THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN TO MIDDLE AGES EUROPE

STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES

What are the different time periods for ancient humans?

To try to organize our understanding of time, scholars have created several ages based on the tools used by various peoples of the distant past: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Each different age represents an advance in technology. This system was created by Danish archeologist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen (1788–1865). Here are the year ranges for the three periods:

• Stone Age: 3.4 million to 3300 B.C.E.

• Bronze Age: 3300 to 1200 B.C.E.

• Iron Age: 1200 B.C.E. to 800 C.E.

Keep in mind that these dates are not precise and that technology varied from place to place. For centuries, one area of the globe might have been using bronze tools and weapons, while in other places, iron tools and weapons were used.

The Stone Age is the prehistoric period and is split into the “Old Stone Age,” “Middle Stone Age,” and “New Stone Age.” These are often called the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic ages. (“Paleo” is from the Greek word for old or ancient, and “lithic” is from the Greek word for stone. “Meso” means middle, and “neo” means new.)

The period of history—according to the strict definition—begins during the Bronze Age, when many cultures began using writing. In describing the time of the Bronze Age onward, historians organize history by different ancient cultures, such as Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Greek, Indian, and Chinese.

What happened in the Stone Age?

In the Old Stone Age, humans were evolving from their apelike ancestors into modernlooking hunter-gatherers. They began making and using stone tools. Somewhere in this long period, humans learned to control and use fire. By the Middle Stone Age, humans began living in permanent settlements and developing agriculture.

In the New Stone Age, humans learned to produce food rather than collect it. People were no longer dependent on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild fruit and nuts for subsistence. They learned to cultivate crops, domesticate animals, make pottery, weave textiles from fiber and hair, and produce more sophisticated tools and weapons by hammering, grinding, and polishing granite, jasper, and other hard stones. More substantial houses and communities, even fortified villages, came into being, laying the foundation for the great civilizations that would follow.

What is the Bronze Age?

Near the end of the New Stone Age, craftsmen in the Middle East learned to make tools and weapons from the metal copper. The world’s earliest known manmade copper objects—beads, pins, and awls—were fabricated in the area that today is Turkey and Iran around 8000 B.C.E. Use of copper eventually led to the discovery of adding tin to melted copper to produce bronze. Bronze is much harder than copper, and it can be sharpened; thus, it is an excellent material for making tools and weapons.

Use of bronze began in the region that is today Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. In the ensuing centuries, the use of bronze spread west to Egypt, north into Europe, and east in Asia, including India, China, Korea, and Japan. In addition to tools and weapons, bronze was used in cooking utensils and for creating art.

When did the Iron Age begin?

Copper melts at a lower temperature than iron ore, so humans had to learn to create hotter fires to smelt iron ore. Then they learned the process of casing or steeling iron, by repeatedly reheating wrought iron in a charcoal fire and then hammering it, so it became harder than bronze but also kept its hardness after long use. The next technological improvement to create harder iron was the process of quenching it, which involved repeatedly plunging the hot iron into cold water.

Early human history is divided into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, indicating the type of materials being used for tools and weapons.

Because bronze was scarce, it was also costly. Consequently, it was not until iron came into use that humans extended their control over nature. For this reason, iron has been called the “democratic metal.” Widespread use of iron tools meant a general increase in living standards. For example, iron axes brought about the clearing of forests for cultivation. Iron tools could be used for sheep shearing and cloth cutting, and iron was used to create the lathe, the most fundamental machine tool. In a lathe, a piece of wood is spun as an iron blade cuts it, producing things such as spindles and spokes for wooden wheels.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CULTURE

What is the history of ancient Egypt?

In 3100 B.C.E., the two kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were united. (Upper Egypt was upstream on the Nile, and Lower Egypt was downstream. Since the Nile flows to the North, Upper Egypt is below Lower Egypt on maps.) There is debate among Egyptian scholars whether the king who united Egypt and became the first king was named Menes or Narmer. The Egyptian kings, known as pharaohs, were believed to be both human and divine. The living pharaoh was seen as the embodiment of the sun god Ra.

Menes (or Narmer) created the first dynasty. Some thirty Egyptian dynasties would follow. A dynasty is a ruling family who holds the throne for several generations. Egyptian history can be broken into three main periods called the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. Here is an overview. All dates are B.C.E.

Dates	Events
7000–3100	Independent villages along the Nile
3100–2686	First dynasties
3100	Unification of Egypt and hieroglyphics first used
2686–2181	Old Kingdom at Memphis
2667–2648	Imhotep builds first pyramid for Zoser
2650–2514	Great pyramids and Sphinx built at Giza
2181–2055	First Intermediate Period
	Small independent states
2055–1650	Middle Kingdom at Thebes
1650–1550	Second Intermediate Period
	Hyksos invasion from East and then the Hyksos expelled
1550–1069	New Kingdom
1352–1336	Reign of Akhenaton at Tell el-Armarna
1334–1325	Reign of Tutankhamen
1279–1213	Reign of Ramesses II
	Huge building projects: Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel
1069–715	Third Intermediate Period
715–332	Late or Decline Period.
	Assyrians invade and then the Persians invade
332	Alexander the Great ends Egyptian Kingdom
332–30	Ptolemaic Period under the Greeks
51–30	Cleopatra
30	Romans conquer Egypt

What are the great pyramids of Egypt?

