Notes

Introduction

1 The data it quoted: Rashmi Sinha et al., “Meat Intake and Mortality: A Prospective Study of Over Half a Million People,” Archives of Internal Medicine 169 (2009): 562–571.

1 She didn’t want to clog: Ibid.

2 I don’t hover: Jaroslaw Adamowski, “Polish Meat Consumption to Expand in 2015,” accessed December 2, 2014, www.globalmeatnews.com/Industry-Markets/Polish-meat-consumption-to-expand-in-2015.

3 Americans devour: Mark C. Eisler et al., “Agriculture: Steps to Sustainable Livestock,” Nature 507 (2014): 33.

3 In the meantime: Hope R. Ferdowsian and Neal D. Barnard, “Effects of Plant-Based Diets on Plasma Lipids,” American Journal of Cardiology 104 (2009): 947–956.

3 According to studies: Denis E. Corpet, “Red Meat and Colon Cancer: Should We Become Vegetarians, or Can We Make Meat Safer?,” Meat Science 89 (2011): 310–316.

3 High intake of red meat: Astrid Steinbrecher et al., “Meat Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: The Multiethnic Cohort,” Public Health Nutrition 14 (2011): 568–574.

3 In one widely cited study: An Pan et al., “Red Meat Consumption and Mortality,” Archives of Internal Medicine 172 (2012).

3 Meanwhile, studies show: Gary E. Fraser and David J. Shavlik, “Ten Years of Life,” Archives of Internal Medicine 161 (2001): 1645–1652.

3 American meat consumption: “Meat Consumption in the United States, 1909–2012,” Earth Policy Institute, accessed December 2, 2014, www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/book_fpep_ch3_14.xlsx.

3 The OECD estimates: “OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2011–2020,” OECD Publishing and FAO, accessed December 2, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2011-en.

3 In China, meat consumption: Mindi Schneider and Shefali Sharma, “Chinas Pork Miracle?,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 17, 2014, accessed December 2, 2014, www.iatp.org/files/2014_03_26_PorkReport_f_web.pdf.

3 The media have reported: Timi Gustafson, “Fight Climate Change with a New Diet,” HuffPost Living, July 2, 2014, accessed December 2, 2014, www.huffingtonpost.ca/timi-gustafson/vegetarian-diet_b_5552288.html.

3 Producing one calorie: “Fight Global Warming by Going Vegetarian,” PETA, accessed December 2, 2014, www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/global-warming/.

4 Meat eating is responsible: Nathan Fiala, “How Meat Contributes to Global Warming,” Scientific American, February 2009, accessed December 2, 2014, www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-greenhouse-hamburger/; IATA Technology Roadmap 2013, accessed December 2, 2014, www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/Documents/technology-roadmap-2013.pdf.

4 According to some: James Hansen et al., “Ice Melt, Sea Level Rise and Superstorms: Evidence from Paleoclimate Data, Climate Modeling, and Modern Observations That 2C Global Warming Is Highly Dangerous,” Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 15 (2015): 20059–20179.

4 According to a 2003 Gallup poll: David W. Moore, “Public Lukewarm on Animal Rights,” Gallup News Service, May 21, 2003, accessed December 2, 2014, www.gallup.com/poll/8461/public-lukewarm-animal-rights.aspx.

4 In one study, 81 percent: Andrew Rauch and Jeff S. Sharp, “Ohioans’ Attitudes About Animal Welfare,” January 2005, accessed December 2, 2014, http://ohiosurvey.osu.edu/pdf/2004_Animal_report.pdf.

4 We crowd our egg-laying: “The Egg Industry,” PETA, accessed December 2, 2014, www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/factory-farming/chickens/egg-industry/.

5 According to Gallup: George Gallup, “The Gallup Poll,” Washington Post, October 2, 1943, 9.

5 By 2012 the number: Frank Newport, “In U.S., 5% Consider Themselves Vegetarians,” July 26, 2012, accessed December 2, 2014, www.gallup.com/poll/156215/consider-themselves-vegetarians.aspx.

5 But another survey: Hal Herzog, “Why Are There So Few Vegetarians?,” Psychology Today, September 6, 2011.

6 Is it the skillful marketing: “U.S. Meat and Poultry Production & Consumption: An Overview,” American Meat Institute, April 2009, accessed December 2, 2014, www.meatami.com/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/93335.

7 I examine these hooks:Corn Subsidies,” EWG Farm Subsidies, accessed December 2, 2014, http://farm.ewg.org/progdetail.php?fips=00000&progcode=corn.

7 If you are one of the: Eliza Barclay, “Why There’s Less Red Meat on Many American Plates,” NPR, June 27, 2012, accessed December 2, 2014, www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/06/27/155837575/why-theres-less-red-meat-served-on-many-american-plates.

Chapter 1: Enter Meat Eaters

10 And yet, at some point: Gáspár Jékely, “Origin of Phagotrophic Eukaryotes as Social Cheaters in Microbial Biofilms,” Biology Direct 2 (2007).

10 “It’s like a community: Gáspár Jékely, phone interview by author, December 17, 2013.

10 These, though, were: Silvester de Nooijer, Barbara R. Holland, and David Penny, “The Emergence of Predators in Early Life: There Was No Garden of Eden,” PLoS ONE 4 (2009).

10 They were essential: Stefan Bengtson, “Origins and Early Evolution of Predation,” Paleontological Society Papers 8 (2002): 289–317.

10 With time and generations: Jékely, “Origin of Phagotrophic Eukaryotes.”

11 Once the ancient bacteria: Bengston, “Origins and Early Evolution.”

11 In the warm oceans: Roy E. Plotnick, Stephen Q. Dornbos, and Junyuan Chen, “Information Landscapes and Sensory Ecology of the Cambrian Radiation,” Paleobiology 36 (2010): 303–317.

11 Cloudina was an anemone: Ibid.

12 Jellyfish-like animals: Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid, “Evolution of Striated Muscle: Jellyfish and the Origin of Triploblasty,” Developmental Biology 282 (2005): 14–26.

12 Of course, how that: “Off the Beaten Palate: Sea Anemone,” June 7, 2012, accessed November 28, 2014, http://shanghaiist.com/2012/06/07/off_the_beaten_palate_sea_anemone.php.

12 One of those earliest meat eaters: Jean Vannier, “Gut Contents as Direct Indicators for Trophic Relationships in the Cambrian Marine Ecosystem,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012).

12 They resembled tubes: Ibid.

12 Nectocaris squirted itself: Martin R. Smith and Jean-Bernard Caron, “Primitive Soft-Bodied Cephalopods from the Cambrian,” Nature 465 (2010): 469–472; Martin R. Smith, phone interview by author, December 9, 2013.

13 It was the largest meat eater:Anomalocaris canadensis (proto-arthropod),” accessed November 28, 2014, http://paleobiology.si.edu/burgess/anomalocaris.html.

13 The whole animal kingdom: Bengston, “Origins and Early Evolution.”

14 If Earth hadn’t become: Erik Sperling et al., “Oxygen, Ecology, and the Cambrian Radiation of Animals,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (2013): 13446–13451.

14 Purgatorius was an accomplished: Matt Kaplan, “Primates Were Always Tree-Dwellers,” Nature News (2012).

15 Their guts were: Margaret J. Schoeninger et al., “Meat-Eating by the Fourth African Ape,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Craig Stanford and Henry T. Bunn (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001), 186.

15 Some researchers suggest: Ibid., 191.

16 Much of the rain forest: Karen Lupo, “On Early Hominin Meat Eating and Carcass Acquisition Strategies: Still Relevant After All These Years?,” in Stone Tools and Fossil Bones: Debates in the Archaeology of Human Origins, ed. Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 121.

16 Moving on two legs: Craig B. Stanford, “A Comparison of Social Meat-Foraging by Chimpanzees and Human Foragers,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Stanford and Bunn, 137.

17 Cut marks are V shaped: Briana Pobiner, interview by author, Washington, DC, October 29, 2013.

18 The oldest undisputed: Lupo, “On Early Hominin Meat Eating,” 128.

18 Some were much, much: Robert Blumenschine and Briana Pobiner, “Zooarchaeology and the Ecology of Oldowan Hominin Carnivory,” in Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable, ed. Peter S. Ungar (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007), 175.

18 In the minds of our ancestors: Ibid.

19 Marrow from a tiny: Ibid., 178.

20 Without stone tools: Nerissa Russell, Social Zooarchaeology: Humans and Animals in Prehistory (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 149.

20 Most mammals have them: Horst Erich König and Hans-Georg Liebich, Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Mammals: Textbook and Colour Atlas (Stuttgart, Germany: Schattauer, 2007), 314.

20 Besides, human canines: Matt Cartmill and Fred H. Smith, The Human Lineage (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).

