Notes
INTRODUCTION
1. Richard Stoddard Aldrich, Gertrude Lawrence as Mrs. A.: An Intimate Biography of the Great Star (New York: Greystone Press, 1954), 366.
2. John Hersey, Hiroshima (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946); John Patrick, Teahouse of the August Moon (1952; reprint, New York: Putnam, 1954); James A. Michener, The Bridges at Toko-Ri (New York: Random House, 1953); Lowell Thomas Jr., Out of This World: Across the Himalayas to Forbidden Tibet (New York: Greystone Press, 1950); The World of Suzy Wong, dir. Richard Quine, Paramount, 1960; Margaret Bourke-White, Halfway to Freedom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1949); Chester Bowles, Ambassador’s Report (New York: Harper, 1954); Eleanor Roosevelt, India and the Awakening East (New York: Harper, 1954); David Bernstein, The Philippine Story (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1947); Alan Watts, Beat Zen, Square Zen, and Zen (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1959); Jack Kerouac, The Dharma Bums (New York: Viking, 1958); Lin Yutang, Chinatown Family (New York: John Day, 1948); Jade Snow Wong, Fifth Chinese Daughter (New York: Harper, 1950); Sven A. Kirsten, The Book of Tiki: The Cult of Polynesian Pop in Fifties America (Cologne, Germany: Taschen, 2000).
3. On American representations of Asia and the Pacific, see Orville Schell, Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood (New York: Henry Holt, 2000); John Carlos Rowe, Literary Culture and U.S. Imperialism: From the Revolution to World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Jonathan D. Spence, The Chan’s Great Continent: China in Western Minds (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998); Malini Johar Schueller, U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790-1890 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); Mari Yoshihara, “Women’s Asia: American Women and the Gendering of American Orientalism, 1870-World War II,” Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1997; T. Christopher Jespersen, American Images of China, 1931-1949 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); Gina Marchetti, Romance and the “Yellow Peril”: Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Nathan Glazer and Sulochana Raghavan Glazer, eds.,Conflicting Images: India and the United States (Glenn Dale, Md.: Riverdale, 1990); Sheila K. Johnson, The Japanese through American Eyes (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988); John W. Dower, War without Mercy (New York: Pantheon, 1986); N. Gerald Barrier, India and America: American Publishing on India, 1939-1985 (New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1986); Robert Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); Daniel B. Ramsdell, “Asia Askew: U.S. Best-Sellers on Asia, 1931-1980,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 15 (1983): 2-25; Eugene Franklin Wong, On Visual Media Racism: Asians in American Motion Pictures (New York: Arno Press, 1978); Akira Iriye, ed., Mutual Images: Essays in American-Japanese Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975); John M. Steadman, The Myth of Asia (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969); Harold R. Isaacs, Images of Asia: American Views of China and India (1958, originally published as Scratches on Our Minds: American Images of China and India; reprint, New York: Capricorn, 1962); Dorothy B. Jones, The Portrayal of China and India on the American Screen, 1896–1955 (Cambridge: Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1955).
4. Barraclough quoted in Robert J. McMahon, Colonialism and Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, 1945-1949 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), 11.
5. Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977).
6. For discussions of cultural hegemony, see Williams, Marxism and Literature; Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Quentin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971), 350; T. J. Jackson Lears, “ The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities,” American Historical Review 90 (1985): 567-93; Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso Press, 1996), 63.
7. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the Frontier (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973), The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890 (New York: Atheneum, 1985), and Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992); Richard Drinnon, Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980); Amy Kaplan, “Manifest Domesticity,” American Literature 70 (1998): 581-606; Edward Said, Orientalism (1978; reprint, New York: Vintage, 1979), and Culture and Imperialism (1993; reprint, New York: Random House, 1994), xxv.
8. Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anti- colonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Nikhil Pal Singh, “Culture/Wars: Recoding Empire in an Age of Democracy,” American Quarterly 50 (1998); Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000).
9. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992) 7, 39, 78, 80.
10. Joanne Dobson, “Reclaiming Sentimental Literature,” American Literature 69 (1997): 267; Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 75-76; Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender, and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); June Howard, “What Is Sentimentality?” American Literary History 11 (1999): 63-81.
11. Philip Fisher, Hard Facts: Setting and Form in the American Novel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 87-127; Stephen Greenblatt, “Improvisation and Power,” in Literature and Society, ed. Edward Said (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980); Laura Wexler, Tender Violence: Domestic Visions in an Age of U.S. Imperialism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Vicente Rafael, White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2000).
12. Lisa Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 4-5; Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 270.
13. Said, Culture and Imperialism, xx, xxv, 317, 336.
CHAPTER ONE: SENTIMENTAL EDUCATION
The epigraph is from “Memorandum by the Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs ([Raymond Arthur] Hare) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb),” in U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1950, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1977), 221.
1. “'Anti-Americanism' Abroad,” map, Newsweek, 10 June 1957: 52-53.
2. Francis O. Wilcox, “Foreign Policy and Some Implications for Education,” Department of State Bulletin [hereafter DSB], 29 July 1957: 180, 179, 182.
3. Wilcox, “Foreign Policy,” 180, 183, 182.
4. Harry S. Truman, “The Truman Doctrine,” Documents of American History, vol. 2, Since 1898, ed. Henry Steele Commager, 9th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973), 527.
5. Christian Herter, “Preparing Americans for Overseas Service,” DSB, 21 November 1960: 775.
6. Kennan quoted in John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 4; and Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992), 180.
7. Leffler, Preponderance of Power, 10, 12, 16-23; Thomas J. McCormick, America’s Half-Century: United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War and After, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), xii-xvi.
8. Robert J. McMahon, Colonialism and the Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence, 1945-1949 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), 43-73, 304-28.
9. Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and Internal Security, 1946-1948 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 201-45; Guy Oakes, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 10-32; Gabriel A. Almond, The American People and Foreign Policy (1950; reprint, New York: Praeger, 1960), 69, 85.
10. Bruce Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. 2 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990), 3-34.
11. Cumings, Origins of the Korean War, 26.
12. Paul A. Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958); Patricia R. Hill, The World Their Household: The American Woman’s Foreign Missionary Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870-1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985); Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the- Century China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984).
13. Michael H. Hunt, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).
14. Richard Crossman, ed., The God That Failed (1950; reprint, New York: Bantam Books, 1952), 141, 140.
15. Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1996), 11, 12, 56; William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (1973; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 135-36; Judy Kutulas, The Long War: The Intellectual People’s Front and Anti-Stalinism, 1930-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995).
16. Cumings, Origins of the Korean War, 27.
17. Freeland, Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism.
18. David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 169; Ellen Schrecker, The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1994), 168-72.
19. Ross Y. Koen, The China Lobby in American Politics (New York: Harper and Row, 1974); John N. Thomas, The Institute of Pacific Relations: Asian Scholars and American Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 93, 115.
20. Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 304-9.
21. “World Struggle,” map, Life, 13 March 1947, 59.
22. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 13; Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Michael Rogin, Ronald Reagan, the Movie: And Other Episodes in Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 236-71; Alan Nadel, Containment Culture: American Narratives, Postmodernism and the Atomic Age (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995), 4, 5. See also Elizabeth A. Wheeler, Uncontained: Urban Fiction in Postwar America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001); and Jane Sherron De Hart, “Containment at Home: Gender, Sexuality, and National Identity in Cold War America,” in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Peter J. Kuznick and James Gilbert (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), 124-55.
23. Harold R. Isaacs, Images of Asia: Views of China and India (1958; reprint, New York: Capricorn, 1962; originally published as Scratches on Our Minds), 209-38; The Manchurian Candidate, dir. John Frankenheimer, United Artists, 1962.
24. Fosdick quoted in Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987), 108.
25. Donovan quoted in Leffler, Preponderance of Power, 60; “Memorandum of the Conversation between the President and T. S. Repplier, August 3, 1955,” DDE Confidential File, Box 99, USIA File (2), Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
26. “Record of the Meeting of the State-Defense Policy Review Group,” FRUS, 1950, vol. 1, 198; “Memorandum by the Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs ([Raymond Arthur] Hare) to the Under Secretary of State (Webb),” FRUS, 1950, vol. 1, 221.