The great pyramids and the Sphinx were built at Giza, outside of the modern city of Cairo, Egypt. The three pyramids were the tombs for pharaohs Khufu, Menkaure, and Khafre and were built in the Old Kingdom. The most famous pharaohs who came later were Tutankhamen—King Tut—and Ramesses. However, in the time of King Tut and Ramesses, the great pyramids were already over 1,200 years old. The pyramids were already ancient history to them!

King Tut is one of the most famous Egyptian pharaohs. Was he an important Egyptian ruler?

No; in fact, King Tut’s reign was relatively unimportant in the vast history of ancient Egypt. A ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Tutankhamen (c. 1342–1325 B.C.E.) was in power from age nine until his death at the age of eighteen—a nine-year period that would be of little significance were it not for the 1922 discovery of his tomb in the Valley of the Kings near ancient Thebes (present-day Luxor). Of the twenty-seven pharaohs buried near Thebes, only the tomb of the minor king, Tutankhamen, was spared from looting through the ages. Having not been opened since ancient times, the tomb still contained its treasures.

A stone statue of Ramesses II guards the front of Luxor Palace in Thebes, Egypt. The ruins were discovered half buried in the 1880s.

In the antechamber, English archeologist Howard Carter (1874–1939) found more than 600 artifacts, including funerary bouquets, sandals, robes, cups and jars, a painted casket, life-sized, wooden statues of Tutankhamen, animal-sided couches, remnants of chariots, and a golden throne. In the burial chambers, a team of archeologists discovered four golden shrines and the golden coffin containing the royal mummy of Tutankhamen—complete with a golden mask covering his head and shoulders. (Do an online image search for “King Tut treasure” to see what was in the tomb, including the golden mask of King Tut. The blue stripes on the mask are made from the stone lapis lazuli.)

Who was the greatest ruler of ancient Egypt?

Ramesses II (1303 B.C.E.–1213 B.C.E.)—also known as Ramesses the Great—may be the greatest of all ancient Egyptian pharaohs, or rulers. Many referred to him as the “Great One” or the “Great Ancestor.” He took command of the empire as a teenager and ruled for more than sixty years. Many famous temples and monuments were completed during his reign, a testament to his power and influence. He lived until he was ninety years old. Numerous other pharaohs took the name Ramesses, but none could match his accomplishments or power.

The mummy of Ramesses II can be seen in Cairo’s Egyptian Museum. The head and hands have been unwrapped, so one can see the actual over–3,000-year-old face of Ramesses II. (Do online image searches for “Ramesses II mummy” and “Ramesses II buildings.”)

ANCIENT GREEK CULTURE

What are the time periods for the ancient Greek world?

The time frame for the ancient Greek world runs from roughly 3000 to 146 B.C.E. and can be broken down as follows:

Dates	Events
3000–1200 B.C.E.	The Minoan and Mycenaean Periods
1200–800 B.C.E.	The Dark Ages
800–500 B.C.E.	The Archaic Period
500–323 B.C.E.	The Classical Period
323–146 B.C.E.	The Hellenistic Period
146 B.C.E.	The Roman Conquest of Greece

Who were the Minoans?

Ancient Greek civilization began with the Minoans, Europe’s first advanced civilization. The Minoans were a prosperous and peaceful people who flourished on the Mediterranean island of Crete from about 3000 to 1450 B.C.E. (Find the island of Crete on the map.) They are believed to be the first people to produce an agricultural surplus, which could be exported. The Minoans built structures from stone, plaster, and timbers; painted walls with brilliant frescoes; made pottery; wove and dyed cloth; constructed stone roads and bridges; and built highly advanced drainage systems and aqueducts. In the city of Knossos, the royal family had a system for showers and even had toilets that could be flushed.

Why are they called the Minoans?

We do not know what these ancient people on Crete called themselves, and their writings cannot be deciphered. However, Greek mythology tells the story of King Minos, who lived on Crete. From this story came the label of “Minoans.”

How did the Minoan culture collapse?

Historians debate the cause of the collapse of the Minoan culture. The island of Crete suffered from earthquakes, the effects of volcanoes in the region, and a tsunami wave. Ecological damage, such as deforestation, may have also played a role. However, the final catastrophe was an invasion by the Mycenaeans from the Greek mainland.

Who were the Mycenaeans?

The Mycenaeans flourished from about 1650 to 1200 B.C.E., carrying forth the culture and skills they had learned from the Minoans. The Mycenaeans were skilled horsemen, charioteers, and accomplished sailors who ruled the Aegean Sea. Mycenaean culture revolved around its fortified palaces, called acropolises, which were built on hills. Mycenaean cities included Mycenae, Argos, Corinth, Sparta, and the then small cities of Athens and Thebes.

What was the Trojan War?

In about 1200 B.C.E., the Mycenaeans attacked the city of Troy, which was considered the key to access to the profitable trade by ship with peoples around the Black Sea. Thus began the Trojan War.

The map below shows the location of Troy, protecting the Hellespont, the narrow strait of water now called the Dardanelles, which connects to the Sea of Marmara and then the Bosporus strait, which allows ships to sail from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea.

A modern map of the area where the Trojan War occurred, including what is now modern Greece, indicates where ancient Troy once stood in what is now northwestern Turkey.

How do we know about the Trojan War?

Archeology has confirmed the destruction of the city of Troy by the Myceneans around 1200 B.C.E. Beyond that, all the stories of the Trojan War come from ancient Greek writings, such as the Iliad. However, the Iliad is considered mythology since it contains many stories about Greek gods and goddesses.