20 Even though canine teeth: Jeremiah E. Scott, “Nonsocial Influences on Canine Size in Anthropoid Primates,” December 2010, accessed November 28, 2014, http://repository.asu.edu/attachments/56070/content/Scott_asu_0010E_10059.pdf.

20 Most likely the canine teeth: Ibid.

21 The true meat-eating: Patricia Smith and Eitan Tchernov, eds., Structure, Function, and Evolution of Teeth (London: Freund, 1992), 216.

22 The famed British-Kenyan: Travis R. Pickering and Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo, “Chimpanzee Referents and the Emergence of Human Hunting,” The Open Anthropology Journal 3 (2010): 111.

22 Once early Homo: R. Dale Guthrie, “Haak en Steek: The Tool That Allowed Hominins to Colonize the African Savanna and to Flourish There,” in Guts and Brains: An Integrative Approach to the Hominin Record, ed. Wil Roebroeks (Leiden, Netherlands: Leiden University Press, 2007), 155–161.

22 In the jungles of Senegal: Travis Rayne Pickering and Henry T. Bunn, “Meat Foraging by Pleistocene African Hominins,” in Stone Tools and Fossil Bones, ed. Domínguez-Rodrigo, 157.

24 Lions scavenge frequently: Craig Packer, David Scheel, and Anne E. Puset, “Why Lions Form Groups: Food Is Not Enough,” The American Naturalist 136 (1990): 1–19.

Chapter 2: Big Brains, Small Guts, and the Politics of Meat

26 There is quite a lot: Nerissa Russell, Social Zooarchaeology: Humans and Animals in Prehistory (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 198–199.

26 Just like Greenland Inuits: Pavel Nikolskiy and Vladimir Pitulko, “Evidence from the Yana Palaeolithic Site, Arctic Siberia, Yields Clues to the Riddle of Mammoth Hunting,” Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013): 4189–4197.

26Hunting mammoths could: Grégory Bayle and Stéphane Péan, interview by author, Nemours, France, February 7, 2014.

26 It’s true that: Robert Foley, “The Evolutionary Consequences of Increased Carnivory in Hominids,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Craig Stanford and Henry T. Bunn (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001), 310.

26 Some anthropologists argue: John D. Speth, Paleoanthropology and Archaeology of Big-Game Hunting (New York: Springer, 2010).

27 For an hour of work: Ibid., 88–89.

27 Hunters from one New Guinea: Ibid., 152.

27 The San hunters: Ibid., 100.

27 Even chimps are: Ibid., 153.

27 Scoring an elusive prize: Ibid.

27 Bringing an elephant: Kristen Hawkes, “Is Meat the Hunter’s Property?,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Stanford and Bunn, 228.

28 But hunting big game: Ibid., 230.

28 Some scientists believe: Ibid., 231.

28 The Kulina practice: Ian Gilby et al., “No Evidence of Short-Term Exchange of Meat for Sex Among Chimpanzees,” Journal of Human Evolution 59 (2010): 44–53.

28 Studies show that: Russell, Social Zooarchaeology, 159–160.

28 In the words: Henry T. Bunn, “Meat Made Us Human,” in Evolution of the Human Diet, ed. P. Ungar (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), 191–211.

29 In Australia: Norman Owen-Smith, “Contrasts in the Large Herbivore Faunas of the Southern Continents in the Late Pleistocene and the Ecological Implications for Human Origins,” Journal of Biogeography 40 (2013): 1215–1224.

29 By comparison, the brains: John S. Allen, The Omnivorous Mind: Our Evolving Relationship with Food (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 51–52.

29 One widely accepted: Leslie C. Aiello and Peter Wheeler, “The Expensive-Tissue Hypothesis: The Brain and the Digestive System in Human and Primate Evolution,” Current Anthropology 36 (1995): 199–221.

30 A fruit-eating Homo erectus: Vaclav Smil, “Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences,” Population and Development Review 28 (2002): 599–639.

30 If as little as 10 percent: William R. Leonard, Marcia L. Robertson, and J. Josh Snodgrass, “Energetics and the Evolution of Brain Size in Early Homo,” in Guts and Brains: An Integrative Approach to the Hominin Record, ed. Wil Roebroeks (Leiden, Netherlands: Leiden University Press, 2007), 36.

30 Some paleoanthropologists argue: Alyssa N. Crittenden, “The Importance of Honey Consumption in Human Evolution, Food and Foodways: Explorations in the History and Culture of Human Nourishment,” Food and Foodways: Explorations in the History and Culture of Human Nourishment 19 (2011): 257–273.

31 That’s 1,900 calories: Ibid.

31 Another food that: Bunn, “Meat Made Us Human,” 204–207.

31 Richard Wrangham, Harvard University: Richard Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (London: Profile Books, 2009).

31 In Wrangham’s experiments: Rachel N. Carmody, Gil S. Weintraub, and Richard W. Wrangham, “Energetic Consequences of Thermal and Nonthermal Food Processing,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (2011): 19199–19203.

31 Wrangham replies that: Richard Wrangham, phone interview by author, December 1, 2013.

32 So even though meat: Robert Foley, “The Evolutionary Consequences of Increased Carnivory in Hominids,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Stanford and Bunn, 324.

32 The Machiavellian intelligence: Richard Byrne and Andrew Whiten, Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes, and Humans (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1988).

32 Neither gorillas nor: Katharine Milton, “The Critical Role Played by Animal Source Foods in Human (Homo) Evolution,” Journal of Nutrition 133 (2003): 3886S–3892S.

32 In the Serengeti: Blaire Van Valkenburgh, “The Dog-Eat-Dog World of Carnivores,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Stanford and Bunn, 106.

33 Once human hair got sparse: Caleb E. Finch and Craig B. Stanford, “Meat-Adaptive Genes and the Evolution of Slower Aging in Humans,” Quarterly Review of Biology 79 (2004): 28.

33 Many scientists believe: Meave Leakey and Lars Werdelin, “Early Pleistocene Mammals of Africa: Background to Dispersal,” in Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia, ed. John Fleagle (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2010), 3.

34 This similarity: Ibid., 6.

34 Each day a meat-eating animal: Herman Pontzer, “Ecological Energetics in Early Homo,” Current Anthropology 53 (2012): 346–358.

34 If we hadn’t eaten that meat: Mary C. Stiner, “Carnivory, Coevolution, and the Geographic Spread of the Genus Homo,” Journal of Archaeological Research 10 (2002).

34 Analyses of nitrogen isotope: Hervé Bocherens, “Neanderthal Dietary Habits: Review of the Isotopic Evidence,” in Evolution of Hominin Diets: Integrating Approaches to the Study of Paleolithic Subsistence, eds. Jean-Jacques Hublin and Michael P. Richards (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2009), 245.

35 This would have meant: Fred Smith and James C. M. Ahern, The Origins of Modern Humans: Biology Reconsidered (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2013), 308.

35 First, the meat you buy: Frank W. Marlowe, “Hunter-Gatherers and Human Evolution,” Evolutionary Anthropology 14 (2005): 54–67.

35 A 3.5-ounce strip loin steak: Louwrens C. Hoffman and Donna-Mareè Cawthorn, “What Is the Role and Contribution of Meat from Wildlife in Providing High Quality Protein for Consumption?,” Animal Frontiers 2 (2012): 40–53.

35 A similar-sized beefsteak: “Many of Americas Favorite Cuts Are Lean,” accessed November 28, 2014, www.beefitswhatsfordinner.com/CMDocs/BIWFD/FactSheets/Many_Of_Americas_Favorite_Cuts_Are_Lean.pdf.

35 What’s more, modern meat: Marlowe, “Hunter-Gatherers and Human Evolution.”

36 Sixty thousand years ago: Michael P. Richards and Erik Trinkaus, “Isotopic Evidence for the Diets of European Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 16034–16039.

36 Studies of the human genome: John Hawks et al., “Recent Acceleration of Human Adaptive Evolution,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 20753–20758.

36 Some of us: Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending, The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution (New York: Basic Books, 2009), 79.

36 Others have extra copies: Kaixiong Ye and Zhenglong Gu, “Recent Advances in Understanding the Role of Nutrition in Human Genome Evolution,” Advances in Nutrition 2 (2011): 486–496.

37 For example, in some societies: Michael J. O’Brien and Kevin N. Laland, “Genes, Culture, and Agriculture: An Example of Human Niche Construction,” Current Anthropology 53 (2012): 438; Ye and Gu, “Recent Advances in Understanding.”

37 There is one gene: Finch and Stanford, “Meat-Adaptive Genes.”

37 If you have the E4 allele: Caleb E. Finch, “Evolution of the Human Lifespan and Diseases of Aging: Roles of Infection, Inflammation, and Nutrition,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (2010): 1718–1724.