27. Harry S. Truman, “Inaugural Address, 1949,” Public Papers of the President: Harry S. Truman, 1949 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1950), 112-16; John Foster Dulles, “Policy for Security and Peace,” DSB, 29 March 1954, 460; George C. Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), 58.
28. Acheson quoted in Penny M. Von Eschen, “Commentary: Challenging Cold War Habits: African Americans, Race, and Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (fall 1996): 635; Acheson quoted in Mary L. Dudziak, “Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative,” Stanford Law Review 41 (November 1988): 111, 101; NSC 48/5, FRUS, 1951, vol. 6 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979), 44, 46; Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); on U.S. race relations and Cold War foreign relations, see also Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and Foreign Policy, 1935-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); “Symposium: African Americans and U.S. Foreign Relations,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (fall 1996), especially Michael L. Kren, “’Unfinished Business’: Segregation and U.S. Diplomacy at the 1958 World’s Fair,” 591-612; and Von Eschen, “Commentary: Challenging Cold War Habits,” 627-38.
29. Mary L. Dudziak, “Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative,” and “The Little Rock Crisis and Foreign Affairs,” Southern California Law Review 70 (September 1997): 1715.
30. Quoted in Caute, Great Fear, 168; Dudziak, “Desegregation as a Cold War Imperative.”
31. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “State of the Union Address,” DSB, 9 February 1953, 208; John Foster Dulles, “Challenge and Response in United States Policy,” DSB, 7 October 1957, 571; Eisenhower, “Principles of U.S. Foreign Policy,” DSB, 13 September 1954, 360.
32. Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons: The New York Intellectuals and Their World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 179-80; John Daniel, “Ready to Be Radical,” Saturday Review, 10 September 1949, 12.
33. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center (1949; reprint, New York: Da Silva, 1988), 37, 36.
34. Ibid., 52, 54, 189, 251, 248.
35. Ibid., 120-21, 230, 190, 235, 252.
36. McCormick, America’s Half-Century, 99-124.
37. “United States Collective Defense Arrangements,” map, DSB, 21 March 1955, 478-79.
38. Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 8th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), 132.
39. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Special Message to the Congress on Foreign Economic Policy,” Public Papers of the President: Dwight David Eisenhower [hereafter PPP: DDE], 1954 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1955), 363-64; Eisenhower quoted in Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, 132; Blanche Wiesen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower (Garden City, N.Y.: Double- day, 1981), 293-346.
40. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Proclaiming Our Faith Anew,” DSB, 2 February 1953, 167-70.
41. Eisenhower, “Special Message to the Congress on Foreign Economic Policy,” 352-54; Dulles, “Challenge and Response in United States Policy,” 575-76.
42. Dulles, “Challenge and Response in United States Policy,” 574-78.
43. Burton I. Kaufman, Trade and Aid: Eisenhower’s Foreign Economic Policy, 1953-1961 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); George M. Guess, The Politics of United States Foreign Aid (London: Croom, Helm, 1987); Eisenhower quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower, vol. 2 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 381.
44. John E. Juergensmeyer, The President, the Foundations, and the People- to-People Program (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965).
45. Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999); Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); Eric J. Sandeen, Picturing an Exhibition: The Family of Man and 1950s America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Francis J. Colligan and Walter Johnson, The Fulbright Program: A History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Von Eschen, Race against Empire.
46. “Oral History Interview with Mr. and Mrs. Abbott Washburn, #2 of 2, on January 5, 1968 by Ed Edwin,” Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas, 75; “Memorandum from Abbot Washburn, USIA to James C. Hagerty, White House, May 29, 1956. Subject: June 12th People-to-People Partnership,” Box 930, File 325-2, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas; Juergensmeyer, The President, the Foundations, and the People-to-People Program, 4.
47. John E. Juergensmeyer, “Democracy’s Diplomacy: The People-to-People Program,” Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1960, 409-10, 428; “’Status Report on Project HOPE,’ December 15, 1960, from Abbott Washburn, USIA to Members of the Operations Coordinating Board,” Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas, Box 934, 325-F (w1), 4.
48. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Commencement Address at Baylor University, May 1956,” PPP: DDE, 1956, 530, 531, 533; “Project HOPE,” pamphlet published by The People to People Health Foundation, Inc., n. d., Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Box 934, 325-F (W1-1).
49. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Remarks at the People-to-People Conference,” PPP: DDE, 1956, 750; Liz Chilsen and Sheldon Rampton, Friends in Deed: The Story of U.S.-Nicaragua Sister Cities (Madison: Wisconsin Coordinating Council on Nicaragua, 1988), 18.
50. Eisenhower, “Commencement Address at Baylor University,” 533, 537, 529. Dwight Eisenhower, “Remarks to the National 4-H Conference, June 19, 1958,” PPP: DDE, 1958 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1959), 489.
51. Arthur Larson, What We Are For (New York: Harper, 1959), 4-5, 2, 168.
52. Members of the Eisenhower administration often spoke positively about missionaries as models of engaged internationalism. See John Foster Dulles, “A Report on Asia,” DSB, 2 April 1956, 541; Richard Nixon, “A Peaceful Crusade for Freedom,” DSB, 25 June 1956, 1045.
53. “An Appraisal of U.S. Government People to People Activities,” U.S. President’s Committee on Information Activities Abroad (Sprague Committee), Records 1959-1961, Box 9, File 29 (1), Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
54. Juergensmeyer, “Democracy’s Diplomacy,” 1-5, 413, 559.
55. Ibid., 579.
56. John Foster Dulles, “U.S. Responsibility—A Society of Consent,” DSB, 2 November 1953, 587, 589.
57. Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1981), 296; and “Reification and Utopian in Mass Culture,” Social Text 1 (winter 1979): 144.
58. Chilsen and Rampton, Friends in Deed, 1-36.
CHAPTER TWO: READER’S DIGEST, SATURDAY REVIEW,
AND THE MIDDLEBROW AESTHETIC OF COMMITMENT
The epigraph is from Norman Cousins, “Tom Dooley and His Mission,” Saturday Review [hereafter cited as SR], 4 February 1961, 34.
1. Cousins, “Tom Dooley and His Mission,” 24; Norman Cousins, “Report from Laos,” SR, 18 February 1961, 46-47; James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Dr. Thomas Dooley (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 260.
2. NSC 48/5, “United States Objectives, Policies, and Courses of Action in Asia,” U.S. Department of State, in Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter cited as FRUS], 1951, vol. 6 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979), 45-46.
3. Thomas A. Bailey, The Man in the Street: The Impact of American Public Opinion on Foreign Policy (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 134. Robert A. McCaughey, International Studies and Academic Enterprise: A Chapter in the Enclosure of American Learning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984); Alice M. Rivlin, The Role of the Federal Government in Financing Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1961).
4. Martin Kriesberg, “Dark Areas of Ignorance,” in Public Opinion and Foreign Policy, ed. Lester Markel (New York: Harper, 1949), 63; “Record of the Meeting of the State-Defense Policy Review Group, Department of State, Thursday, March 16, 1950,” FRUS, 1950, vol. 1: 199; “Record of the Meeting of the State-Defense Policy Review Group, Department of State, Friday, March 10, 1950,” FRUS, 1950, vol. 1: 192.
5. On the idea of a cultural formation, see Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 118-20; and Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1996), 202.
6. Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: How He Became an American Culture-God and Helped Create a New Audience for Old Music (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987); Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Janice A. Radway, A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
7. Radway, Feeling for Books, 283-84.
8. Leslie A. Fiedler, “The Middle against Both Ends,” in Mass Culture: The Popular Arts in America, ed. Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957), 544, 546; Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult & Midcult,” in Against the American Grain (New York: Random House, 1962), 51 54.
9. Macdonald, “Masscult & Midcult,” 39, 46; Robert Warshow, The Immediate Experience (New York: Doubleday, 1962), 35; Irving Howe and Lewis Coser, The American Communist Party: A Critical History, 1919-1957 (Boston: Beacon, 1957), 366.