In the stories, Agamemnon led an army that besieged Troy for ten years. The stories include Greek heroes, such as Odysseus and Achilles, and the Trojan hero Hector.

What is the tale about the Trojan horse?

The story of the Trojan horse comes from Greek, and later Roman, mythology. It is told in the Aeneid by Latin writer Virgil. It is also mentioned in the earlier writing the Odyssey by Homer. However, both writings are considered mythology. In the story, the Greeks build a wooden horse big enough to hold a squad of soldiers. The Greeks trick the Trojans into taking the horse into the city and into thinking the war is over. That night, the soldiers come out of the horse, open the gates of the city so the Greeks can come in, and destroy the city and kill or enslave the population.

There is no way to know whether or not there actually was a Trojan horse used to destroy Troy. Some suggest the Greeks might have used a battering ram or siege machine shaped like a horse, or perhaps it was a ship with hidden soldiers given as a gift to the Trojans.

Who were the Dorians?

Soon after the Trojan War, the Mycenaeans were overrun by the Dorians, who had the advantage of iron swords. Coming from the northwestern part of the Greek mainland, the Dorians moved southward, where they sacked and burned the great Mycenaean cities and conquered the wealthy sea traders, throwing Greece into the period known as the Dark Ages, which lasted from 1200 to about 800 B.C.E.

The Dorians rejected the life of the great Mycenaean cities in favor of their nomadic shepherding and hunting life. A tribal people, they possessed a harsh sense of justice, and the period was marked by feuds between clans. Men typically carried weapons—now made of iron. The Dorians ended the Bronze Age and ushered in the Iron Age.

Why is this period called the “Dark Ages”?

During the Dark Ages, there is little evidence of Greek civilization; the script used by the Mycenaeans disappeared, and art, which had prospered during the Mycenaean Age, declined. Under Dorian rule, numerous Mycenaean cities were abandoned, and many regions and islands seem to have been depopulated. There is no evidence of trade with other countries. Poverty had overtaken the Greeks.

As the Dorians took possession of the Greek mainland, a few Mycenaean communities survived in remote areas, such as the city of Athens, which became a haven for those who hoped for a return to the former civilization. Other Mycenaeans crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the coast of Asia Minor (what today is Turkey). All these refugees spoke Ionian Greek.

What was the Greek Archaic Period (800–500 B.C.E.)?

In the Archaic Period, the Ionian Greeks attempted to hold on to the refined civilization of the Bronze Age. They commemorated the greatness of the past in song and verse, including Greek poet Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. (The “Expressions of Human Culture” chapter will have more to say on Homer and these important writings.) These epics were combined with eighth-century poet Hesiod’s Theogony, an account of the creation of the universe and the generations of the gods, to give rise to a new Greek religion based on the god Zeus and eleven other gods, who were believed to reside on Mount Olympus in northeastern Greece. Hesiod lived around 700 B.C.E., and Homer lived around 800 B.C.E.

What was the Classical Period of ancient Greece?

This was the period of 500–323 B.C.E., in which ancient Greece achieved its greatest accomplishments. The classical Greeks, who called themselves the Hellenes and their land Hellas, influenced western civilization more than any other people. Their contributions to every field of endeavor remain with us today, more than 2,000 years later.

Greek thought shaped science, medicine, philosophy, art, literature, architecture and engineering, mathematics, music, drama, language, and politics. The classical Greeks believed in individual freedom, reasoning, and truth and that everything should be done in moderation. They also held that people should find time for both work and play and should balance the life of the mind with the exercise of the body.

The Greeks took the early alphabet of the Phoenicians—an ancient sea people—and adapted it to the Greek language. The Greeks then started writing down the works of Homer and Hesiod and poets, historians, playwrights, and philosophers.

Among the great Greek philosophers were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. (See the “Philosophy” chapter.) Greek literature included the passionate love poems of Sappho. The Greeks also wrote plays: the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, which continue to be studied by students today, along with the comedies of Aristophanes and Menander. The classical Greeks loved to speak, and oratory is considered by some to be their highest form of prose. Orators known to the modern world were Antiphon, Lysias, Isocrates, and Demosthenes.

Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 B.C.E.), called the “Father of History,” left the modern world with an account of the Persian Wars (499–449 B.C.E.), a conflict between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire. The Greeks also gave humankind the “Father of Medicine” in physician Hippocrates, who taught that doctors should use reason to determine the cause of illness and should study the patient’s appearance, behavior, and lifestyle to diagnose and treat illnesses and injuries. (His “Hippocratic Oath” will be discussed in the “Medicine and Disease” chapter.) Greek scientists included Thales and Pythagoras; scientist-philosophers included Leucippus and Democritus. And, of course, the Greeks gave modern culture the Olympic Games.

Who was Pericles?

Pericles (495–429 B.C.E.) was a leading Greek statesman who led Athens during the height of its powers. Called “the first citizen of Athens,” Pericles led his country at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War with the city of Sparta. He fostered democracy and encouraged the growth of various forms of art and architecture.

The Parthenon in Athens was a temple for the goddess Athena. Constructed from 447 to 432 B.C.E., it is an important example of Doric architecture and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Greece to this day.

Pericles also built the Parthenon, the famous temple of Athena on the Acropolis in Athens. According to Greek mythology, Athena was a virgin. The Greek word for virgin is parthénos, so the temple is called the Parthenon.