37 If two people: Ibid.

37 Wild chimps, for example: Finch and Stanford, “Meat-Adaptive Genes,” 19.

37 Yet the E4 gene variant: Alexander M. Kulminski et al., “Trade-off in the Effects of the Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism on the Ages at Onset of CVD and Cancer Influences Human Lifespan,” Aging Cell 10 (2011): 533–541.

37 Unfortunately, it also put them: Mirkka Lahdenperä et al., “Fitness Benefits of Prolonged Post-Reproductive Lifespan in Women,” Nature 428 (2004): 178–181, www.nature.com/nature/journal/v428/n6979/full/nature02367.html.

37 The newer E3: Peter de Knijff et al., “Lipoprotein Profile of a Greenland Inuit Population,” Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis 12 (1992): 1371–1379.

38 As one writer joked: Kerry Cue, “Try the Latest Paleo Diet and You Too Can Be Short, Stocky, Hairy and Smelly and Then You Die,” Canberra Times (Australia), February 6, 2013.

38 Their preserved skeletons: Sarah Boesveld, “Cavemen’s Healthy Living a Paleofantasy,” National Post, March 16, 2013.

38 After all, chimps: Speth, Paleoanthropology and Archaeology, 151.

Chapter 3: The Good, the Bad, and the Heme Iron

41 The late anthropologist: Marvin Harris, Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985), 19–22.

41 We ate over three thousand: Ibid., 20.

42 In 1867 one French American: Paul Du Chaillu, Stories of the Gorilla Country: Narrated for Young People (New York: Harper, 1867), 317.

42 The Mekeo of New Guinea: Mark Mosko, Quadripartite Structures: Categories, Relations, and Homologies in Bush Mekeo Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 49.

42 In Uganda, locals have: Merrill Kelley Bennett, The World’s Food: A Study of the Interrelations of World Populations, National Diets, and Food Potentials (New York: Harper, 1954).

42 “They practically are chimps”: Paul Breslin, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 22, 2013.

43 “These flies eat little: Ibid.

43 Stephen Simpson, professor: Stephen Simpson and David Raubenheimer, The Nature of Nutrition a Unifying Framework from Animal Adaptation to Human Obesity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012).

43 Simpson told me once: Stephen Simpson, phone interview by author, April 3, 2014.

44 In 1824, Justus von Liebig: Walter Gratzer, Terrors of the Table: The Curious History of Nutrition (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005).

44 To him, carbohydrates: Kenneth J. Carpenter, “The History of Enthusiasm for Protein,” Journal of Nutrition 116 (1986): 1364–1370.

44 His “Liebig’s Extract of Meat”: Justus Liebig and William Gregory, Familiar Letters on Chemistry (London: Taylor, Walton & Maberly, 1851), 441.

45 Von Voit advised that: Harold H. Mitchell, Carl von Voit,Journal of Nutrition 13 (1937): 2–13.

45 The idea that we need: Carpenter, “The History of Enthusiasm for Protein.”

45 By 1944 the US Department: Henry Sherman, Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food (Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 1944), 12.

45 In Ghana kwashiorkor means: Paul M. Insel, Discovering Nutrition (Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2013), 260.

45 Soon the world fell: Urban Jonsson, “The Rise and Fall of Paradigms in World Food and Nutrition Policy,” World Nutrition (2010): 128–158.

45 If your total dietary intake: Richard Semba and Martin Bloem, Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries (Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2008), 15.

46 It was soon discovered: Geoffrey Webb, Nutrition: A Health Promotion Approach (London: Hodder Arnold, 2008), 261.

46 “Simply put, our muscles: Carlon Colker, “Its Whats for Dinner: Beef for Maximal Muscle Gains,” Flex, August 1, 2013, 72.

46 “Muscle is made of protein: Jim Stoppani, Eat for Muscle,Muscle & Fitness, January 1, 2013, 92.

46 The RDA (just like the British: “Dietary Reference Intakes: Macronutrients,” accessed November 27, 2014, www.iom.edu/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/C5CD2DD7840544979A549EC47E56A02B.ashx; “Nutrient Intakes,” accessed November 27, 2014, www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/265266/familyfood-method-rni-12dec13.pdf.

47 But most plants lack: Kathryn Pinna Rolfes and Eleanor N. Whitney, Normal and Clinical Nutrition (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2011), 175–182.

47 Another classic combination: Nivaldo Tro, Chemistry in Focus: A Molecular View of Our World (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1998), 476.

48 Lappé admitted in the: Frances M. Lappé, Diet for a Small Planet (New York: Ballantine Books, 1991), 162.

48 Their protein requirements: Ronald Maughan, Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine (Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 136.

48 If you go to the gym: Kevin D. Tipton and Robert R. Wolfe, “Protein and Amino Acids for Athletes,” Journal of Sports Sciences 22 (2004): 65–79.

48 As Breslin told me: Paul Breslin, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 22, 2013.

49 By 1919 Vilhjalmur Stefansson: “Vilhjalmur Stefansson Was Called and Examined, May 8, 1919,” accessed November 27, 2014, https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24661516M/Vihljalmur_Stefansson_was_called_and_examined_May_8_1919_i.e._1920; John D. Speth, Paleoanthropology and Archaeology of Big-Game Hunting (New York: Springer, 2010), 72.

49 Even though there weren’t: Speth, Paleoanthropology and Archaeology, 77.

49 you are a 110-pound woman: “McDonalds USA Nutrition Facts for Popular Menu Items,” accessed November 27, 2014, http://nutrition.mcdonalds.com/getnutrition/nutritionfacts.pdf.

49 Your kidneys may stop: Insel, Discovering Nutrition, 261.

49 Studies show that: Morgan E. Levine et al., “Low Protein Intake Is Associated with a Major Reduction in IGF-1, Cancer, and Overall Mortality in the 65 and Younger but Not Older Population,” Cell Metabolism 19 (2014): 407–417.

49 Up until the mid-nineteenth: Alan Beardsworth and Teresa Keil, Sociology on the Menu: An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society (London: Routledge, 1997), 196.

50 But more and more research: Marta Zaraska, “Iron Deficiency, Even Mild Anemia, May Protect Against Malaria, TB and Cancer,” Washington Post, November 24, 2014, E4.

50 Many of the studies: Mary H. Ward et al., “Heme Iron from Meat and Risk of Adenocarcinoma of the Esophagus and Stomach,” European Journal of Cancer Prevention 21 (2012): 134–138.

50 Among Tanzania’s schoolchildren: Rebecca Stoltzfus, “Epidemiology of Iron Deficiency Anemia in Zanzibari Schoolchildren: The Importance of Hookworms,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65 (1997): 153–159.

50 Evidence is starting: Zaraska, “Iron Deficiency.”

51 Today, Western vegetarians: Angela V. Saunders et al., “Iron and Vegetarian Diets,” Medical Journal of Australia Open 1 (2012): 11–16; Madeleine J. Ball and Melinda A. Bartlett, “Dietary Intake and Iron Status of Australian Vegetarian Women,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (1999): 353–358.

51 Keeping anemia at bay: “Iron in Your Diet,” accessed November 27, 2014, www.swbh.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Iron-in-your-diet-ML3395.pdf.

51 First, if someone has: Saunders et al., “Iron and Vegetarian Diets.”

51 Second, low iron reserves: Stefan Kiechl et al., “Body Iron Stores and the Risk of Carotid Atherosclerosis,” Circulation 96 (1997): 3300–3307.

51 Study after study shows: Angela V. Saunders, Winston J. Craig, and Surinder K. Baines, “Zinc and Vegetarian Diets,” Medical Journal of Australia Open 1 (2012): 17–21.

51 The only places to get: Suzanne Havala Hobbs, Living Vegetarian for Dummies (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010), 54.

52 It’s produced exclusively: Harris, Good to Eat, 35–36.

52 One study presented: Jette F. Young et al., “Novel Aspects of Health Promoting Compounds in Meat,” Meat Science 95 (2013): 904–911; Meltem Serdaroğlu et al., “The Power of Meat in 21st Century,” ICoMST 2013 e-book of proceedings: 59th ICoMST (Izmir, Turkey: Ege University, 2013).

52 Because of all the longitudinal: Gary E. Fraser and David J. Shavlik, “Ten Years of Life,” Archives of Internal Medicine 161 (2001): 1645–1652; Paul N. Appleby et al., “The Oxford Vegetarian Study: An Overview,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70 (1999): 525s–531s.

52 By January 1917: Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds., Food and War in Twentieth Century Europe (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011), 202–210; Mikkel Hindhede, “The Effect of Food Restriction During War on Mortality in Copenhagen,” JAMA 74 (1920): 381–382.

53 The vegetarian Seventh-day Adventists: Fraser and Shavlik, “Ten Years of Life.”

53 A fruitarian diet can be: “Top Diets Review for 2014,” accessed November 27, 2014, www.nhs.uk/Livewell/loseweight/Pages/top-10-most-popular-diets-review.aspx#dukan.