10. Andrew Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1989), 15-64.
11. Dwight Macdonald, “Norman Cousins’ Flat World,” in Discriminations: Essays and Afterthoughts, 1938-1974 (New York: Grossman, 1974), 175; Irving Howe, “This Age of Conformity,” Partisan Review, January-February 1954, 32; Fiedler, “The Middle against Both Ends,” 541.
12. Numerous scholars have used Henry R. Luce and his magazines as windows onto twentieth-century American society, politics, and attitudes toward Asia. See, for example, Robert E. Herzstein, Henry R. Luce: A Political Portrait of the Man Who Created the American Century (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1994); T. Christopher Jespersen, American Images of China, 1931-1949 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); Wendy Kozol, Life’s America: Family and Nation in Postwar Photojournalism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Patricia Neils, China Images in the Life and Times of Henry Luce (Savage, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990).
13. John Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom: Lila and De Witt Wallace and the Story of the Reader’s Digest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 22-40, 241.
14. James Playsted Wood, Of Lasting Interest: The Story of the Reader’s Digest (1958; reprint, New York: Doubleday, 1967), 40, 266.
15. Wood, Of Lasting Interest 40; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, passim.
16. Wood, Of Lasting Interest 257, 16, 15, 254.
17. Samuel Schreiner Jr., The Condensed World of the Reader’s Digest (New York: Stein and Day, 1977), 16; Wood, Of Lasting Interest 29; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 170-71.
18. John Bainbridge, Little Wonder, or, The Reader’s Digest and How It Grew (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1946), 134, 113; Wood, Of Lasting Interest, 155-57; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 164, 262, 299; Schreiner, Condensed World, 11.
19. Bainbridge, Little Wonder, 89; Wood, Of Lasting Interest, 17-21; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 44-45, 48; Reader’s Digest [hereafter cited as RD], January, February, March, May, October 1947, inside front covers.
20. David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard Books, 1993), 229; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 257, passim.
21. Schreiner, Condensed World, 65; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 474.
22. Schreiner, Condensed World, 143; see Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999), 88.
23. Hannah Arendt, “The Ex-Communists,” Commonweal, 20 March 1953, 595-99 (thanks to David Engerman for bringing this article to my attention); Schreiner, Condensed World, 150.
24. Norman Cousins, “Life Begins at Twenty-Five,” SR, 24 April 1965, 26–28; Edward E. Chielens, ed., American Literary Magazines: The Twentieth Century (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1992), 303; Sherilynn Cox Bennion, “The Saturday Review: From Literature to Life,” Ph.D. diss., Syracuse University, 1968, 2; Norman Cousins, “A Postmortem of the Saturday Review,” Center Magazine, May/June 1983, 33, and “A New World for ‘SR,’” SR, 11 September 1973, 5.
25. Bennion, “The Saturday Review,” 312; W. R. Simmons, Selective Markets and the Media Reaching Them (New York: Simmons Media Studies, 1966).
26. Henry Seidel Canby, “Timely and Timeless,” SR, 2 August 1924, 2; Joseph Wood Krutch, “Introduction,” in The Saturday Review Treasury, ed. John Haverstick and the editors of the Saturday Review (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957), xx; Bennion, “The Saturday Review,” 49.
27. Norman Cousins, “Confessions of a Universalist: One Man’s Re-Education,” SR, 6 August 1949, 74; Norman Cousins, “Notes on SRL,” SR, 5 August 1944, 44-45; Krutch, “Introduction,” xxii-xxiii.
28. Bennion, “The Saturday Review,” 72, 141, 134.
29. Norman Cousins, “The Paralysis of Conscience,” SR, 6 October 1945, 14; Harry J. Carman, “Setting Our Sights for Tomorrow,” SR, 15 September 1945,16; Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” SR, 15 August 1945, 8.
30. Robert Okin, “Asia, One or Divisible,” review of The Revolt of Asia, by Robert Payne, SR, 11 October 1947, 40; Gary Wills, “Introduction,” in Scoundrel Time, by Lillian Hellman (New York: Bantam, 1976), 24-25.
31. Paul S. Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (1985; reprint, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 27-45.
32. Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 208; Boyer, Bomb’s Early Light, 43; Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (1949; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1988), 240.
33. Bradford Smith, “Directing and Evolution,” review of MacArthur’s Japan, by Russell Brines, SR, 15 October 1948, 15; W. D. Patterson, “America and the Challenge of Asia,” SR, 14 August 1951, 4; Harrison Smith, “The World Knocks at Our Door,” SR, 10 November 1945, 24.
34. Max Eastman and J. B. Powell, “The Fate of World Is at Stake in China,” RD, June 1945, 13-20; Bishop J. Sheil, “Message to America,” RD, May 1946, back cover; Hanson W. Baldwin, “The United States at the Crossroads of History,” RD, May 1947, 24-26; Harrison Smith, “Our Conscience and the War,” SR, 12 August 1950, 22; Norman Cousins, “The Grand Commitment,” SR, 26 May 1956, 22; John T. Flynn, “Uncle Sam’s Imperialistic Jag,” RD, June 1949, 102.
35. Christopher Shannon, “A World Made Safe for Differences: Ruth Benedict’s The Chrysanthemum and the Sword,” American Quarterly 47 (1995): 659-80.
36. Norman Cousins, “Confessions of a Miseducated Man,” SR, 10 May 1952, 22.
37. Norman Cousins, “Science Will Not Save Us,” SR, 14 December 1957, 20; Wood, Of Lasting Interest, 165.
38. Norman Cousins, Human Options: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981), 34; Charles Malik, “Is It Too Late to Win against Communism?” RD, September 1960, 37–43.
39. Wood, Of Lasting Interest, 142–46.
40. RD, February 1947, insert between 96–97.
41. Norman Cousins, “Disconnected Man,” in Present Tense, 272; Cousins, “Life Begins at Twenty-Five,” SR, 24 April 1965, 28.
42. Wood, Of Lasting Interest, 250.
43. Norman Cousins, “Bankrupt Realism,” SR, 8 March 1947, 22, and “The Incomplete Power,” SR, 1 December 1951, 28; Harrison Smith, “Themes for a New Day,” SR, 26 April 1947, 18; “Fiction,” SR, 6 September 1947, 16; “Literature for Survival,” SR, 20 September 1947, 18; “End of a Year,” SR, 27 December 1947, 20; and “A New World for Writers,” SR, 2 June 1945, 16.
44. Letter from Lederer to Edward Lansdale, 28 October 1957, in William J. Lederer Papers, Special Collections and Archives, W. E. B. Du Bois Library, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Thanks to Jim Fisher for sharing this with me.
45. George Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), 43-72.
46. Herring, America’s Longest War, 71; Norman Cousins, “What We Don’t Know Can Kill Us,” SR, 14 January 1961, 24, and “Report from Laos,” SR, 18 February 1961, 12-14, 46-47, condensed in RD, May 1961, 96-101.
47. Fisher, Dr. America, 69-75.
48. “Eugene Burdick,” in Contemporary Authors, vols. 5-8 (Detroit: Gale Research, 1969), 171; William J. Lederer and Eugene Burdick, authors’ note, The Ugly American (1958; reprint, New York: Fawcett Crest Ballantine, 1983).
49. John Hellman, American Myth and the Legacy of Vietnam (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 15-18; William J. Fulbright, “’The Ugly American’ and State Department Policies,” Congressional Record [hereafter cited as CR], 19 May 1959, 8445-48; “’The Ugly American,’” CR, 7 September 1959, 18332-35; “How to Make a Movie out of ‘The Ugly American,’” CR, 14 September 1959, 19577-79; and “Proposed Filming of ‘The Ugly American,’” CR, 24 August 1959, 16752; Russell B. Long, “Nomination of C. Douglas Dillon to be Under Secretary of State,” CR, 15 May 1959, 8238-40; Stuart Symington, “Foreign Service Academy,” CR, 16 January 1959, 237; New York Times, 23 January 1959, L-23.