What disasters befell Athens at the peak of its glory?

Two disasters hit Athens: a plague and the Peloponnesian War. In 430 B.C.E. Athens was hit by a terrible plague that would eventually kill a third of the city’s citizens, including its ruler, Pericles. The deaths from the plague would weaken Athens as it fought the Peloponnesian War with the city-state of Sparta.

The war, which lasted from 431 to 404 B.C.E., is named for the lower part of Greece, which is called Peloponnesus. (Sparta is in Peloponnesus.) The war signaled the end of the golden age of Greece. The war, which took place in three phases, ended with the destruction of the Athenian naval fleet in a fierce sea battle. Athens was left in ruins.

What happened to Athens after the Peloponnesian War?

While the Greek city-states were in decline due to war, Greece’s neighbor to the north, Macedonia, was growing more powerful. In 353 B.C.E. Macedonian king Philip II (382–336 B.C.E.) launched an attack on Greece. The war that resulted did not end until 338 B.C.E., when Greece was finally conquered.

When Philip was killed, his twenty-year-old son, Alexander, came to power. Alexander then began a ten-year campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. By the time he was thirty years old, Alexander had conquered much of the known world, expanding his empire from Egypt to India.

Why was Macedonian king Alexander known as “the Great”?

Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.E.) has passed through history as a legendary figure, a reputation attributable to the fact that he conquered virtually all the known world in his day. In effect, he was king of the world.

As the son of King Philip II, Alexander had an upbringing and education befitting a young Greek prince. He was tutored by Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) and was trained in athletics and war. His studies of Greek literature and art would later combine with his skill as a warrior to produce a formidable conqueror, who spread Hellenism (Greek culture) throughout the known world.

At age sixteen, Alexander began running the government of Macedonia while his father waged military campaigns to expand his kingdom. At seventeen, Alexander joined his father on the battlefield, where he commanded a section of the army that defeated Thebes. When Philip was assassinated in 336 B.C.E., Alexander acted quickly to assert his claim to the throne. He continued to carry out his father’s campaigns, securing Greece and the Balkan Peninsula. He followed this with an all-out offensive on the Persian Empire, long the enemy of Greece. Supremely courageous and confident in his own abilities as well as in his troops (which numbered in the tens of thousands), by the fall of 331 B.C.E., Alexander had defeated the Persian army and along the way claimed Egypt.

The centuries-old Persian Empire crumbled, and the young Macedonian king proclaimed himself “Lord of Asia.” Still, he pressed on, claiming Afghanistan and then India. He was poised to take the Arabian Peninsula, but in 323 B.C.E., he died of fever at age thirty-three.

Although Alexander is remembered as “the Great,” many of the people he conquered would not give him that honor. Others referred to him as “the accursed.” His vast kingdom, which he had ruled leniently but nevertheless authoritatively, was divided among his former generals.

This replica of a Greek trireme shows that it was quite an impressive vessel for its day.

This map shows the farthest extent of Alexander the Great’s empire.

What is the Hellenistic period of ancient Greek history?

The Hellenistic period, from 323 to 146 B.C.E., lasted from the death of Alexander to the conquest of Greece by the Romans. The Roman period followed. The term “Hellenistic” refers to Greek political control and Greek culture. The word comes from the name of the upper part of Greece, Hellas. (The term has nothing to do with the figure of Greek mythology Helen of Troy.)

ANCIENT ROMAN CULTURE

What is the early history of Rome?

In 753 B.C.E., the city of Rome was established. (Legend has it that the city was founded by Romulus.) Situated on wooded hills above the Tiber River, about fifteen miles from the sea, Rome enjoyed the advantages of access to trade routes while having natural protection from aggressors since the location was very defensible. Agriculture prospered in the area, as did manufacturing and mining.

In 509 B.C.E., noblemen established the Roman Republic. The government was headed by two elected officials, called consuls. Since they shared power, a certain measure of balance was ensured in that either one could veto the actions of the other. And the posts were brief: each elected official served for only one year. These heads of state were guided by the Roman Senate, which was made up of senior statesmen. There were also assemblies in which the people had a voice.

In 390 B.C.E., the Gauls (a Celtic people from western Europe) captured and sacked Rome and held it for a short time. By the year 300 B.C.E., the Romans had come in contact with the Greeks, adopting not only some of their ideas but their mythology as well. The Greek gods and goddesses were soon given Roman names.

By 275 B.C.E., Rome controlled most of the Italian peninsula. Their homeland stable, the Romans set their sights on overseas expansion, and between 264 and 146 B.C.E., they fought the Punic Wars in order to gain territory. They conquered the Mediterranean islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica; part of Gaul; much of Spain; and Carthage (in northern Africa).

In the last century B.C.E., the Roman Republic was torn by civil wars. In the chaos, Julius Caesar came to power. He was a decorated general known for leading Roman soldiers to victory and conquest in Gaul (what today is France). He became the ruler of Rome, serving as dictator from 49 to 44 B.C.E., but was then murdered.

Why was Julius Caesar murdered?

The Roman general and statesman Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.E.) was stabbed to death in the Senate house by a group of men, including some of his former friends, who viewed him as an ambitious tyrant and a threat to the Roman Republic. The event illustrates the controversy about Julius Caesar.