54 According to this theory: Iztok Ostan, “Appetite for the Selfish Gene,” Appetite 54 (2010): 442–449; Imogen S. Rogers et al., “Diet Throughout Childhood and Age at Menarche in a Contemporary Cohort of British Girls,” Public Health Nutrition 13 (2010): 2052–2063.

Chapter 4: The Chemistry of Love: Umami, Aromas, and Fat

58 When prisoners on death row: Brian Wansink, Kevin M. Kniffin, and Mitsuru Shimizu, “Death Row Nutrition: Curious Conclusions of Last Meals,” Appetite 59 (2012): 837–843.

58 Studies show that 74 percent: Jamie L. Osman and Jeffery Sobal, “Chocolate Cravings in American and Spanish Individuals: Biological and Cultural Influences,” Appetite 47 (2006): 290–301.

58 “Oh, yes, cheesesteaks: Gary Beauchamp, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 2, 2013.

58 When I ask him what: Ibid.

59 What we do know: Danielle R. Reed, Toshiko Tanaka, and Amanda H. McDaniel, “Diverse Tastes: Genetics of Sweet and Bitter Perception,” Physiology & Behavior 88 (2006): 215–226.

59 It happens like this: Barb Stuckey, Taste: Surprising Stories and Science About Why Food Tastes Good (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 47–48.

60 The discovery of why: Jozef Cohen, “Taste Blindness to Phenyl-thiocarbamide and Related Compounds,” Psychological Bulletin 46 (1949): 490–498; Linda Bartoshuk, “Comparing Sensory Experiences Across Individuals: Recent Psychophysical Advances Illuminate Genetic Variation in Taste Perception,” Chemical Senses 25 (2000): 447–460.

60 “He had lung cancer: Linda Bartoshuk, phone interview by author, August 27, 2013.

60 She started noticing: Ibid.

61 Nontasters, like myself: Adam Drewnowski, Susan Ahlstrom Henderson, and Anne Barratt-Fornell, “Genetic Taste Markers and Food Preferences,” Drug Metabolism and Disposition 29 (2001): 535–538.

61 They also tend to eat: Drewnowski, Henderson, and Barratt-Fornell, “Genetic Taste Markers”; Danielle Renee Reed and Antti Knaapila, “Genetics of Taste and Smell: Poisons and Pleasures,” Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science 94 (2010): 213–240.

62 Some studies do show: Bianca Turnbull and Elizabeth Matisoo-Smith, “Taste Sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil Predicts Acceptance of Bitter-Tasting Spinach in 3–6-y-old Children,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76 (2002): 1101–1105; Blanca J. Villarino et al., “Relationship of PROP (6-N-Propylthiouracil) Taster Status with the Body Mass Index and Food Preferences of Filipino Adults,” Journal of Sensory Studies 24 (2009): 354–371.

62 According to Bartoshuk: Bartoshuk, interview.

62 A large chunk of what: Stuckey, Taste, 54–55.

62 The lack of strong aromas: Leo Nollet and Fidel Toldra, eds., Handbook of Muscle Foods Analysis (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2009), 504–505.

62 Even animals seem: Rachel N. Carmody, Gil S. Weintraub, and Richard W. Wrangham, “Energetic Consequences of Thermal and Nonthermal Food Processing,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (2011): 19199–19203 (see Kristen Hawkes, “Is Meat the Hunter’s Property?,” in Meat-Eating and Human Evolution, eds. Stanford and Bunn, 231.)

62 In similar experiments: Victoria Wobber, Brian Hare, and Richard Wrangham, “Great Apes Prefer Cooked Food,” Journal of Human Evolution 55 (2008): 1–9.

62 Although Maillard’s name is now: “Who Is Louis Camille Maillard?,” accessed November 28, 2014, www.lc-maillard.org/who-is-louis-camille-maillard/.

63 Only later did he begin: Tom Jaine, ed., Oxford Symposium on Food & Cookery 1987: Taste (London: Prospect, 1988), 134.

63 There are over one thousand: Nollet and Toldra, Handbook, 504.

63 Some smell fruity: Virginia C. Resconi, Ana Escudero, and María M. Campo, “The Development of Aromas in Ruminant Meat,” Molecules 18 (2013): 6748–6781; Chris Calkins and Jennie Marie Hodgen, “A Fresh Look at Meat Flavor,” Meat Science 77 (2007): 63–80; “Odors and Odorants of the Maillard Class,” accessed November 28, 2014, www.flavornet.org/class/maillard.html.

63 There are several passages: Paul Breslin, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 22, 2013.

63 One explanation is that: Ibid.

63 Other products of the Maillard: Richard H. Stadler et al., “Food Chemistry: Acrylamide from Maillard Reaction Products,” Nature 419 (2002): 449–450; Frederic Tessier and Inès Birlouez-Aragon, “Health Effects of Dietary Maillard Reaction Products: The Results of ICARE and Other Studies,” Amino Acids 42 (2012): 1119–1131.

64 It is more energy dense: John Prescott, Taste Matters: Why We Like the Foods We Do (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 37.

64 “When you think you’re: Breslin, interview.

64 Fat is also where: David B. Min, Thomas H. Smouse, and Stephen S. Chang, eds., Flavor Chemistry of Lipid Foods (Champaign, IL: American Oil Chemists’ Society, 1989), 172.

64 Boiled or stewed beef smells: “The Chemistry of Beef Flavor,” accessed November 28, 2014, http://beefresearch.org/CMDocs/BeefResearch/The%20Chemistry%20of%20Beef%20Flavor.pdf.

64 Another potent compound: Donald Mottram, “Flavour Formation in Meat and Meat Products: A Review,” Food Chemistry 62 (1998): 415–424; Gengjun Chen, Huanlu Song, and Changwei Ma, “Aroma-Active Compounds of Beijing Roast Duck,” Flavour and Fragrance Journal 24 (2009): 186–191.

64 Chicken, meanwhile, smells: Leo Nollet, Handbook of Meat, Poultry and Seafood Quality (Ames, IA: Blackwell, 2007), 140; “Trans, trans-2, 4-decadienal,” accessed November 28, 2014, www.ymdb.ca/compounds/YMDB01455.

64 Neural-imaging studies show: Beverly J. Tepper, “The Taste for Fat: New Discoveries on the Role of Fat in Sensory Perception, Metabolism, Sensory Pleasure, and Beyond,” Journal of Food Science 77 (2012): vi.

64 What’s more, over the last: Ibid.

65 The more mushroom-like: René Nachtsheim and Elmar Schlich, “The Influence of 6-n-propylthiouracil Bitterness, Fungiform Papilla Count and Saliva Flow on the Perception of Pressure and Fat,” Food Quality and Preference 29 (2013): 137–145.

65 But nontasters have: René Nachtsheim and Elmar Schlich, “The Influence of Oral Phenotypic Markers and Fat Perception on Fat Intake During a Breakfast Buffet and in a 4-Day Food Record,” Food Quality and Preference 32 (2014): 173–183.

65 Because of its very active: Colin Schultz, “What Did Dinosaur Taste Like?,” Smithsonian, December 28, 2012, accessed January 17, 2015, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-did-dinosaur-taste-like-28428/?no-ist.

66 In Kyoto, where Ikeda: “Kikunae Ikeda (Discoverer of ‘Umami’),” accessed December 1, 2014, www.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/research/alumni/ikeda.html.

66 He quickly obtained a patent: Ibid.

67 It was only in 2000: “Umami Taste Receptor Identified,” February 2000, accessed December 1, 2014, www.nature.com/neuro/press_release/nn0200.html.

67 When one or both: “What Is Umami?,” Umami Information Center, accessed December 1, 2014, www.umamiinfo.com/2013/02/tasting-umami-c2.php.

67 Meat is a particularly good: Marta Zaraska, “What Makes a Hamburger and Other Cooked Meat So Enticing to Humans?,” Washington Post, August 13, 2013, E4.

67 All this is no secret: Jacqueline B. Marcus, “Unleashing the Power of Umami,” Food Technology 63 (2009).

67 It maximizes the delicious: Stuckey, Taste.

67 We learn its taste: Stuckey, Taste, 247; Gary Beauchamp, “Sensory and Receptor Responses to Umami: An Overview of Pioneering Work,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90 (2009): 723S–727S.

68 If the soup experiment doesn’t: Olivia Lugaz, Anne-Maria Pillias, and Annick Faurion, “A New Specific Ageusia: Some Humans Cannot Taste L-glutamate,” Chemical Senses 27 (2002): 105–115.

68 Meanwhile, a study of twins: Fiona M. Breena, Robert Plomin, and Jane Wardle, “Heritability of Food Preferences in Young Children,” Physiology & Behavior 88 (2006): 443–447.