50. Lederer and Burdick, Ugly American, 233.
51. William J. Lederer and Eugene Burdick, “Salute to Deeds of Non-Ugly Americans,” Life, 7 December 1959, 148-63; Fisher, Dr. America, 1.
52. Fisher, Dr. America, passim; “Pick of the Paperbacks,” SR, 17 October 1959, 20.
53. Thomas A. Dooley, The Night They Burned the Mountain (1960; reprint, New York: Signet, 1961), 23; Thomas A. Dooley, The Edge of Tomorrow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1958), 193; Fisher, Dr. America, 149–50, 224.
54. James T. Fisher, “A World Made Safe for Diversity: The Vietnam Lobby and the Politics of Pluralism, 1945-1963,” in Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945-1966, ed. Christian G. Appy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000); Fisher, Dr. America, passim.
55. Dooley, Edge of Tomorrow, v, 98.
56. Ibid., 136, 199, 203, 198.
57. Dooley, Night They Burned the Mountain, 46-47.
58. Dooley, Edge of Tomorrow, caption of photograph following p. 80, 68, 40.
59. Ibid., 2; Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (New York: Anchor Doubleday, 1983).
60. Fisher, Dr. America, 69-78; Heidenry, Theirs Was the Kingdom, 323.
61. Ferdinand Kuhn, “A Candle for the Jungle’s Dark,” review of The Night They Burned the Mountain, by Thomas A. Dooley, SR, 18 June 1960, 21; Cousins, “Tom Dooley and His Mission,” 34; MEDICO letterhead from 2 February 1961; thanks to Jim Fisher for sharing this with me.
62. James Sloan Allen, The Romance of Commerce and Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 164-67; Norman Cousins, Dr. Schweitzer of Lambaréné (New York: Harper, 1960).
63. George Kennan, “The Long Telegram,” in Containment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy, 1945-1950, ed. Thomas H. Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 63, 62; Hanson W. Baldwin, “The United States at the Crossroads of History,” RD, May 1947, 24; Max Eastman and J. B. Powell, “The Fate of the World Is at Stake in China,” RD, June 1945, 13; Harrison Smith, “The Die Is Cast,” SR, 5 April 1947, 22; Kate Holliday, “Japan Discovers Modern Medicine,” RD, April 1951, 110-12; Geoffrey S. Smith, “National Security and Personal Isolation: Sex, Gender, and Disease in the Cold War United States,” International History Review, May 1992 307–37.
64. Dooley, Edge of Tomorrow, 200-201.
65. June Howard, “What Is Sentimentality?” American Literary History 11 (1999): 74.
CHAPTER THREE: HOW TO BE AN AMERICAN ABROAD
The epigraph is from William Harlan Hale, “Millions of Ambassadors,” Saturday Review [hereafter cited as SR], 10 January 1959, 10.
1. “Mobs Sack Hotels in Saigon, 60 Hurt,” New York Times, 21 July 1955, 1
2. Michener, quoted in John P. Hayes, James A. Michener: A Biography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1984), 111-12.
3. A. Grove Day, James A. Michener (New York: Twayne, 1964), 32.
4. Hale, “Millions of Ambassadors,” 10.
5. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation in the Contact Zone (New York: Routledge, 1992), 81, 84.
6. Foster Rhea Dulles, Americans Abroad: Two Centuries of European Travel (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964), 169; Eric Leed, The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 2. See also Louis Turner and John Ash, The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery (London: Constable, 1975).
7. Norman Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 38; William D. Patterson, “E Pluribus Unum,” SR, 2 January 1954, 16; Dulles, Americans Abroad, 170; “World Travel Issue,” SR, 7 January 1961, 37; Horace Sutton, Travelers: The American Tourist from Stagecoach to Space Shuttle (New York: William Morrow, 1980), 258; William J. Lederer, “Western Pacific,” SR, 17 October 1959, 29, and “Points East,” SR, 9 December 1961, 31.
8. Preston Hotchkiss, “Increasing International Travel,” Department of State Bulletin [hereafter cited as DSB], 2 May 1955, 743; Dulles, Americans Abroad, 169; “Anti-Americanism Abroad,” Newsweek, 10 June 1957, 52-53; Stanley High, “They Bring the Bread of Life,” Reader’s Digest [hereafter cited as RD], June 1959, 218; Hale, “Millions of Ambassadors,” 9.
9. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 105–7, 198-99; Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992), 56-58.
10. Horace Sutton, “Larkism or Overseasmanship?” SR, 9 January 1960, 25; Hale, “Millions of Ambassadors,” 9; Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years: Mandate for Change, 1953-1956 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1963), 141; Robert L. Branyan and Lawrence H. Larsen, The Eisenhower Administration, 1953-1961: A Documentary History (New York: Random House, 1971), 1198-99.
11. Patterson, “E Pluribus Unum,” 16; Dulles, Americans Abroad, 173; Juan Trippe, “Now You Can Take That Trip Abroad,” RD, January 1949, 70; Somerset R. Waters, “Importance of International Travel to the Foreign Trade of the United States,” DSB, 17 October 1955, 621; Sutton, Travelers, 262; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “U.S. Dependence on Foreign Trade,” DSB, 26 October 1953, 540-41.
12. Clarence B. Randall, Chair, “Report of the Commission on Foreign Economic Policy to the President and Congress,” DSB, 8 February 1954, 194; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Special Message to Congress on Foreign Economic Policy,” Public Papers of the President: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1955), 360-61; “Development of International Travel, Its Present Increasing Volume and Future Prospects,” DSB, 21 March 1955, 491-95; Preston Hotchkiss, “Increasing International Travel,” DSB, 2 May 1955, 741-45; Waters, “Importance of International Travel,” 621; Sinclair Weeks, “Importance of International Travel in Advancing World Peace,” DSB, 18 July 1955, 106.
13. Hale, “Millions of Ambassadors,” 11.
14. William D. Patterson, “In Defense of the Tourist,” SR, 12 January 1957, 16, and “History and the Tourist,” SR, 14 March 1959, 28.
15. State Dept. pamphlet quoted in Francis J. Colligan, “Americans Abroad,” DSB, 3 May 1954, 664; “Letter of President to Be Included in U.S. Passports,” DSB, 12 August 1957, 275.
16. Colligan, “Americans Abroad,” 663-68.
17. George Kent, “How to Be an American Abroad,” RD, June 1949, 118; Leland Stowe, “The Knack of Intelligent Travel,” RD, September 1952, 103-6.
18. Harrison Smith, “A New World for Writers,” SR, 2 June 1945, 16; Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and Foreign Policy, 1935-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 222; Richard M. Nixon, “Meeting the People of Asia,” DSB, 4 January 1954, 14.
19. Stowe, “Knack of Intelligent Travel,” 105; Norman Cousins, “Twenty Questions,” SR, 15 December 1951, 22; Lyndon B. Johnson, “What Foreigners Want to Know about the United States,” RD, December 1961, 47.
20. Norman Cousins, “Everyman as Reporter,” SR, 20 October 1956, 28.
21. Newsweek, “James Michener: Again the Warm Voice of Asia,” 24 January 1954, 92.
22. Gene Wise, “‘Paradigm Dramas’ in American Studies: A Cultural and Institutional History of the Movement,” American Quarterly 31, no. 3 (1979): 293-337; Day, James A. Michener, 18-22; Hayes, James A. Michener, 11-58.
23. James A. Michener, “When Does Education Stop?” RD, December 1963, 153-56; Hayes, James A. Michener, 61.
24. Hayes, James A. Michener, 100, 107; David A. Groseclose, James A. Michener: A Bibliography (Austin: State House Press, 1996), xvi; George Becker, James A. Michener (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1983), 44-47.
25. Hayes, James A. Michener, 89; James A. Michener, The World Is My Home: A Memoir (1992; reprint, New York: Ballantine, 1998), 464.
26. Lewis Nichol, “Talk with Mr. Michener,” New York Times Book Review, 12 July 1953, 16; “James Michener: Again the Warm Voice of Asia,” Newsweek, 92; Day, James A. Michener, 148, 150.