While some clearly viewed him as a demagogue who forced his way into power, others considered the patrician-born Caesar a man of noble character who defended the rights of the people in an oligarchic state—where the government was controlled by a few people who had only their own interests in mind. This divided opinion has followed Caesar throughout history.

The date of the assassination, March 15, became famous based on a line from William Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar (written in 1599), where a prophet warns Julius Caesar to “beware the ides of March.” “Ides” was the middle of the month.

After Caesar’s death in 44 B.C.E., a triumvirate was formed to rule Rome, with Lepidus, Octavian, and Mark Antony sharing power. Mark Antony is remembered for his relationship with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. In the end, Octavian, the grandnephew of Caesar, became the Roman emperor in 27 B.C.E. He took the name of Augustus, which translates into “revered one.”

Who were the most important rulers of the Roman Empire?

The 500 years of the Roman Empire (27 B.C.E. to 476 C.E.) gave history some of its most noteworthy—and most diabolical—leaders. The major emperors are names that are familiar to almost every student of Western civilization:

Emperor	Years Reigned
Augustus	27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.
Tiberius	14–37 C.E.
Caligula	37–41 C.E.
Claudius	41–54 C.E.
Nero	54–68 C.E.
Trajan	98–117 C.E.
Marcus Aurelius	161–180 C.E.
Diocletian	284–305 C.E.
Constantine I	306–337 C.E.

Under Augustus’s rule began the 200 years of the Pax Romana (the “Roman Peace”), a period of relative peace with little warfare; consequently, Rome was able to turn its attention to the arts, literature, education, and trade.

As second emperor of Rome, Tiberius came under the influence of Roman politicians. Tiberius was the adopted son of Emperor Augustus, and he had been carefully schooled and groomed to take on the leadership role. Ultimately, he became a tyrannical ruler; the final years of his reign were marked by viciousness and cruelty.

Upon Tiberius’s death, his nephew Caligula ascended to the throne. For a short time, Caligula ruled with moderation; however, not long after he came to power, he fell ill and thereafter exhibited the erratic behavior for which he is well known. Most scholars agree that Caligula must have been crazy. He was murdered in 41 C.E., and Claudius (also a nephew to Tiberius) was then proclaimed emperor. (Some speculate that Caligula might have suffered from lead poisoning, which can cause brain damage. Wine was often kept in jugs made of lead, and water pipes were also made of lead.)

Claudius renewed the expansion of Rome, waging battle with Germany, Syria, and Mauretania (present-day Algeria and Morocco), and conquering half of Britain. Though his administration was reportedly well run, he had his enemies; among them was his niece, Agrippina the Younger, who is believed to have murdered him in 54 C.E. after making sure her son, Nero, would be the next ruler.

In Nero, the early Roman Empire had perhaps its most despotic ruler. Though his early years in power were marked by the efficient conduct of public affairs, in 59 C.E., he had his mother assassinated (she reportedly had tried to rule through her son), and Nero’s legacy from that point forward is one of ruthless behavior. He was involved in murder plots, ordered the deaths of many Romans, instituted the persecution of Christians, and led an extravagant lifestyle that emptied the public coffers. He was declared a public enemy by the Roman Senate and in the year 68 C.E. took his own life.

Trajan is best known for his military campaigns, which expanded Rome’s territory. He was also a builder—constructing bridges, roads, and many buildings.

Why is Emperor Marcus Aurelius important?

When Marcus Aurelius ascended to emperor, he had already been in public office for more than twenty years. A man of great experience, he was reportedly both learned and of gentle character. His generals put down revolting tribes, and in addition to winning victories along the Danube River, his troops also fought barbarians in the north. He is also known for writing an important book of Stoic philosophy, the Meditations.

By the third century C.E., Roman armies had conquered so many peoples that the empire stretched across Europe and included the entire Mediterranean coast of Africa as well as parts of the Middle East. During this time of power and expansion, trade thrived over a vast network of roads and sea routes, which extended to China, India, and Africa. The Roman government issued and controlled coins made of gold, silver, copper, and bronze.

What were the Punic Wars?

The Punic Wars were three major campaigns that Rome waged to expand its empire. Messina, a city on the island of Sicily, was the site of the First Punic War, which began in 264 B.C.E. when warring factions in the city called for assistance from both Carthage and Rome. The Carthaginians arrived first from North Africa and secured the city. But the Romans, who had girded their navy for the battle, arrived and drove the Carthaginians out (in 241 B.C.E.), conquering Sicily. Messina became a free city allied with Rome.

The Second Punic War (218–201 B.C.E.) was largely fought over control of Spain. When the great Carthaginian general Hannibal captured the Roman-allied city of Sagunto, Spain, in 218 B.C.E., he crossed the Alps and invaded Italy, where he was met by and then defeated the Roman armies. The deciding battle in the Second Punic War was fought in the North African town of Zama (southwest of Carthage) in 202 B.C.E. It was there that the Romans under General Scipio Africanus (236–183 B.C.E.) crushed the Carthaginians under Hannibal. Rome exacted payments from Carthage, and Carthage was also forced to surrender its claims in Spain. In 201 B.C.E. the two powers signed a peace treaty, which held for five decades.

One of the largest empires to have ever existed, the Roman Empire encircled the Mediterranean Sea, reaching from Africa to the British Isles and from Spain to the Middle East at its height.

What important event happened in 146 B.C.E.?