68 Other experiments point: Jane Wardle and Lucy J. Cooke, “One Man’s Meat Is Another Man’s Poison,” EMBO Reports 11 (2010): 816–821; Danielle Renee Reed and Antti Knaapila, “Genetics of Taste and Smell: Poisons and Pleasures,” Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science 94 (2010): 213–240.

69 The thing about: Hongyu Zhao et al., “Pseudogenization of the Umami Taste Receptor Gene Tas1r1 in the Giant Panda Coincided with Its Dietary Switch to Bamboo,” Molecular Biology and Evolution 27 (2010): 2669–2673.

69 “What we do know: Beauchamp, interview.

70 According to one survey: Hank Rothgerber, “Efforts to Overcome Vegetarian-Induced Dissonance Among Meat Eaters,” Appetite 79 (2014): 32–41.

Chapter 5: Why Would Abramovich Taste Good?

73 “Come and get your: Ifor Humphreys, interview by author, Abermule, UK, July 15, 2014.

74 According to a legend: “The History of the Berkshire Breed,” accessed December 1, 2014, www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/swine/.

74 The official website: Kagoshima Prefecture, www.pref.kagoshima.jp.

74 The tenderness of meat: Elton Aberle et al., Principles of Meat Science (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 2012), 261.

75 On the other hand: Ibid.

75 Not everyone agrees: Ibid., 79.

75 In the West, though: Angela Reicks et al., “Demographics and Beef Preferences Affect Consumer Motivation for Purchasing Fresh Beef Steaks and Roasts,” Meat Science 87 (2011): 403–411.

75 To be tender: Aberle et al., Principles of Meat Science, 261.

75 Such fat gets released: Ibid., 263.

75 When Mark Schatzker: Mark Schatzker, Steak: One Man’s Search for the World’s Tastiest Piece of Beef (New York: Viking, 2010), 159.

76 In all of UK there is: Humphreys, interview.

76 Seven years ago: Ibid.

76 Only a chosen few: “Classification,” Kobe Beef Marketing & Distribution Promotion Association, accessed December 1, 2014, www.kobe-niku.jp/en/contents/about/criteria.html.

76 Either a pure-blood bull: Ibid.

76 Each year as few as: “FAQ,” Kobe Beef Marketing & Distribution Promotion Association, accessed December 1, 2014, www.kobe-niku.jp/en/contents/faq/index.html.

76 The first cut of true Kobe: “Exported Beef,” Kobe Beef Marketing & Distribution Promotion Association, accessed December 1, 2014, www.kobe-niku.jp/en/contents/exported/index.php?y=2012; Michael Shallberg, Fremont Beef Company, e-mail message to author, February 13, 2014.

76 In all of 2013, just: “Exported Beef.”

77 Since cattle of the Angus-Aberdeen: Aberle, Principles of Meat Science, 85.

77 It has to have: “Our 10 Quality Specifications,” Certified Angus Beef LLC, accessed December 2, 2014, www.certifiedangusbeef.com/brand/specs.php.

77 The argument behind: Rhonda Miller, “Factors Affecting the Quality of Raw Meat,” in Meat Processing: Improving Quality, eds. Joseph Kerry, John Kerry, and David Ledward (Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing, 2002), 43.

77 In those days: Aberle, Principles of Meat Science, 91.

77 A majority of Americans: Bethany Sitz et al., “Consumer Sensory Acceptance and Value of Domestic, Canadian, and Australian Grass-Fed Beef Steaks,” Journal of Animal Science 83 (2005): 2863–2868; Schatzker, Steak, 41.

78 One problem American consumers: Paul Warriss, Meat Science: An Introductory Text (Wallingford, UK: CABI, 2010), 79.

78 According to the official: “FAQ.”

78 “It’s a good story: Humphreys, interview.

78 If you find that your sautéed pork: Warriss, Meat Science, 104–109.

79 Once an aspiring vet: Edward Mills, interview by author, State College, PA, October 10, 2013.

80 Intact boars don’t get: Warriss, Meat Science, 81.

80 If boars could choose: Ibid., 151.

80 That the animals suffer: “Bacon: A Day in the Life,” Free from Harm, December 18, 2013, accessed December 2, 2014, http://freefromharm.org/animal-cruelty-investigation/day-in-the-life-christmas-ham-pig/.

80 Its electrodes are applied: Warriss, Meat Science, 54–55.

80 Every Tuesday between: Dawne McCance, Critical Animal Studies: An Introduction (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2013), 18; “Slaughterhouse with Capacity 46,000 Birds/Hour,” SPEKTR, accessed December 2, 2014, www.spektr.kiev.ua/en/index.php/poultry-and-livestock-complexes/slaughterhouse-with-capacity-46-000-birds-hour.

80 Every day in the US: “Farm Animal Statistics: Slaughter Totals,” The Humane Society, accessed December 3, 2014, www.humanesociety.org/news/resources/research/stats_slaughter_totals.html.

81 “If the animal is severely: Mills, interview.

81 In its final moment: Aberle, Principles of Meat Science, 83.

81 In the US, 16 percent: Warriss, Meat Science, 104–105.

81 Once “they die piece by piece”: Joby Warrick, “‘They Die Piece by Piece: In Overtaxed Plants, Humane Treatment of Cattle Is Often a Battle Lost,” Washington Post, April 10, 2001, A01; Aberle et al., Principles of Meat Science, 108.

81 Making matters worse: Ibid., 105–107.

82 It may work to make: Warriss, Meat Science, 79.

82 Some of its muscles: Ibid., 107.

83 A few years ago: Mills, interview.

83 Cold shortening happens: Warriss, Meat Science, 115.

83 Imagine taking a bundle: Mills, interview.

83 Sometimes meat producers: Ibid.

84 To produce pale veal: Warriss, Meat Science, 153.

84 Such calves can’t move: Report on the Welfare of Calves, 1995, European Commission, accessed May 11, 2015, http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/oldcomm4/out35_en.pdf.

84 The American Veal Association: “Veal FAQ,” The American Veal Association, accessed December 2, 2014, www.americanveal.com/for-consumers/veal-frequently-asked-questions/.

84 Now one of her pet projects: Temple Grandin, phone interview by author, February 26, 2013.

85 Add some Optaflexx: “Optaflexx,” Elanco, 2012, accessed December 3, 2014, www.elanco.us/products-services/beef/improve-feedlot-cattle-weight-gain-efficiency.aspx.

85 Meat from animals fed: Warriss, Meat Science, 20.

85 Seventy percent of US: Tom Polansek and P. J. Huffstutter, “Halt in Zilmax Sales Fuels Demand for Rival Cattle Feed Product,” Reuters, August 23, 2013, accessed December 3, 2014, www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/23/livestock-zilmax-lilly-idUSL2N0GO10U20130823.

85 “Hot weather makes: Grandin, interview.

85 Such cows, whose feet: P. J. Huffstutter and Tom Polansek, “Special Report: Lost Hooves, Dead Cattle Before Merck Halted Zilmax Sales,” Reuters, December 31, 2013, accessed July 24, 2015, www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/31/us-zilmax-merck-cattle-special-report-idUSBRE9BT0NV20131231.

85 To achieve this: “The Chemistry of Beef Flavor,” The National Cattlemens Beef Association, accessed December 3, 2014, http://beefresearch.org/CMDocs/BeefResearch/The%20Chemistry%20of%20Beef%20Flavor.pdf.

85 They not only make: Ibid.

86 If injecting the meat: Peter Sheard, “Processing and Quality Control of Restructured Meat,” in Meat Processing, eds. Kerry, Kerry, and Ledward, 332–353.

86 (If you want to trick: Ibid.

86 You are most likely: Sheard, “Processing and Quality Control,” 332–353; Jim Hightower, “Whats Really in Your Steak?,” Salon, June 8, 2012, accessed December 3, 2014, www.salon.com/2012/06/08/whats_really_in_your_steak_salpart/.

86 A survey in the UK: Sheard, “Processing and Quality Control,” 332.

86 They research feeding: Warriss, Meat Science, 55.

87 Although the taste: Eleanor Mackay, “Price Most Important Factor for Meat Buying Public,” July 21, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, http://meatinfo.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/17205/Price_most_important_factor_for_meat_buying_public.html.

Chapter 6: Wagging the Dog of Demand

89 Some researchers argue: Marta G. Rivera-Ferre, “Supply vs. Demand of Agri-industrial Meat and Fish Products: A Chicken and Egg Paradigm?,” International Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food 16 (2009): 90–105.

90 The industry doesn’t exactly: Amanda Radke, “New Beef, Pork Names Dont Do Us Any Special Favors,” Beef, June 27, 2013.

90 Consider these numbers: “U.S. Meat and Poultry Production & Consumption: An Overview,” American Meat Institute, January 2015, accessed August 24, 2015, www.meatami.com/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/93335.