27. Harvey Breit, “Talk with Mr. Michener,” New York Times Book Review, 22 May 1949, 26; James A. Michener, “The Conscience of the Novel,” in The Arts in Renewal, ed. Sculley Bradley (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951), 118, 116–17, 123, 125, 140; Phyllis Meras, “A Desire to Inform,” SR, 4 May 1968, 29.
28. Meras, “A Desire to Inform,” 29; Day, James A. Michener, 146; “New Heads Named for Asia Institute,” New York Times, 2 April 1953, 29; Hayes, James A. Michener, 9, 3.
29. Janice R. MacKinnon and Stephen R. MacKinnon, Agnes Smedley: The Life and Times of an American Radical (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); John Maxwell Hamilton, Edgar Snow: A Biography (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988).
30. Peter Conn, Pearl S. Buck: A Cultural Biography (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
31. Michener, World Is My Home, 243-47; David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 284.
32. Michener, World Is My Home, 180-83, 198-201, 210-11; Hayes, James A. Michener, 110-11, 171; Daniel K. Inouye, “James A. Michener,” Congressional Record—House, 17 September 1962, 19683; Stanley Ellin and John Baker, eds., Conversations with Writers II (Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1978), 150-51; Conn, Pearl S. Buck, 373.
33. Hayes, James A. Michener, 108, 110-11, 158; Michener, World Is My Home, 129; Inouye, “James A. Michener,” 19683.
34. NSC 48/5, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, vol. 6 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979), 33; Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 195-211.
35. NSC 48/5, Foreign Relations of the United States, 36, 35, 39, 41, 49, 55, 59, 61, 62; NSC 48/1, United States Department of Defense, United States Vietnam Relations, 1945-1967, Book 8 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), 244, 252.
36. James A. Michener, The Voice of Asia (New York: Random House, 1951), 8, 9, 64.
37. Ibid., 173, II, 28, 334, 29, 118, 55.
38. Ibid., 230.
39. Ibid., 131-32, II.
40. James A. Michener, “Blunt Truths about Asia,” Life, 4 June 1951, 96; “Foreword,” in Selected Writings of James A. Michener (New York: Modern Library, 1957), xi; and Voice of Asia, 11.
41. Michener, Voice of Asia, 9, 135, 196.
42. Ibid., 290-92.
43. Ibid., 292.
44. Michener, “Foreword,” x.
45. Acheson quoted in Caute, Great Fear, 245.
46. Caute, Great Fear, 251-63.
47. Quoted in Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 433.
48. J. Saunders Redding, An American in India (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954), 42, II, 27.
49. Ibid., 172, 37, 40, 60, 148, 146.
50. Ibid., 10, 18-19, 114.
51. Carey McWilliams, “Anti-Americanism Updated,” Nation, 31 May 1958, 489; “The U.S. Tourist: Good or Ill-Will Envoys?” New York Times, 1 September 1957, 8.
52. “The Reds’ War of Riots,” U.S. News and World Report, 20 June 1960, 61.
CHAPTER FOUR: FAMILY TIES AS POLITICAL OBLIGATION
The epigraph is from Philip J. Philbin, “Oscar Hammerstein II,” Congressional Record, 2 September 1960, A6650. 1950, 460; James A. Michener, “Foreword,” Selected Writings (New York: Random House, 1957), ix-x; Harold Isaacs, Images of Asia: American Views of China and India (1958; reprint, New York: Capricorn, 1962), 37.
1. Hugh Fordin, Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II (New York: Random House, 1977), 284–85; Peter Conn, Pearl S. Buck: A Cultural Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 312–14; Pearl S. Buck International, “The Pearl S. Buck Foundation, Welcome House Adoption Program, Historical Fact Sheet,” 1996.
2. Rochelle Girson, “Welcome House,” Saturday Review [hereafter cited as SR], July 1952, 21.
3. Loy Henderson, “The United States and Asia,” Vital Speeches, March1950, 460; James A. Michener, “Foreword,” Selected Writings (New York: Random House, 1957), ix–x; Harold Isaacs, Images of Asia: American Views of China and India (1958; reprint, New York: Capricorn, 1962), 37.
4. Gina Marchetti, Romance and the “Yellow Peril”: Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); see also Robert Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 161-79; and Caroline Chung Simpson, “‘Out of an Obscure Place’: Japanese War Brides and Cultural Pluralism in the 1950s,” Differences 10 (1998): 47-81.
5. Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992).
6. Norman Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 324-52; Rodney Barker, The Hiroshima Maidens: A Story of Courage, Compassion, and Survival (New York: Viking, 1985); Caroline Chung Simpson, An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945-1960 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 113-48.
7. John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986); Andrew J. Rotter, The Path to Vietnam: Origins of American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987).
8. Norman Cousins, “Tomoko Nakabayashi of the Maidens,” Saturday Review, 9 June 1956; John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 552-53.
9. Philip Fisher, Hard Facts: Setting and Form in the American Novel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 101-3.
10. Bradford Smith, “We’re Selling America Short,” RD, December 1952, 6.
11. Barker, Hiroshima Maidens, 95-98.
12. Norman Cousins, “Hiroshima—Four Years Later,” SR, 17 September 1949, 8-10, 30-31; Mrs. John N. Snoddy, letter to the editor, SR, 8 October 1949, 26.
13. Larry E. Tise, A Book about Children: The World of Christian Children’s Fund, 1938-1991 (Falls Church, Va.: Hartland, 1993), 64.
14. Tise, Book about Children, 50; Edmund W. Janss, Yankee Sí! The Story of Dr. J. Calvitt Clarke and His 36,000 Children (New York: William Morrow, 1961), 182, 126; John C. Caldwell, Children of Calamity (New York: John Day, 1957), 1
15. Caldwell, Children of Calamity, 29.
16. Ibid., 187; Christian Children’s Fund, “Person-to-Person Giving,” n.d.
17. Deems Taylor, Some Enchanted Evenings: The Story of Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Harper, 1953), 217.
18. Arthur Gelb, “Happy Talk,” New York Times, 28 August 1960, 2-1; “Oscar Hammerstein 2nd,” New York Times, 24 August 1960, 28; David Ewen, Richard Rodgers (New York: Henry Holt, 1957), 223-25; “R&H Shows are Pushing $8 Million,” Business Week, 11 August 1951, 99; Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945-1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 155; Stephen Citron, The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein 2nd and Alan Jay Lerner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 232; Marshall quoted in Eric Johnston, “Messengers from a Free Country,” SR, 4 March 1950, 10.
19. Philip D. Beidler, “South Pacific and American Remembering; or, ‘Josh, We’re Going to Buy This Son of a Bitch!’” Journal of American Studies 27 (1993): 207, 217, 216, 218; Frederick W. Nolan, The Sound of Their Music: The Story of Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Walker, 1978), 160–63; Stanley Green, ed., The Rodgers and Hammerstein Fact Book (New York: Lynn Farnol Group, 1980), 560–78.
20. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, Six Plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Random House, 1955), 276; James A. Michener, Tales of the South Pacific (New York: Macmillan, 1947), 112.
21. Rodgers and Hammerstein, Six Plays, 346-47.
22. Michener quoted in John P. Hayes, James A. Michener: A Biography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1984), 66.
23. John W.Dower, “Occupied Japan and the American Lake, 1945-1950,” in America’s Asia, ed. Mark Selden and Edward Friedman (New York: Vintage, 1971), 146-206; James A. Michener, “When Does Education Stop?” RD, December 1963, 156.
24. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center (1949; reprint, New York: Da Silva, 1988), 190.
25. Rodgers and Hammerstein, Six Plays, 276, 365.
26. Caption for photograph of Joshua Logan and children in unidentified newspaper, 13 March 1949; Richard H. Brodhead, Cultures of Letters: Scenes of Reading and Writing in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 13-47.
27. George C. Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), 16, 39; Norman Cousins, “The Lukewarm Peace,” SR, 25 June 1955, 22.