In 146 B.C.E., Greece was conquered by Rome and was divided into provinces. While the city-states had no military or political power, they nevertheless flourished under Roman rule. And the Romans, who had been borrowing from Greek thought and culture for centuries, were soon spreading Greek ideas, art, and religion throughout their empire, giving rise to the Greco-Roman culture inherited by modern western civilization.

Why is Hannibal considered so important?

Hannibal (247 B.C.E.–183 B.C.E.) is considered a skilled military leader and strategist far ahead of his times, who sometimes led his Carthaginian troops to victories over much larger Roman forces. For example, in 216 B.C.E., he and his troops engaged and trapped a much larger Roman force of more than 85,000 troops in Cannae during the Second Punic War. Hannibal and his troops killed more than 50,000 Roman soldiers—probably the most devastating defeat Roman soldiers ever suffered.

Eventually, Hannibal was forced to retreat, as the Romans had too many resources. Rome won the Second Punic War in 201 B.C.E., and Hannibal fled to present-day Turkey. He eventually committed suicide rather than surrender to the Romans.

What happened in the Third Punic War?

The Third Punic War erupted in 149 B.C.E., when the Carthaginians rebelled against Roman rule. By 146 B.C.E., Carthage, which had been richer and more powerful than Rome when the Punic Wars began, was completely destroyed.

Who were some of the famous later emperors?

Diocletian had served as an army commander before becoming emperor. To effectively rule the expansive territory, he divided it into four regions, each with its own ruler, though he himself remained the acknowledged chief. Two years before he abdicated the throne in 305 C.E., he began the persecution of Christians—a surprising move since he had long been friendly toward them. Unlike his predecessors who died in office, Diocletian had a retirement, which he reportedly spent gardening. He enjoyed raising cabbages far more than ruling as emperor.

Constantine the Great is notable for reuniting the regions that Diocletian had created, bringing them all under his rule by 324. He was also the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.

Theodosius I (347–395), also called “the Great,” is known to many since he was the last to rule the united Roman Empire (from 379 to 395). In 395, upon the death of Emperor Theodosius, the Roman Empire was divided into two: East and West. In 476, after suffering a series of attacks from nomadic Germanic tribes, Rome fell.

How was Rome “sacked”?

After the split of the Roman Empire in 395, the Western Roman Empire continued to weaken, and Rome became the subject of a series of brutal attacks by Germanic tribes. In 410 the Visigoths moved into Italy and looted Rome; in 455 the Vandals thoroughly ravaged the city; finally, in 476 the city fell when the Germanic chieftain Odoacer (433–

493) forced Romulus Augustulus (c. 460–?), the last ruler of the empire, from the throne. By this time, however, Germanic chiefs had already taken Roman lands and divided them into several smaller kingdoms. The year 476 marks the official collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire was under constant risk of invasion from barbarian tribes in the north, including the Visigoths, Franks, Vandals, and others. Eventually, these invaders would reach the city of Rome, sacking it on several occasions as the empire gradually weakened and then fell.

What is the legacy of ancient Rome?

Since the Romans borrowed and adapted the ideas of the Greeks, with whom they had come into contact in about 300 B.C.E. and later conquered in 146 B.C.E., the culture of ancient Rome is sometimes called Greco-Roman. Over the course of centuries, Romans spread their ideas throughout their vast empire.

They also developed a legal code, which outlined basic principles while remaining flexible enough that lawyers and judges could interpret the laws, taking into consideration local customs and practices. The Code of Justinian, the Corpus Juris Civilis of 529 C.E., later became the model for legal systems in Europe and Latin America.

Roman armies built a network of roads, aqueducts, and tunnels, putting in place an infrastructure that outlasted the empire. Many Roman aqueducts and bridges still stand.

Latin, the Roman language, remained the language of educated Europeans for more than 1,400 years, while the Latin-based (or Romance) languages of Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian took over everyday communication. The economic system put in place during the height of the Roman Empire, with a centrally controlled money supply, also had a lasting effect.

Though the empire had crumbled by 476 C.E., its cultural, social, and economic establishments continued to have validity well into the Middle Ages.

Why is it called the Byzantine Empire?

An ancient Greek colony called Byzantium was settled on the Bosporus. The Bosporus is a narrow strait or natural channel that connects the Black Sea in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. (Sailing west, one would cross the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, and the Aegean Sea to get to the Mediterranean Sea.) The location of the colony is in what today is Turkey. Because of its location along the shipping trade routes, the colony would become a great city, later called Constantinople. Today, it is called Istanbul. The original name of the colony would become the name of the Byzantine Empire.

What is the Byzantine Empire’s role in history?

The Byzantine Empire (330 or 395 to 1453) is considered a link between ancient and modern civilizations. Though the empire was constantly fighting off invaders, plagued by religious controversies, and marred by political strife, as the heir of the Roman world, it allowed for the customs of Greco-Roman civilization to mix with those of the East and with Christianity.

Why was Constantine I called “the Great”?

Roman emperor Constantine the Great (c. 272–337) is credited with no less than beginning a new era in history. His father, Constantius, was ruler of the Roman Empire when he died in 306. Though Constantine was named emperor by Roman soldiers, a power struggle ensued. During a battle near Rome in 312 at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine, who had always been sympathetic toward Christians, reportedly saw a vision in the sky. Inspired by the vision, he and his troops won the battle against those trying to stop him from becoming emperor. Constantine emerged from the conflict both converted and victorious.

