140–41, 214–17, 229–30, 267, 283–84; and anarchism, 7, 144–45, 160–61, 188–92, 189fig, 233; belief in crisis as motivating force, 67 (see also crisis environmentalism); commitments demanded by, 5; connections between mainstream environmentalism and, 236, 262–69, 279–81, 284–86 (see also specific organizations and topics); and conservation biology, 235, 241–42, 247, 259; core principles/beliefs, x, xii–xiii, 1–3, 8–9, 151, 180, 235; democratic justifications abandoned, 108; direct action preferred, 2, 95, 96, 128–42 (see also direct action); vs. the Forest Service, 174–79 (see also Forest Service, U.S.; and specific actions); and free-market environmentalism, 169–70; frustrated with democracy’s gradualism, 74; government distrusted, 144; humans blamed for environmental harm, 183–85, 199, 233–34 (see also holism; nonhuman world: humans in opposition to); “in-betweenness” of, 181; and James Watt, 156; mainstream movement criticized by, 119, 124, 142, 156–58, 162, 247; and Native sovereignty in the Southwest, 209–14, 215; necessity defense employed, 283–84; overlap between crisis environmentalism and, 196–97 (see also crisis environmentalism); People’s Park as beginning of, 48, 51 (see also People’s Park); scholarship on, 5–6, 294n8, 294–96n9; shift toward, 95–96, 141, 284 (see also ecocentrism); and social justice, 7, 196–98, 202–5, 236, 271 (see also Bari, Judi; Bookchin, Murray; race; social justice); traditional cultures esteemed, 191–92, 209, 212; wilderness preservation the focus of, 2, 96, 106–7, 125–26 (see also wilderness preservation). See also crisis environmentalism; Earth First!; ecocentrism; and specific groups, tactics, incidents, and individuals
RARE I (Roadless Area Review and Evaluation), 111
Rat (New York periodical), 35, 50, 52
Reagan, Ronald: anti-environmentalism claims of, xi; as California governor, 37, 46, 47, 146; Reagan administration, 143–44, 152–55, 164, 169, 174 (see also Watt, James)
Redwood National Park, 239
“Reinventing Nature” project (Univ. of Calif.), 277–79
roadless areas: Forest Service management of, vii–viii, 279; RARE I, 111; RARE II, 107, 110–14, 116–20, 153, 163, 175–76, 316n49. See also Forest Service, U.S.
Road to Survival (Vogt), 63
Rockwell, Llewellyn, xi, xii
Roselle, Mike, 218, 337n89; on direct action, 128, 248; on Earth First!’s red tape, 181; and the founding of Earth First!, 121–22, 122fig; interviewed by author, xv–xvi; and the Kalmiopsis Wilderness protests, 140–41; and mountaintop removal mining, 289; Mt. Rushmore protest, 289; necessity defense employed, 284; and rifts within Earth First!, 218–19
sabotage, environmental, 207fig; Abbey on, 142 (see also The Monkey Wrench Gang); in Arizona, 213, 214–17; before Earth Day, 129; at Little Granite Creek, 158; mainstream groups’ opinions on, 224; tree spiking, 1–2, 221–28, 338nn98, 101. See also direct action; Earth First!
Sacred Cows at The Public Trough (Ferguson and Ferguson), 171
Sacred Mountain Defense Fund, 215
Salt Creek Wilderness (N.M.), 161–62
A Sand County Almanac (Leopold), 24, 44
San Francisco Ecology Center, 100
San Francisco Examiner, 40, 152
Sellers, Christopher, 295n9
Shawnee National Forest (Ill.), 263
Shellenberger, Michael, 296n10
“Should Trees Have Standing?: Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects” (Stone), 99–100
Sierra Club, 11–12; and the Alaskan wilderness, 109; amateur tradition within, 12–14, 57; and the Amchitka atomic bomb test, 130–31; and ancient forests and spotted owls, 238–39, 243–47; anti-Watt campaign, 154–56 (see also Watt, James); and the Bald Mountain road, 137; and the Bari investigation, 230; battles over the parks (1940s–1960s), 19–26, 212, 257; Brower as executive director, 11, 20, 26–27, 57, 58, 115 (see also Brower, David); and Clinton, 267–68; criticized by Earth First!, 124, 162; at a crossroads (1940s–1950s), 14–18; division within, 263–68, 274–76; Earth First! criticized, 139–40; and ecocentrism, 97–99, 102; and economic growth questions, 84, 165; expansion into environmental concerns, 27–28, 52–53; on the FBI investigation of Earth First!, 217; Forest Service roadbuilding opposed, 176; founding and early years, 12–14; and Glen Canyon Dam, 21–23, 24–25, 268–69; growth (membership and donations), 57–58, 60, 155; and immigration, 91, 236, 273–77; increasingly critical view of humankind, 39–41, 301n80; Legal Defense Fund, 59, 137, 247; lobbying by, 56–58, 60, 95, 109–10; and Mineral King Valley, 97–100; mission and goals, 