28. James A. Michener, letter to the editor, New York Times, 1 September 1991, 2-2, and The World Is My Home: A Memoir (1992; reprint, New York: Ballantine, 1998), 149.
29. Michael Rogin, Ronald Reagan, the Movie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 236-71; Philip Wylie, The Innocent Ambassadors (1957; reprint, New York: Cardinal, 1958), 13.
30. Cleveland Amory, “The Antic Arts,” Holiday, February 1959, 91; Gelb, “Happy Talk,” 2-1; Ewen, Richard Rodgers, 252-53; J. Anthony Lukas, Common Ground: A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families (New York: Vintage, 1986), 286.
31. Eisenhower quoted in Mary L. Dudziak, “The Little Rock Crisis and Foreign Affairs: Race, Resistance, and the Image of American Democracy,” Southern California Law Review 7 (1997): 1663; Robert H. Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty: Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1997), 169-200; Michael L. Krenn, “’Unfinished Business’: Segregation and U.S. Diplomacy at the 1958 World’s Fair,” Diplomatic History 20 (1996): 591-612.
32. “Juanita Hall, as Bloody Mary, she helps make ‘South Pacific’ biggest hit in Broadway’s history,” Ebony, July 1950, 29-32; “South Pacific: Lavish Film Scores Racial Hate among U.S. Troops,” Ebony, June 1958, 76-79.
33. Audience member quoted in Michener, The World Is My Home, 294–95; Georgia state legislators quoted in Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 270; South African government statement quoted in A. Grove Day, James A. Michener (New York: Twayne, 1964), 53.
34. Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 115, 284; Pearl S. Buck International, “The Pearl S. Buck Foundation, Welcome House Adoption Program, Historical Fact Sheet,” 1996; Conn, Pearl S. Buck, 338; Ewen, Richard Rodgers, 308; Hayes, James A. Michener, 241; Norman Cousins, “Earle Reynolds and His Phoenix,” SR, 11 October 1958, 26; Charles Michener, “Long Live the King,” Newsweek, 16 May 1977, 103.
35. Robert C. Matthews, “The Littlest Immigrants: The Immigration and Adoption of Foreign Orphans,” Ph.D. diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1986; Howard Altstein and Rita J. Simon, eds., Intercountry Adoption: A Multinational Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1991); Richard H. Weil, “International Migrations: The Quiet Migration,” International Migration Review 18 (1984): 276–93; Ron Moxness, “Harry Holt and a Heartful of Children,” RD, October 1956, 67–70; Shaila K. Dewan, “Bertha Holt, 96, a Leader in International Adoptions,” New York Times, 2 August 2000, C21; Pearl S. Buck International, “The Pearl S. Buck Foundation, Welcome House Adoption Program, Historical Fact Sheet,” 1996.
36. Michael Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987); Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969); Dower, War without Mercy, 147-80; Julie Berebitsky, “Rescue a Child and Save the Nation: The Social Construction of Adoption in the Delineator, 1907-1911,” paper presented at American Studies Association annual meeting, 1995, Pittsburgh, Penn.
37. Isaacs, Images of Asia, 127; Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984), 191-93; Patricia R. Hill, The World Their Household: The American Woman’s Foreign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870-1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985), 95–100.
38. T. Christopher Jespersen, American Images of China, 1931-1949 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996); Isaacs, Images of Asia, 195; on Asian orphans and adoption in American TV during the 1960s and after, see Darrell Y. Hamamoto, Monitored Peril: Asian Americans and the Politics of TV Representation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 100-154.
39. Helen Doss, The Family Nobody Wanted (1954; reprint, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001).
40. Pearl S. Buck, “The 1957 Anisfield-Wolf Awards,” SR, 28 June 1958, 22.
41. Mary Dudziak, “Josephine Baker, Racial Protest, and the Cold War,” Journal of American History 81 (1994): 543-70.
42. Taylor, Some Enchanted Evenings, 232; Stanley Green, The Rodgers and Hammerstein Story (London: W. H. Allen, 1963), 153.
43. Gelb, “Happy Talk,” 2-1; Gerald Weales, “Oh What an Endlessly Beautiful Morning!” South Atlantic Quarterly 61 (1957): 204; Ethan Mordden, Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992), 85; Hammerstein quoted in Amory, “Antic Arts,” 91.
44. Green, Rodgers and Hammerstein Story, 51–52.
45. Citron, Wordsmiths, 70; Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 196–97, 228; Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture (New York: Verso, 1996), 396; Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 160.
46. Larry Ceplund and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930-1960 (New York: Anchor, 1980), 104; Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 143; California Legislature, Fourth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities [Tenney Committee], 1948, 262-63, 255-56, 239-40; Schlesinger, Vital Center, 121; California Legislature, Fifth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un- American Activities [Tenney Committee], 1949, 542-44. Thanks to Michael Denning for telling me about the Tenney Committee references.
47. Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 211; David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 168.
48. Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 235, 183; Citron, Wordsmiths, 71.
49. Denning, Cultural Front, 309-10; Citron, Wordsmiths, 10; Taylor, Some Enchanted Evenings, 144.
50. Denning, Cultural Front, 371.
51. Richard Maney, “Billy Rose and Carmen Jones,” New York Times, n.d.; Harvard University Theatre Collection, Carmen Jones playbill, 1943. The preceding are from the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Schomburg clipping file. Thanks to Richard Newman of Harvard’s W. E. B. Du Bois Center for telling me about this collection.
52. Harry Taylor, “Meet Carmen Jones,” New Masses, 21 December 1943; Ralph Warner, “New Plays,” Daily Worker, 6 December 1943; Ralph Warner, “On Broadway,” Worker, 12 December 1943; advertisement, New York Times, 24 March 1946; Louis Kronenberger, “ ‘Carmen Jones’ Is a Fine Exciting Show,” PM, 3 December 1943. The preceding are from the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Schomburg clipping file.
53. Miles M.Jefferson, “The Negro on Broadway—1944,” Phylon 6 (1945): 47-48; James Baldwin, “Carmen Jones: The Dark Is Light Enough,” in Collected Essays (New York: Library of America, 1998), 35; James Agee, “Pseudo- Folk,” Partisan Review 11 (1944): 219-23.
54. Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 290, 313; Amory, “Antic Arts,” 99.
55. “Rodgers, Hammerstein Reply to Lee Newton on ‘Show Boat,’” Daily Worker, 25 October 1948, 13. The preceding is from the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Schomburg clipping file.
56. Hammerstein quoted in Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 312.
57. Steichen quoted in Eric J. Sandeen, Picturing an Exhibition: The Family of Man and 1950s America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), 3.
58. Sandeen, Picturing an Exhibition, 95; “Family of Man” files at the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
59. Sandeen, Picturing an Exhibition, 58, 64-68.
60. Herring, America’s Longest War, 60-62; John F. Kennedy, “America’s Stake in Vietnam,” Vital Speeches, 1 August 1956, 618.
61. On the masculinization of the Cold War, see Geoffrey S. Smith, “National Security and Personal Isolation: Sex, Gender, and Disease in the Cold-War United States,” International History Review 14 (1992): 307–35; Frank Costigliola, “ ‘Unceasing Pressure for Penetration’: Gender, Pathology, and Emotion in George Kennan’s Formation of the Cold War,” Journal of American History 83 (1997): 1309–39; Robert Dean, “Masculinity as Ideology: John F. Kennedy and the Domestic Politics of Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 22 (1998): 29–62. On domestic ideology as a restrictive force, see Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988); Brett Harvey, The Fifties: A Woman’s Oral History (New York: HarperCollins, 1993). Many of the essays in Joanne Meyerowitz’s edited collection, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994) challenge the idea of domestic ideology as an essentially conservative force, but none of them explore it as discourse that supported U.S. global expansion.
CHAPTER FIVE: MUSICALS AND MODERNIZATION
The epigraph is from John Lahr, “The Lemon-Drop Kid,” New Yorker, 30 September 1996, 68–74.
1. Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
2. Richard Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the Frontier (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973); The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890 (New York: Atheneum, 1985); Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992), 441–86.
3. Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres: Formulas, Filmmaking, and the Studio System (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), 34–35; Rick Altman, The American Film Musical (1987; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).
4. Lahr, “Lemon-Drop Kid,” 74; Donal Henahan, “As Corny as Kansas in August,” New York Times, 15 March 1987, 2:25.
5. Stanley Green, ed., Rodgers and Hammerstein Fact Book (New York: Lynn Farnol Group, 1980), 579–97; David Foil, liner notes, Broadway Classics recording of The King and I.
6. Susan Morgan, “Introduction,” in The Romance of the Harem, by Anna Leonowens (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1991). For discussions of factual inaccuracies in Leonowens’s books, see A. B. Griswold, King Mongkut of Siam (New York: Asia Society, 1961); W. S. Bristowe, Louis and the King of Siam (New York: Thai-American Publishers, 1976); William Warren, “Anna and the King: A Case of Libel,” Asia, March/April 1980, 42–45.
7. Hugh Fordin, Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II (New York: Random House, 1977), 283-84; Oscar Hammerstein II, “Getting off the Pyramid,” Saturday Review [hereafter cited as SR], 23 December 1950, 22-23, “Should the U.S. Support a Federal Union of All Nations?” Congressional Digest, 31 (August-September 1952): 212, 214, and “Inertia…,” address in Boston, 29 April 1959, New York Public Library Theater Collection; Cousins quoted in Green, ed., Rodgers and Hammerstein Fact Book, 737.
8. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, Six Plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Random House, 1955), 388.
9. Dulles quoted in Frank C. Darling, Thailand and the United States (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1965), 133.
10. Darling, Thailand and the United States, 79-80.
11. Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960).
12. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987), 160; Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 7-13.
13. Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997); Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999); Walter Johnson and Francis J. Colligan, The Fulbright Program (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
14. Streibert quoted in John W. Henderson, The United States Information Agency (New York: Praeger, 1969), 65; Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).
15. Vicente L. Rafael, “Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines,” American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66.
16. Margaret Landon, Anna and the King of Siam (New York: John Day, 1944), 86–87.
17. Rodgers and Hammerstein, Six Plays, 374.
18. Ernest R. May, ed., American Cold War Strategy: Interpreting NSC 68 (Boston: Bedford Books, 1993), 27; Kennedy quoted in Gary Wills, “Introduction,” in Scoundrel Time, by Lillian Hellman (1976; reprint, New York: Bantam 1977), 18.
19. Harry Truman, “Communist Attack on North Korea a Violation of UN Charter,” Vital Speeches, 1 August 1950, 612; Hixson, Parting the Curtain, 14; George Kennan, “Long Telegram,” in Containment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy, 1945-1950, ed. Thomas H. Etzold and John Lewis Gaddis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 55.
20. Rodgers and Hammerstein, Six Plays, 439.
21. Ibid., 440.
22. Ibid., 449.
23. Ibid., 448; United States Department of Defense, United States-Vietnam Relations, 1945-1967, book 8 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), 249.
24. Rodgers and Hammerstein, Six Plays, 446–47.
25. Wendell L. Wilkie, One World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1943), 33-34.
26. MacKinnon and MacKinnon, Agnes Smedley, 187.
27. Ibid., 188, 191.
28. “New Empire of the American Musical,” Newsweek, 7 May 1956, 63; Joseph Wechsberg, “The American Musical Conquers Europe,” SR, 29 December 1956, 37; Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization, 200.
29. Rudolph Elie, “King and I—But Who Is the King in This?” (no source); Elliot Norton, “King and I Triumphant New Musical Play,” Boston Sunday Post, 11 March 1951; “After Hours,” Harper’s, September 1951; Brooks Atkinson, New York Times, 8 April 1951, II:1:1; Punch, 14 October 1953; Ed Baker, “Rodgers, Hammerstein Score again with King and I,” Seattle Times, 17 August 1954; Robert Coleman, “King and I Has Heart, Comedy, Lyrics,” New York Daily Mirror, 30 March 1951; Brooks Atkinson, “Theatre: London Trio,” New York Times, 17 May 1955, 33-34; Thomas R. Dash, review, Women’s Wear Daily, 19 April 1956. All of the preceding are from New York Public Library Theater Collection clipping files. The last quotation is from Richard Rodgers, Musical Stages, 270-71.
30. “Do the Reds Stop Here?” Newsweek, 26 July 1954, 30.
31. Lee Hills, “Elizabeth and the Crown Prince of Japan,” Reader’s Digest [hereafter cited as RD], January 1948, 129-31; Erika Leuchtag, “Erika and the King of Nepal,” RD, February 1957, 94-97.
32. “Getting to Know You,” RD, March 1958, inside front cover; Project Hope pamphlet, no date, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas; Christopher Isherwood, Diaries, Volume I: 1939-1960 (London: Methuen, 1996), 624; Kennan quoted in Priscilla Clapp and Morton Halperin, “U.S. Elite Images of Japan: The Postwar Period,” in Mutual Images: Essays in American- Japanese Relations, ed. Akira Iriye (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1975), 213.
33. William Warren, Jim Thompson: The Legendary American of Thailand (1970; reprint, Bangkok: Asia Books, 1979), 70–71.
34. Warren, Jim Thompson, 101-3, 178; James T. Fisher, Dr. America: The Lives of Thomas A. Dooley, 1927-1961 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 131.
35. Francis and Katherine Drake, “Jim Thompson and the Busy Weavers of Bangkok,” RD, October 1959, 231-36; Horace Sutton, “Jet Trails around the World—8: Babes in Thailand,” SR, 11 April 1959, 29.
36. Landon, Anna and the King of Siam, 388; Warren, “Anna and the King,” 42; Bristowe, Louis and the King of Siam, 31; “No Music for the King,” New York Herald Tribune, 24 August 1962, n.p.; James Marnell, “Newsmakers,” Los Angeles Times, 17 March 1985, n.p. All of the preceding are from the New York Public Library Theater Collection clipping file.
CHAPTER SIX: ASIANS IN AMERICA
The epigraph is from “Enchanting ‘State,’” Newsweek, 23 February 1959, 29.
1. Michener quoted in A. Grove Day, James A. Michener (New York: Twayne, 1964), 25.
2. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994); Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (New York: Penguin, 1989); Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (New York: Twayne, 1991).
3. William Petersen, Michael Novak, Philip Gleason, Concepts of Ethnicity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); Myrdal and McWilliams quoted in Nikhil Pal Singh, “Culture/Wars: Recoding Empire in an Age of Democracy,” American Quarterly 50 (1998): 486, 475.
4. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper, 1944); Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988).
5. Daniels, Asian America, 306–7; Neil Gotanda, “Towards a Repeal of Asian Exclusion,” and William R. Tamayo, “Asian Americans and the McCarran-Walter Act,” in Asian Americans and Congress: A Documentary History, ed. Hyung-chan Kim (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996), 318.
6. Lisa See, “C. Y. Lee,” Publisher’s Weekly, 14 August 1987, 84–85; Jim Henry, “C. Y. Lee,” Notable Asian Americans, ed. Helen Zia and Susan B. Gall (New York: Gale Research, 1995), 190–91.
7. Elaine H. Kim, Asian American Literature: An Introduction to the Writings and Their Social Context (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1982), 45, 156.
8. Ibid., 59.
9. Ivan Light, “From Vice District to Tourist Attraction: The Moral Career of American Chinatowns, 1880-1940,” Pacific Historical Review 43 (1974): 367-94.
10. Edward Skillin Jr., review of Father and Glorious Descendant, by Pardee Lowe, Commonweal, 23 April 1943, 18.
11. Deems Taylor, Some Enchanted Evenings: The Story of Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Harper, 1953), 8; Andrea Most, “’We Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!” PMLA 113 (1998): 77-87.