For the next twelve years, Constantine ruled the Western Roman Empire, while Licinius (also tolerant to Christians) ruled the Eastern Roman Empire. But a struggle between the two emperors ended in death for Licinius and, beginning in 325, Constantine ruled as sole emperor.

During Constantine’s reign, Christians gained freedom of worship, and the Christian Church became legal. In 325 he convened the Council of Nicaea. At the council, the Nicene Creed was created, which stated the essential beliefs of Christians. Many Christians today still follow the beliefs of the Creed.

Constantine also moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium. He named the city after himself: Constantinople, meaning “Constantine’s city.” (Today, the city is Istanbul in Turkey.) By moving the capital, he laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire.

This bronze statue of Constantine the Great was created by artist Philip Jackson and unveiled in 1998 in York, England. It commemorates his ascension to the throne in 306 C.E.

When did the Byzantine Empire begin?

The Byzantine Empire was a continuation of the Roman Empire—its citizens even called themselves Romans. Some historians date the beginning of the empire to 330 C.E., when Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople. (Other historians date the beginning to 395 C.E., when the empire was divided into East and West, followed by the fall of Rome in 476.)

Constantine was succeeded by nearly one hundred rulers over the course of more than 1,000 years of Byzantine rule. At its height, during the sixth-century reign of Justinian I from 483 to 565, the empire included parts of southern and eastern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. The Byzantine Empire ended when the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453.

What is the Hagia Sophia?

The Hagia Sophia was built as a magnificent Orthodox Christian church with a massive dome. The words hagia sophia mean “holy wisdom.” Built by Emperor Justinian I, it was completed in the year 537 C.E. For a thousand years, it was the largest church in the world. It stands today in the city of Istanbul in modern Turkey, although at the time it was built, the city was called Constantinople. In the year 1453, the Muslim Ottoman Turks conquered the region, and the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque. Four towers, called “minarets,” were added. Five times a day, men called “muezzins” would go to the top of the towers to call Muslims to prayer. In 1935, the Hagia Sophia became a museum and is visited by many tourists each year.

An Eastern Orthodox cathedral for nearly a thousand years, the Hagia Sophia was the largest building in the world when it was completed in the sixth century. Today, it is a stunning museum in Istanbul, Turkey.

THE TRIBAL PEOPLES OF EUROPE

Who were the Celts?

The Celts were an Indo-European people who by 500 B.C.E. had spread across what is now France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and the British Isles and by 200 B.C.E. had expanded as far as present-day Bulgaria and Greece. When the Romans conquered much of Europe (about 300 B.C.E.), many Celts were absorbed into the Roman Empire. However, those Celts living in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, southwest England, and Brittany (in northwestern France) were able to maintain their cultures, and it is in these regions that people of Celtic origin still live today.

Their society was divided among three classes: commoners, the educated, and aristocrats. They formed loose federations of tribes, raised crops and livestock, used the Greek alphabet to write their own language, and were among the first peoples in northern Europe to make iron. They never formed one united nation, however, so that when Roman armies swept across Europe, the Celtic tribes were overrun.

How were the Gauls related to the Celts?

The ancient Gauls were a Celtic people who occupied the ancient country of Gaul (an area that today consists of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, part of Germany, and part of the Netherlands). The Gauls were led by priests, called Druids.

Over several centuries, the Gauls fought the Romans, and then, under Julius Caesar, the Romans conquered all of Gaul with the defeat of the chief of the Gauls, Vercingetorix, in 52 B.C.E. Gaul became part of the Roman Empire. Very likely, a million or more Gauls were killed or died of disease and famine under the conquest of Julius Caesar. Perhaps a million were enslaved.

Julius Caesar described the military campaign in his Commentarii de bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War).

Who were the Huns?

The Huns were a nomadic central Asian people, who in the middle of the fourth century C.E. moved westward and conquered the local peoples. Unified by the ruler Attila the Hun in 434, the Huns gained control of a large part of central and eastern Europe. The Italian countryside was ravaged in the process, and many people sought refuge on the numerous islands in the Lagoon of Venice; the settlement later became the city of Venice. With the death of Attila in 453, the subjects of the Huns revolted and defeated them.

Who was Attila the Hun?

While Attila (c. 406–453) may have possessed some of the worthwhile qualities of a military leader, the king of the Huns was no doubt a ruthless and fierce figure. He is believed to have ascended through the ranks of the Hun army, coming to power as the leader of the nomadic group in 434. By this time, the Huns (who originated in central Asia) had occupied the Volga River valley in the area of present-day western Russia.

The leader of the Huns from 434 to 453, Attila the Hun was the most feared invader throughout Europe.

At first, like his predecessors, he was wholly occupied with fighting other barbarian tribes for control of lands. But under Attila’s leadership, the Huns began to extend their power into central Europe. He waged battles with the Eastern Roman armies, and, after murdering his older brother and coruler Bleda in 445, went on to trample the countries of the Balkan Peninsula and northern Greece—causing terrible destruction along the way. As Attila continued westward with his bloody campaigns, which each Hun fought using his own weapons and his own savage technique, he nearly destroyed the foundations of Christianity.

But the combined armies of the Romans and the Visigoths defeated Attila and the Huns at Châlons (in northeastern France) in June 451, which is known as one of the most decisive battles of all time. From there, Attila and his men moved into Italy, devastating the countryside before Pope Leo I (c. 400–461) succeeded in persuading the brutal leader to spare Rome. (For this and other reasons, Leo was later canonized, becoming Saint Leo.) Attila died suddenly—and of natural causes—in 453, just as he was again preparing to cross the Alps and invade Italy anew.