12, 14, 18–19, 27–28; and the Park Service and Forest Service, 17–18; population concerns, 64–65, 84, 87, 90, 273–74, 285; and private land purchases, 256–57; Proclamation on Wilderness, 125; professionalization of, 57, 115–16; radical environmentalists’ influence on, 236, 262–69; and RARE I and II, 111, 116–20; on the sagebrush rebellion, 150; scenic locations privileged over “working” landscapes, 212; state-by-state strategy, 120, 163; survival committee, 71–72, 84, 308n55; tax-deductible status lost, 57–58; and the timber wars, 249, 252, 253, 256–57; on tree spiking, 224; uranium mining protested, 213; wilderness conferences (1949–1969), 37–42, 63, 125, 126, 284–85; and the Yosemite Valley, 14–15, 17–18; and young activists (campus program, 1960s–1970s), 35–37; and zero cut, 263, 269. See also specific individuals
Sierrans for U.S. Popularization Stabilization (SUSPS), 275, 276
Silent Spring (Carson), 27, 32, 193
Siskiyou Country (journal), 127
Siskiyou Mountains (Calif. and Ore.), 134–37, 175
skepticism: of anarchists, about capitalism, 197–98; Brower’s growing skepticism of progress, economic growth, 24–26; and distrust toward federal government, 144, 151–52, 158–61 (see also anarchism; sagebrush rebellion); environmentalism and, 7–8, 164; radical environmentalism and, 3–5, 7
Sky Islands/Greater Gila Nature Reserve Network, 259, 261
Snowbowl ski resort (Ariz.), 214–15
social justice: Bari and, 219–21; Civil Rights Movement, 30–31; climate change and inequality, 287–88; Earth First! and, 7, 183, 196, 202–5, 219, 231, 232; environmentalism and (generally), 29, 34–35, 103, 203, 236, 271, 307n41 (see also Bookchin, Murray; social ecology); environmentalism and Native sovereignty in the Southwest, 209–14, 215, 336n67; environmental justice movement, 271–73; New Left and, 29–31, 299n47; population policy and, 85–92; radical environmentalism’s disregard for, 7, 196–98, 202–5, 236, 271; SDS and, 30, 32–33. See also immigration; Native Americans; women’s movement
“Song of the San Francisco Bay” (Reynolds), 64
Southeast Alaska Conservation Council (SEACC), 280
Southern Rockies Ecosystem Project, 261
Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance, 261, 283
Southwest Organizing Project, 272
SPK (stable population Keynesianism), 83
stable population Keynesianism (SPK), 83
Stanislaus River (Calif.), 133
“Statement Concerning the Need for National Population Policy” (Wilderness Society), 65
Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 31, 33
Sutherland, Robert (“Woods”), 252–53
This Is Dinosaur: Echo Park Country and its Magic Rivers (Sierra Club), 21
Thoreau, Henry David, 101, 186
timber industry (logging industry): Bari’s desire to build alliance with loggers, 219–21, 225–26, 228, 338n111; complaints against the Forest Service, 112; efforts to protect Midwest forests from, 263; efforts to protect Pacific Coast forests from, 134–41, 238–39, 243–57; Forest Service bias toward, 175; Forest Service timber sales to, 177–78; percentage of timber supply from public lands, 265; practices, 178, 239–42, 246, 248–50, 252, 253; release of public lands to, 112, 120 (see also RARE I; RARE II); salvage logging rider, 254, 264, 268; and spotted owls, 243–47, 252; state-by-state strategy and, 163; timber companies, private land, and the timber wars, 247–57; tree sitting and, 139; tree spiking and, 1–2, 221–28, 338n98; violent confrontations with protesters, 137, 228–29; zero cut policy and, 263–66. See also forest protection; Forest Service, U.S.; roads; wilderness preservation
Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States (Commission for Racial Justice of the United Church of Christ), 271
Tuolumne River dam, 14, 123
Turner, James Morton: on the Forest Service’s narrow definition of wilderness, 127; on the political meaning of wilderness, 13, 120–21, 315n38; on the shift in justifications for wilderness protection, 39; on the Wilderness Act campaign, 108; on the wilderness movement’s faith in government, 128; on the Wilderness Society under Brandborg, 112
Two Yosemites (Sierra Club film), 21
“A Unifying Theme” (Humphrey), 43
U.S. News & World Report, 152
violent confrontations: between loggers and protesters, 137, 228–30; over People’s Park, 46–48
Washington Earth First!, 205, 245
Webb, Walter Prescott, 173