90 However, just four pork producers: Shefali Sharma, “Food and National Security: The Shuanghui-Smithfield Merger Revisited,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, September 12, 2013, accessed December 2, 2014, www.iatp.org/blog/201309/food-and-national-security-the-shuanghui-smithfield-merger-revisited#sthash.oGoFpEkt.JqIBctu5.dpuf; Roberto Ferdman, “Americans Have Never Had So Few Options in Deciding What Company Makes Their Meat,” Washington Post, September 4, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2014/06/11/americans-have-never-had-so-few-options-in-deciding-what-company-makes-their-meat/.

90 Tyson, the largest meat corporation: David Kesmodel and Laurie Burkitt, “Inside Chinas Supersanitary Chicken Farms,” Wall Street Journal, December 9, 2013, accessed December 3, 2014, http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303559504579197662165181956.

90 According to the American: “The United States Meat Industry at a Glance,” American Meat Institute, accessed December 2, 2014, www.meatami.com/ht/d/sp/i/47465/pid/47465.

91 Even if the fruit and vegetable: “Cash Receipts for Corn and Soybeans Account for About Half of All Crop Receipts,” USDA, September 16, 2013, accessed December 3, 2014, www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/detail.aspx?chartId=40050&ref=collection&embed=True#.VCEp3vZ8Gxo.

91 That’s almost four times: “Farming and Farm Income,” USDA, September 9, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-the-essentials/farming-and-farm-income.aspx#.VCEqbPZ8Gxo.

91 Beans, peas, and lentils: “Vegetables and Pulses Yearbook Data,” USDA, May 30, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.ers.usda.gov/datafiles/Vegetable_and_Pulses_Yearbook_Tables/General/YRBK2014_Section%201_General.pdf.

91 In the US each beef producer: “Beef Checkoff Questions and Answers,” Cattlemens Beef Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.beefboard.org/about/faq_aboutwhopays.asp; “About Pork Checkoff and the National Pork Board,” National Pork Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.pork.org/about-us/#.VCQXJfZ8Gxo.

91 In Canada, the levy is $1: Ibid.

91 To give you some perspective: Marion Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 131.

91 Back in 1992: “Contemporary Beef Marketing Campaign Builds on Popular, Successful Tagline,” Cattlemens Beef Board, June 23, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.beefboard.org/news/140623BIWFDHistoryOfFeatureStory.asp.

91 As for its effectiveness: Ibid.

91 In 2015 the beef industry: “Beef Checkoff Sets FY 2015 Plan of Work,” Cattlemens Beef Board, accessed December 3, 2014,

.

92 Yet it’s the youngest consumers: “Authorization Request for FY 2015,” Cattlemens Beef Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.beefboard.org/member-toolkit/files/Operating%20Committee/September%202014%20OC%20Meeting/1507-CI%20ANCW.pdf.

92 To encourage them to eat:Work Plan for FY 2014,” Cattlemens Beef Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.beefboard.org/blog/2013 Summer Meeting Materials/Work Plans/ANCW Work Plan 2014 Updated2.docx.

92 They create apps: “Tips to Market Beef to Millennials,” Cattlemen’s Beef Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.beefretail.org/themillennialshopper.aspx.

92 Between 2006 and 2013: “Beef Checkoff Shows Strong Returns on the Dollar,” Farm and Dairy, August 5, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.farmanddairy.com/news/beef-checkoff-shows-strong-returns-dollar/205826.html.

92 If it wasn’t for the checkoff: Ibid.

92 Meanwhile, the pork industry’s: “The Other White Meat® Brand,” National Pork Board, accessed December 3, 2014, www.porkbeinspired.com/about-the-national-pork-board/the-other-white-meat-brand/.

92 During the five years: Trish Hall, “And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu,” New York Times, November 13, 1991.

92 As C. W. Post: Paul Fieldhouse, Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture (Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes, 1998), 11.

92 As David Robinson Simon writes: David R. Simon, Meatonomics: How the Rigged Economics of Meat and Dairy Make You Consume Too Much and How to Eat Better, Live Longer, and Spend Smarter (San Francisco: Conari Press, 2013), 6.

93 As Bill Roenigk explained: Bill Roenigk, interview by author, Washington, DC, October 28, 2013.

93 Although it’s not a meat: Joe Roybal, “Big Beef Buyers,” Beef, February 1, 2007, accessed December 3, 2014, http://beefmagazine.com/mag/beef_big_beef_buyers; “Irish Beef,” McDonalds Corporation, accessed December 3, 2014, www.mcdonalds.ie/iehome/food/food_quality/about_our_food/our_beef.html.

93 Selling on average: Amanda Radke, “McDonalds Wants Industry Help in Defining Sustainable Beef,” Beef Daily, August 20, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, http://beefmagazine.com/blog/mcdonald-s-wants-industry-help-defining-sustainable-beef.

93 In 2011 it spent: Christina Austin, “The Billionaire’s Club: Only 36 Companies Have $1,000 Million–Plus Ad Budgets,” Business Insider, November 11, 2012, accessed December 3, 2014, www.businessinsider.com/the-35-companies-that-spent-1-billion-on-ads-in-2011-2012-11?op=1#ixzz3EPZEKhQW.

93 And guess which ads: Ameena Batada et al., “Nine out of 10 Food Advertisements Shown During Saturday Morning Childrens Television Programming Are for Foods High in Fat, Sodium, or Added Sugars, or Low in Nutrients,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 108 (2008): 673–678.

93 The only figure that American: Andrew Smith, Hamburger: A Global History (London: Reaktion, 2008), 53.

93 “Rather to make the consumer: Elin Kubberød et al., “The Effect of Animality on Disgust Response at the Prospect of Meat Preparation—An Experimental Approach from Norway,” Food Quality and Preference 17 (2006): 199–208.

94 Consultants, lawyers, and: Jeffrey H. Birnbaum, “The Road to Riches Is Called K Street,” Washington Post, June 22, 2005, A01.

94 The Center for Responsive Politics: “Lobbying Database,” Center for Responsive Politics, accessed December 3, 2014, www.opensecrets.org/lobby/alphalist_indus.php.

94 And such contributions: Thomas Stratmann, “Can Special Interests Buy Congressional Votes? Evidence from Financial Services Legislation,” Journal of Law and Economics 45 (2002): 345–373.

94 According to Chuck Conner: “Hearing to Review the Proposal of the United States Department of Agriculture for the 2007 Farm Bill with Respect to Specialty Crops and Organic Agriculture,” US Government Printing Office, accessed December 4, 2014, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-110hhrg48113/html/CHRG-110hhrg48113.htm.

94 Meanwhile, between 1995:Livestock Subsidies,” EWG Farm Subsidies, accessed December 4, 2014, http://farm.ewg.org/progdetail.php?fips=00000&progcode=livestock.

94 The author of Meatonomics: Simon, Meatonomics, xv.

94 From 1995 to 2012:Corn Subsidies,” EWG Farm Subsidies, accessed December 4, 2014, http://farm.ewg.org/progdetail.php?fips=00000&progcode=corn; “Soybean Subsidies,” EWG Farm Subsidies, accessed December 4, 2014, http://farm.ewg.org/progdetail.php?fips=00000&progcode=soybean.

94 Since 60 percent: “Below-Cost Feed Crops,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, accessed December 4, 2014, www.iatp.org/files/258_2_88122_0.pdf.

95 “NCC did a study: Roenigk, interview.

95 And then the demand: Tatiana Andreyeva, Michael Long, and Kelly Brownell, “The Impact of Food Prices on Consumption: A Systematic Review of Research on the Price Elasticity of Demand for Food,” The American Journal of Public Health 100 (2010): 216–222; Harry Kaiser, “An Economic Analysis of the National Pork Board Checkoff Program,” April 12, 2012, accessed December 4, 2014, www.pork.org/filelibrary/ReturnOnInvestment/2011ROIStudyCornellUnivDrHarryKaiserReportComplete.pdf.

95 However, some consumers: Thom Blischok, “Creating a Successful Consumer Market Strategy,” National Chicken Council, 2011, accessed December 4, 2014, www.nationalchickencouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Blischok-Symphony-IRI-NCC-Annual-Conference-2011.pdf.

95 Neal Barnard, professor: Neal Barnard, Andrew Nicholson, and J. L. Howard, “The Medical Costs Attributable to Meat Consumption,” Preventive Medicine 24 (1995): 646–655.

95 In Meatonomics, Simon: Simon, Meatonomics, xx.

95 For every dollar of beef: Ibid.

95 So the next time you: Jules Pretty et al., “Farm Costs and Food Miles: An Assessment of the Full Cost of the UK Weekly Food Basket,” Food Policy 30 (2005): 1–19.