Who were the barbarians?

The term refers to any of the Germanic tribes that, beginning about 400, repeatedly attacked Rome, eventually conquering it and dividing the territories of the Western Roman Empire into many kingdoms. The Germanic tribes included the Goths, the Vandals, the Franks, the Lombards, the Angles, and the Saxons.

Who were the Goths?

The Goths divided into two groups: a western group known as the Visigoths and an eastern group known as the Ostrogoths. Theodoric (c. 454–526) became the ruler of the Ostrogoths in 493, and it was under his leadership that the group invaded northern Italy.

In 378 the Visigoths rebelled against the Roman authorities. On horseback, they fought the battle of Adrianople (in present-day Turkey), destroying a Roman army and killing Rome’s eastern emperor, Valens (c. 328–378). The Visigoths’ introduction of the cavalry (troops trained to fight on horseback) as part of warfare determined European military, social, and political development for the next thousand years.

The Visigoths moved into Italy, and under the leadership of their ruler, Alaric (c. 370–410), sacked Rome in 410, an event that signaled the beginning of the end of the Roman Empire. The Visigoths moved into Gaul and then the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal). The city of Toledo was established as their capital. Roderick (or Rodrigo), the last Visigoth king, was defeated and killed in 711 during a battle with the Muslims (Moors), who invaded from northern Africa and then conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula.

Who were the Vandals?

Around the year 100 C.E., the Vandals had settled in what today is Poland. In time, they were threatened by the Huns, so the Vandals moved west, overrunning Gaul (presentday France), Spain, and northern Africa, where they eventually settled. In 455, led by the powerful King Genseric, the Vandals ravaged Rome. Their pillage was so thorough that the word “vandal” would be used to describe anyone who willfully destroys property.

Who were the Franks?

The Franks were yet another Germanic people. Their most important early king was Clovis I (c. 466–511). Under this cruel and cunning king, the Franks soon controlled much of Europe, including the land that is today France, Belgium, and Germany. (In case you have not guessed it, France is named after the Franks.) Under the influence of his wife, Clotilde, Clovis converted to Catholic Christianity. Soon, most of his people would also convert.

Who were the Lombards?

The Lombards, too, were a Germanic tribe who moved from the area that today is Germany, then moved south into what today is Austria, and then moved into much of Italy. In 754, Pope Stephen II (714–757) appealed to the powerful Franks for help. Under the rule of Pepin III (called Pepin the Short; c. 714–768), the Franks defeated the Lombards. The northern region of Italy, Lombardy, is named for them.

What is the origin of the word “barbarian”?

The word comes from the ancient Greeks; possibly, it referred to the language of people the Greeks did not understand: their language sounded like “bar … bar.…”

Who were the Angles and Saxons?

The Angles were a Germanic tribe that settled in England, where they joined the Saxons (also a Germanic-speaking people). Together, they became known as Anglo-Saxons. The name “England” comes from the older name Englaland, meaning “Land of the Angles.”

The Vikings often attacked cities and towns not to take them over and expand an empire but simply to loot them. This illustration depicts the 845 siege of Paris in which the Vikings defeated Charles the Bald, took a ransom of gold and silver, and then left.

Who were the Vikings?

The Vikings, also called Norsemen, were fierce, seafaring warriors who originated in Scandinavia (today the countries Norway, Sweden, and Denmark). Beginning in the late 700s, they raided England, France, Germany, Ireland, Scotland, Italy, Russia, and Spain. They also reached Greenland, Iceland, and even North America long before the Europeans. (Ruins of a Norse settlement were found on the northeastern coast of Newfoundland, Canada.) The Viking raiders were greatly feared.

What was the importance of Viking ships?

The Viking ship was designed to sail on open oceans on rough seas, yet the boats had a shallow draft, which meant they did not go that deep into the water and could sail in shallow waters. Thus, not only could Vikings raid and plunder coastal settlements and cities, they could also go up rivers and raid cities far from the coast. All major cities were built on rivers. For example, the Vikings in 845, led by the chieftain Ragnar, sailed 120 ships over 200 miles up the Seine River to attack and plunder Paris.

The Vikings converted to Christianity around the year 1000, about the same time that the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were established. Under the Danish leader Canute, Vikings conquered England in 1016 and ruled it as part of Denmark until 1042.

Who were the Normans?

The Normans were Vikings who in the mid-800s invaded northern France, ousting the Franks. The region came to be known as Normandy. In 1066, the Norman duke William (the Conqueror; 1027–1087) sailed across the English Channel, and in the Battle of Hastings, defeated the army of King Harold Godwinson and claimed the English throne.

THE RISE OF ISLAM

What are the origins of the religion of Islam?

In the year 570, Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca in what today is Saudi Arabia. According to Muslim tradition, at the age of forty, he began receiving revelations from the archangel Gabriel. In the next years, a new religion, Islam, would be built on these revelations. Eventually, the revelations would be written down as the holy book of Islam, the Qur’an. Muhammad would be honored as the final prophet of Allah’s message. Allah is the Arabic word for God.

Muhammad died in 632. In the next centuries, his followers would spread Islam over the Mideast, North Africa, and what today is Spain. There would be numerous conflicts as the Islamic world and the Christian world clashed. (Islam will be covered in more detail in the “Religion” chapter.)