the West: desert climate and water infrastructure, 122–23 (see also dams); environmentalism and Native sovereignty in the Southwest, 209–14, 215; oil and gas drilling, 283; sagebrush rebellion, 143, 145, 149–51, 153, 168, 170, 323–24n13, 324n20; Westerners’ frustration with federal government, 143, 145, 148–49, 323n12. See also Bureau of Land Management (BLM); Forest Service, U.S.; grasslands; Pacific Coast forests; ranchers and cattle ranching; and specific states and locations
Western Ancient Forest Campaign, 243
wilderness: Abbey on, 185–87 (see also Abbey, Edward); central paradox of, viii, 183–84, 198 (see also holism); critiques of wilderness valorization, 126; Cronon on, viii, xiii–xiv, 183, 198; debates over meaning, classification, and degrees of, viii–x, 126–28, 170, 186–88, 277–79, 319n93; and ecocentric thought, 125 (see also ecocentrism); evolving conceptions of, 235, 253, 258; hybrid nature of, viii–x, xii, 292n2; inherent value of, 99; mass consumption of, 16–17 (see also outdoor recreation); as measure of planetary health, 2; overpopulation and, 65 (see also population policy and politics); rewilding, 127–28, 259, 260; roadbuilding in, 175–76 (see also Forest Service, U.S.; RARE II; and specific sites); roadless areas, vii–viii, 279 (see also RARE I; RARE II); valorized by radical environmentalists, 8, 125–26, 181; Watt’s attempt to expand mineral, gas, and oil exploration in, 156; Wolke on the importance of, 230. See also nonhuman world; wilderness preservation; and headings beginning with “wilderness”
wilderness preservation: anti-wilderness movement (see sagebrush rebellion); contradictory philosophies underlying, 97, 107–8 (see also conservation movement; ecocentrism); de facto wilderness, 109, 136, 138, 140, 163, 175, 259, 279 (see also Alaska; Bald Mountain; Middle Santiam Wilderness; public lands; RARE II; the Wildlands Project); democratic justifications for, 14–18, 19, 107–8; direct action as means of (see direct action); Earth First!’s focus on, 124–26 (see also Earth First!); ecological justifications for, 38–41, 110; as focus of radical environmentalists, 2, 96, 106–7 (see also radical environmentalism); Forest Service interpretation of, 127 (see also Forest Service, U.S.); large-scale wildlands planning, 258–61 (see also the Wildlands Project); local/grassroots efforts, 112, 113–14 (see also Earth First!; grassroots activism); Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act, 266–67; scenic locations privileged, 212; state-by-state strategy, 120, 124, 163 (see also Oregon: wilderness bill); through land purchase, 248–49, 253, 255–58; Turner on the wilderness movement, 120–21; Wilderness Protection Act (proposed), 156–58. See also direct action; forest protection; grasslands; litigation; Pacific Coast forests; redwoods; wilderness; and specific organizations, legislation, locations, protests, and individuals
Wilderness Society: administration and finances, 112–16; and the Alaskan wilderness, 109, 110; and ancient forests and spotted owls, 242–46; anti-Watt campaign, 155, 156 (see also Watt, James); backlash warned about, 166; contradictory philosophies within, 108; criticism of, 118–19, 124, 162; and Dinosaur National Monument, 19–21; Earth First! criticized, 140; and Forest Service policy, 177; and grassroots activism, 112, 113–14; growth of, 113, 155; Koehler and, 114, 115, 121, 280–81; population concerns, 65, 87; professionalization of, 115–16; and the RARE II fight, 112–14, 116–20; and the sagebrush rebellion, 150; state-by-state strategy, 120, 124, 163; and tree spiking, 224, 338n101; and the wilderness conferences, 37. See also Anderson, Harold
Wilderness Support Center, 280–81
Wolke, Howie: and the Alaskan campaign, 114; and the definition of wilderness, 127, 128, 319n93; on the failure of environmental legislation, 160; and forest protection, 175–78; and the founding of Earth First!, 121–22, 122fig; on the importance of wilderness, 230; interviewed by author, xv; and the Little Granite Creek protests, 158; on logging on private lands, 252
Wrangell-St. Elias National Park (Alaska), 110. See also Alaska
YAF (Young Americans for Freedom), 146–47
Yellowstone to Yukon Network, 259, 276
Young, Margaret Hays, 264, 266
Young Americans for Freedom (YAF), 146–47
Zero Population Growth (organization; ZPG), 93; Bookchin’s criticism of, 197; Forrester article published, 74 (see also Forrester, Jay); and gender equality, 85–86; holism of, 80, 93; on inaction, 55; and liberalism, 80–91; and population policy/politics, 62–66, 78–82, 87–90; scholarship on, 306n24; and system dynamics, 74; and the threat of coercion, 77–80