12. Robert Berry White, “Back in Lights,” Newsweek, 1 December 1958, 53.
13. Bosley Crowther, New York Times, 10 November 1961, 40; Brendan Gill, “The Current Cinema: Paper Problems,” New Yorker, 16 November 1961, 207; Unidentified review; Patrick Dennis, “Broadway in Bloom,” New Republic, 22 December 1958, 23; Kenneth Tynan, “Tiny Chinese Minds,” New Yorker, 13 December 1958, 104; Guy, review of Flower Drum Song, Variety, n.d.; “No Tickee, No Worry,” Time, 24 November 1961. All of the preceding are from the clipping files of the New York Public Library Theater Collection.
14. Yuan-kwan Chan, “An Old Song Resung,” A. Magazine, August-September 1996, 76–77; “Flower Drum Song Blooms Again,” Happy Talk: News of the Rodgers and Hammerstein Organization 9, no. 2, (winter 2002): 1; Karen Wada, “A Different Song,” Los Angeles, September 2001, 69.
15. “The Girls on Grant Avenue,” Time, 22 December 1958, 42; Asian American Arts Foundation, Golden Ring Awards brochure, “Special Tribute to the Original Cast and Author of Flower Drum Song,” 1997; Yuan-kwan Chan, “Old Song Resung,” 76-77; Holland Carter, “Dong Kingman, 89, Whimsical Watercolorist,” New York Times, 16 May 2000, 23; Dong Kingman, Paint the Yellow Tiger (New York: Sterling, 1991), and Portraits of Cities (New York: Twenty-second Century Film, 1997).
16. “Broadway ‘Oriental,’” Ebony, March 1959, 128.
17. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, Flower Drum Song: A Musical Play (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1959), 34.
18. Ibid., 26.
19. Frank Chin et al., eds., “Introduction: Fifty Years of Our Whole Voice,” in Aiiieeeee! An Anthology of Asian American Writers (1974; reprint, New York: Meridian, 1991). On Asian Americans as permanent foreigners, see Lisa Lowe, Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996); and Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999).
20. Todd S. Purdum, “Code Talkers’ Story Pops Up Everywhere,” New York Times, 11 October 1999, A14; Max Corvo, The O.S.S. in Italy, 1942–1945: A Personal Memoir (New York: Praeger, 1990); Wendy L. Wall, “America’s ‘Best Propagandists’: Italian Americans and the 1948 ‘Letters to Italy’ Campaign,” in Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945–1963, ed. Christian G. Appy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000).
21. “C. Y. Lee,” Contemporary Authors, vols. 9–12 (Detroit: Gale Research, 1974), 498; Flower Drum Song theater program, 1959; Carter, “Dong Kingman”; Kingman, Paint the Yellow Tiger, 114; Kingman, Portraits of Cities, 74, 79–83; “Official Dispatch: Artist Records His Mission on Forty-Foot Painted Scroll,” Life, 14 February 1955, 66–70.
22. Jade Snow Wong, No Chinese Stranger (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 54–55, 82.
23. Penny M. Von Eschen, “Who’s the Real Ambassador? Exploding the Cold War Racial Ideology,” in Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945-1966, ed. Christian G. Appy (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000).
24. Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (New York: Macmillan, 1968).
25. Noel J. Kent, Hawaii: Islands under the Influence (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983), 99, 146; Lawrence H. Fuchs, Hawaii Pono: An Ethnic and Political History (1961; Honolulu: Bess Press, 1983), 379; Horace Sutton, “Where the Twain Will Meet,” SR, 12 November 1960, 44; Norman Cousins, “Life Begins at Twenty-Five,” SR, 24 April 1965, 28.
26. Fuchs, Hawaii Pono, 380.
27. Michener, “‘Aloha’ for the Fiftieth State,” New York Times Magazine, 19 April 1959, 14.
28. Joseph R. Farrington, Vital Speeches, 15 February 1949, 274.
29. Thurmond quoted in Daws, Shoal of Time, 388.
30. Pillion quoted in Daws, Shoal of Time, 387–88, 369.
31. Jonathan Y. Okamura, “The Illusion of Paradise: Privileging Multiculturalism in Hawai’i,” in Making Majorities: Constituting the Nation in Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States,” ed. Dru C. Gladney (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998); Paul F. Hooper, Elusive Destiny: The Internationalist Movement in Modern Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1980), 26; “Hawaii: A Melting Pot,” Life, 26 November 1945, 103–4.
32. James A. Michener, “The Case for Our Fiftieth State,” RD, December 1958, 168.
33. James A. Michener, “‘Aloha’ for the Fiftieth State,” New York Times Magazine, 19 April 1959, 94.
34. James A. Michener, “Hawaii’s Statehood Urged,” letter to the editor, New York Times, 1 January 1959, 30; “Hawaii—A Bridge to Asia,” Businessweek, 13 May 1950, 128; Elsa and Don Mayer, “49 Stars and Hawaii,” Paradise of the Pacific, December 1959, 103.
35. “Hawaii—A Bridge to Asia,” 128. “Enchanting ‘State,’” Newsweek, 23 February 1959, 29; “Hawaii: The New Breed,” Time, 23 March 1959, 16.
36. Daws, Shoal of Time, 384.
37. James A. Michener, Hawaii (1959; reprint, New York: Fawcett Crest, 1973); Stanley Ellin and John Baker, eds., Conversations with Writers II (Detroit: Gale Research, 1978), 162; Stephen H. Sumida, And the View from the Shore: Literary Traditions of Hawai’i (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 68; Daniel K. Inouye, Congressional Record—House, 17 September 1962, 19682.
38. Library Journal, 15 December 1959, 3870; Maxwell Geismer, “Gods, Missionaries, and the Golden Men,” New York Times Book Review, 22 November 1959, 4–5.
39. Michener, Hawaii, 629, 986; Fanny Butcher, “Major Chronicle of Hawaii and Its People,” Chicago Sunday Tribune, 22 November 1959, 1.
40. Michener, Hawaii, 910, 921, 848.
41. Ibid., 973.
42. Ibid., 977, 980, 986; Peter Conn, Pearl S. Buck: A Cultural Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 313.
43. Michener, Hawaii, 633, 1090.
44. Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore, 382.
45. Caroline Chung Simpson, An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945-1960 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001); “Broadway: The Girls on Grant Avenue,” Time, 22 December 1958, 44.
46. On the need to integrate the study of the foreign and domestic spheres of American history, see Amy Kaplan, “ ‘Left Alone with America’: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture,” in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993) 3-21. A number of scholars whose work I have cited earlier, including Mary Dudziak, Penny Von Eschen, Melani McAlister, Thomas Borstelmann, and Nikhil Singh, are doing precisely this work.
CONCLUSION
1. Bruce Cumings, “The American Ascendency: Imposing a New World Order,” The Nation, 8 May 2000, 20.
2. Diane Haithman, “Cover Story: A Different Drummer,” Los Angeles Times, 14 October 2001, calendar, part 6, p. 4.
3. Murdock quoted in Aihwa Ong, “Flexible Citizenship among Chinese Cosmopolitans,” in Cosmopolitics, ed. Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 154.
4. G. Pascal Zachary, The Global Me: New Cosmopolitans and the Competitive Edge: Picking Globalism’s Winners and Losers (New York: Public Affairs Press, 2000), ix, 198.
5. State Department statistics on immigrant visas granted to orphans: <http://travel.state.gov/orphan_numbers.html>
6. Lisa Odham Stokes and Michael Hoover, City on Fire: Hong Kong Cinema (New York: Verso, 1999), 40.
7. Woo quoted in Bernard Weinraub, “Ballet with Bullets,” New York Times, 22 February 1996, C4; Francis Dass, “Woo’s Mission of Success,” New Straits Times (Malaysia), 24 June 2000, 6; the Economist played on the familiarity of these 1950s musicals in its coverage of China: its 19 December 1998 issue included a story about unbalanced male-to-female ratios produced by the one-child family policy under the headline “6.3 Brides for Seven Brothers.”
8. Woo quoted in Stephen Teo, Hong Kong Cinema: The Extra Dimensions (London: British Film Institute, 1997), 174.
9. Woo quoted in Kenneth M. Chanko, “Tom Cruise Gets Woo’d,” Boston Globe, 28 May 2000, P7.