96 On June 3, 2013: David Rogers, “Bye-bye ‘Meatless Mondays,” POLITICO, June 25, 2013, accessed December 4, 2014, www.politico.com/story/2013/06/bye-bye-meatless-mondays-93349.html#ixzz3E9GZnxkS.

96 As Marion Nestle, professor: Marion Nestle, e-mail message to author, June 20, 2014.

96 The guidelines, according: www.choosemyplate.gov/dietary-guidelines.html.

96 In her book Food Politics: Nestle, Food Politics, 30.

96 Over the years the standard: Ibid., 3.

97 Over the years, some: Jeff Herman, “Saving U.S. Dietary Advice from Conflicts of Interest,” Food and Drug Law Journal 65 (2010): 309–316.

97 Dale Moore, chief of staff: Philip Mattera, “USDA INC.: How Agribusiness Has Hijacked Regulatory Policy at the U.S. Department of Agriculture,” July 23, 2004, accessed December 4, 2014, www.competitivemarkets.com/wp-content/uploads/2004/07/USDAINC_AG_HIJACKING.pdf.

98 For example, the author: Shalene McNeilla and Mary Van Elswyk, “Red Meat in Global Nutrition,” Meat Science 92 (2012): 166–173.

98 The author of yet another: Mike Roussell et al., “Effects of a DASH-like Diet Containing Lean Beef on Vascular Health,” Journal of Human Hypertension 28 (2014): 600–605.

98 A Swedish study: Christel Larsson and Gunnar Johansson, “Dietary Intake and Nutritional Status of Young Vegans and Omnivores in Sweden,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76 (2002): 100–106.

98 Tyson Foods, the California: American Heart Association, “2013 American Stroke Association’s Annual Report,” accessed December 4, 2014, www.heart.org/HEARTORG/General/2013-2014-Annual-Report_UCM_448427_Article.jsp.

98 The American Dietetic Association: “American Dietetic Association/ADA Foundation 2010 Annual Report,” American Dietetic Association, 2010, accessed August 24, 2015, http://www.eatrightpro.org/~/media/eatrightpro%20files/about%20us/annual%20reports/2010_ada_annual_report.ashx; “2013 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics Foundation Donor Report,” accessed December 4, 2014, www.eatright.org/workarea/linkit.aspx?linkidentifier=id&itemid=6442473017&libid=6442472995; www.eatright.org/WorkArea/linkit.aspx?LinkIdentifier=id&ItemID=6442473017&libID=6442472995.

98 The editors wrote that:Journal Policy on Research Funded by the Tobacco Industry,” BMJ, October 15, 2013, accessed December 4, 2014, www.bmj.com/press-releases/2013/10/15/bmj-journal-editors-will-no-longer-consider-research-funded-tobacco-indust.

98 Research done on: Simon, Meatonomics, 11.

99 According to the pork: Kaiser, “An Economic Analysis.”

99 This may seem like: “Pork Facts,” National Pork Producers Council, accessed December 4, 2014, www.nppc.org/pork-facts/.

99 As he told me: T. Colin Campbell, phone interview by author, July 8, 2014.

100 At some point: Sam Howe Verhovek, “Talk of the Town: Burgers v. Oprah,” New York Times, January 21, 1998, 10.

100 “Burgers v. Oprah”: Ibid.

100 In thirteen states: Rita Marie Cain, “Food, Inglorious Food: Food Safety, Food Libel, and Free Speech,” American Business Law Journal 49 (2012): 275–324.

100 Although Winfrey and: Nestle, Food Politics, 164.

100 As Robert Hatherill, author: J. Robert Hatherill, “Take the Gag Off Food Safety Issues,” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 1999.

100 When I talk to Lyman: Howard Lyman, phone interview by author, June 2, 2014.

101 The other ones are: Mark Bittman, “Who Protects the Animals?,” Opinionator blog, New York Times, April 26, 2011.

101 In the past, investigations: Ibid.; Michelle Kretzer, “Video Shows Pigs Mutilated, Beaten, Duct-Taped,” PETA, October 12, 2010, accessed December 4, 2014, www.peta.org/blog/pigs-mutilated-beaten-duct-taped/; “KFCs Cut-Throat Killing Machine,” PETA, accessed December 4, 2014, www.peta.org/blog/kfc-s-cut-throat-killing-machine/.

101 In Iowa, for example: Cody Carlson, “The Ag Gag Laws: Hiding Factory Farm Abuses from Public Scrutiny,” The Atlantic, March 20, 2012, accessed December 4, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/03/the-ag-gag-laws-hiding-factory-farm-abuses-from-public-scrutiny/254674/.

101 As the meat magnate: Maureen Ogle, In Meat We Trust: An Unexpected History of Carnivore America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013), 60.

Chapter 7: Eating Symbols

104 In one large study: Anne Lanfer et al., “Predictors and Correlates of Taste Preferences in European Children: The IDEFICS Study,” Food Quality and Preference 27 (2013): 128–136.

104 Studies show, for instance: Julie Mennella, Coren Jagnow, and Gary Beauchamp, “Prenatal and Postnatal Flavor Learning by Human Infants,” Pediatrics 107 (2001): e88.

104 If you don’t care: Benoist Schaal, Luc Marlier, and Robert Soussignan, “Human Foetuses Learn Odours from Their Pregnant Mothers Diet,” Chemical Senses 25 (2000): 729–737.

104 As a result, rats develop: Robert Boyd and Peter Richerson, The Origin and Evolution of Cultures (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2005), 425–426.

104 But rats and humans: Ibid.

105 In experiments, kittens: Leann Birch, “Development of Food Preferences,” Annual Review of Nutrition 19 (1999): 41–62.

105 Studies show that: Laetitia Barthomeuf, Sylvie Droit-Volet, and Sylvie Rousset, “How Emotions Expressed by AdultsFaces Affect the Desire to Eat Liked and Disliked Foods in Children Compared to Adults,” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 30 (2012): 253–266.

105 Brian Wansink, an expert: Brian Wansink, phone interview by author, September 30, 2014.

106 For this reason, meat: Paul Fieldhouse, Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture (Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes, 1998), 93.

107 “Blood and meat eating is: Paul Akakpo, interview by author, Ouidah, Benin, March 27, 2010; Paul Akakpo, e-mail message to author, February 23, 2015; Judy Rosenthal, Possession, Ecstasy, and Law in Ewe Voodoo (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998), 236.

107 In one of his: Carol Nemeroff and Paul Rozin, “‘You Are What You Eat: Applying the Demand-Free ‘ImpressionsTechnique to an Unacknowledged Belief,” Ethos 17 (1989): 50–69.

108 If you eat a lot: Ibid.

108 You may have seen:Tofu (Hummer Ad),” July 27, 2006, accessed December 5, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=lL4ZkYPLN38.

108 What I’ve just described: Carol J. Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory (New York: Continuum, 2010), 5.

108 Domino’s Pizza did one: Richard Rogers, “Beasts, Burgers, and Hummers: Meat and the Crisis of Masculinity in Contemporary Television Advertisements,” Environmental Communication 2 (2008): 281–301.

109 In Burger King’s commercial: “Burger King Manthem Commercial,” July 26, 2007, accessed December 5, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3YHrf9fGrw.

109 In New Zealand, a campaign: “The New Currency of Man-Lion Reds Man Points,” Scoop, February 10, 2011, accessed December 5, 2014, www.scoop.co.nz/stories/AK1102/S00416/the-new-currency-of-man-lion-reds-man-points.htm.

109 In another of Rozin’s: Paul Rozin et al., “Is Meat Male?,” Journal of Consumer Research 39 (2012): 629–643.

109 The notion that meat: Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat, 48.

109 A Tudor knight received: Vaclav Smil, “Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences,” Population and Development Review 28 (2002): 599–639.

109 Even much later: Jeremy Rifkin, Beyond Beef: The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), 249.

110 If a woman dares steal: John D. Speth, Paleoanthropology and Archaeology of Big Game Hunting (New York: Springer, 2010), 19.

110 In Victorian times: Joyce Stavick, “Love at First Beet: Vegetarian Critical Theory Meats Dracula,” Victorian Poetry (1990): 24–25.

110 Research shows that: Jaime Mendiola et al., “Food Intake and Its Relationship with Semen Quality: A Case-Control Study,” Fertility and Sterility 91 (2009): 812–818.

110 What’s more, if a guy’s: Shanna Swan et al., “Semen Quality of Fertile US Males in Relation to Their MothersBeef Consumption During Pregnancy,” Human Reproduction 22 (2007): 1497–1502.

110 A feminist, a writer: Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat, 14.

110 The British Sunday Telegraph: Ibid.

111 Adams explains: Carol Adams, phone interview by author, June 26, 2014.

111 One survey: Peggy Reeves Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 66.

111 “Back in the ’80s: Adams, interview.

111 “Vegetables are for girls: Hank Rothgerber, “Real Men Dont Eat (Vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justification of Meat Consumption,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 14 (2013): 363–375.

112 Other researchers, too: Rogers, “Beasts, Burgers, and Hummers.”

112 As Adams wrote: Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat, 63.

113 Already back then: Katherine Clark, Salima Ikramb, and Richard Eversheda, “Organic Chemistry of Balms Used in the Preparation of Pharaonic Meat Mummies,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (2013).

113 Psychological experiments show: Jeremy Nicholson, “Does Playing Hard to Get Make You Fall in Love?,” Psychology Today, April 19, 2012, accessed December 5, 2014, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-attraction-doctor/201204/does-playing-hard-get-make-you-fall-in-love.

113 Meanwhile, the aristocracy: Nerissa Russell, Social Zooarchaeology: Humans and Animals in Prehistory (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 360 (see Travis R. Pickering and Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo, “Chimpanzee Referents and the Emergence of Human Hunting,” The Open Anthropology Journal 3 (2010): 111).

113 When Henry IV: Jack Cecil Drummond and Anne Wilbraham, The Englishman’s Food: A History of Five Centuries of English Diet (London: J. Cape, 1958).

113 One British “shopping” list: Ibid.

114 Back then if you: Linda Civitello, Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), 95.

114 Owning a cow: Rifkin, Beyond Beef, 28–31.

115 Ergo, boiling is perfect: Russell, Social Zooarchaeology, 360.

115 Packs of swine: Katharine Rogers, Pork: A Global History (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 68.

115 Pork was easier: Roger Horowitz, Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 43–45.

116 George Miller Beard: George M. Beard, Sexual Neurasthenia [Nervous Exhaustion]: Its Hygiene, Causes, Symptoms and Treatment with a Chapter on Diet for the Nervous (New York: E. B. Treat, 1898), quoted in Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat, 54.

116 In a book published: Robert Byron Hinman and Robert Bernard Harris, The Story of Meat (Chicago: Swift & Company, 1942), 1.

116 Even after the war: Frank Gerrard, Meat Technology: A Practical Textbook for Student and Butcher (London: Leonard Hill, 1945), quoted in Adams, Sexual Politics of Meat, 48.

116 Fiddes, a Scottish anthropologist: Nick Fiddes, Meat: A Natural Symbol (London: Routledge, 1991).

Chapter 8: The Half-Crazed, Sour-Visaged Infidels, or Why Vegetarianism Failed in the Past

119 Over two thousand years ago: Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996), 47–48.

119 There was even: Christiane Joost-Gaugier, Measuring Heaven (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 49.

120 According to one story: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 47–48.

120 To avoid such risks: Ibid.

120 He was quite: Ibid., x.

120 It also likely failed: Ibid., 37.

121 The wrestler Milo: James C. Wharton, “Muscular Vegetarianism: The Debate over Diet and Athletic Performance in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Sport History 8 (1981): 58.

121 They thought that: Irvin Rock, ed., The Legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in Cognition and Social Psychology (Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates, 1990), 101.

121 Followers of Pythagoras: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 86.

122 But when Moses: Deuteronomy 34:1–8.

122 Yet back in its heyday: “The Qumran Community,” The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, accessed December 5, 2014, www.english.imjnet.org.il/page_1350.

122 According to some: Robert Eisenman, James, the Brother of Jesus (New York: Viking, 1997).

122 After all, it was: Genesis 2:9.

122 Both sides seem: Genesis 1:29.

122 Or in the actual words: Genesis 9:3.

122 It’s a permission granted: Elizabeth Telfer, Food for Thought: Philosophy and Food (New York: Routledge, 2002), 168, 189.

123 In the spring: “The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls,” The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, accessed December 5, 2014, http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/discovery.

123 According to Eisenman: Eisenman, James, the Brother of Jesus.

123 James’s disciples claimed: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 112–113.

123 In 68 CE when: “The Qumran Community.”

124 Instead, meat eating: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 163.

124 In order to separate: Ibid., 170.

124 In the fourth century CE: Ibid., 142.

125 As Robert Eisenman once: Robert Eisenman, e-mail message to author, February 22, 2015.

125 The medieval heretics: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 157.

125 Even in mainstream: Telfer, Food for Thought, 200.

125 Just as for Pythagoras: Genesis 1:26.

125 That’s what St. Thomas Aquinas: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 176; Ibid., 121.

126 He claimed only: Richard W. Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, M.D.: Pioneering Health Reformer (Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald, 2006), 143.

126 He was controlling: Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz, ed., Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2010), 147.

126 He believed that: Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, 147; Ibid., 60.

126 What’s more, he believed: John Harvey Kellogg, The Natural Diet of Man (Arvada, CO: Coastalfields Press, 2006), 217.

126 During one of his: Ibid., 41.

126 At the height: Karen Iacobbo and Michael Iacobbo, Vegetarian America: A History (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 130; see also Shefali Sharma, “Food and National Security: The Shuanghui-Smithfield Merger Revisited,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, September 12, 2013, accessed December 2, 2014, www.iatp.org/blog/201309/food-and-national-security-the-shuanghui-smithfield-merger-revisited#sthash.oGoFpEkt.JqIBctu5.dpuf; Roberto Ferdman, “Americans Have Never Had So Few Options in Deciding What Company Makes Their Meat,” Washington Post, September 4, 2014, accessed December 3, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2014/06/11/americans-have-never-had-so-few-options-in-deciding-what-company-makes-their-meat/.

126 The diet offered: Puskar-Pasewicz, Cultural Encyclopedia, 49.

126 Thankfully, though: Ibid.; Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, 50.

127 Less than 20 percent: “ABC News Poll: Whats for Breakfast?” May 15, 2005, accessed December 5, 2014, http://abcnews.go.com/images/Politics/981a1Breakfast.pdf.

127 Sylvester Graham wasn’t: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 19–21.

127 The youngest of seventeen: Barbara Haber, From Hardtack to Homefries: An Uncommon History of American Cooks and Meals (New York: Free Press, 2002), 46; Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 14.

127 Or, as Ralph Waldo Emerson: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 32.

128 Even governments supported: Ibid., 18.

128 More vegetables: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 296.

128 The center of the vegetarian: Puskar-Pasewicz, Cultural Encyclopedia, 233–236; Telfer, Food for Thought, 26.

128 Some had been: “Adjourned Conference of Vegetarians,” The Truth Tester II (1847): 29, accessed December 5, 2014, www.ivu.org/congress/1847/conference2.html.

128 That day over 150: Ibid.

129 You would get “pale:Personal Glimpses,Literary Digest, September 1, 1928, 43, quoted in Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 132.

129 Vegetables were often: Puskar-Pasewicz, Cultural Encyclopedia, 231.

129 Even John Harvey Kellogg: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 129.

129 Graham lectured that: Linda Civitello, Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), 237.

129 Kellogg went even further: Schwarz, John Harvey Kellogg, 28; Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 42.

129 Meanwhile, Leo Tolstoy: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 288.

130 They were called: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 96, 156.

130 Over one hundred years: Ibid., 61.

130 A vegetarian metropolis: Ibid., 91.

130 Even though these: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 268.

131 As one novelist: Jojo Moyes, The Girl You Left Behind (New York: Pamela Dorman Books/Viking, 2012), 104.

131 When a 1940 survey: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 158.

131 In Britain, if you: Nick Fiddes, Meat: Natural Symbol (London: Routledge, 1991), 28.

132 Several of the dictator’s: Joachim C. Fest, Hitler (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), 535; Ian Kershaw, Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999).

132 He was quite: Ibid.

132 At the same time: Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 308.

132 As Rags magazine: Iacobbo and Iacobbo, Vegetarian America, 173.

133 Europe was no India: K. T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 163.

Chapter 9: Why Giving Up Meat May Be Harder for Some of Us

135 To the average American: Matthew B. Ruby, “Vegetarianism: A Blossoming Field of Study,” Appetite 58 (2012): 141–150; Pamela Goyan Kittler, Kathryn Sucher, and Marcia Nelms, Food and Culture (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2012), 3.

136 An American comedian: Robert Byrne, The 2,548 Best Things Anybody Ever Said (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 97.

136 Recent estimates show: Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz, ed., Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2010), 234; Hank Rothgerber, “Real Men Dont Eat (Vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justification of Meat Consumption,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 14 (2013) (see also Jeremy Nicholson, “Does Playing Hard to Get Make You Fall in Love?,” Psychology Today, April 19, 2012, accessed December 5, 2014,); Ruby, “Vegetarianism.”

136 Che Green, executive director: Mat Thomas, “The Road to Vegetopia: (Re)Imaging the Future of Food,” VegNews March/April (2009): 36, quoted in Greg Goodale and Jason Edward Black, eds., Arguments About Animal Ethics (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010).

136 It seems that wherever: Puskar-Pasewicz, Cultural Encyclopedia, 243–24.

137 The most common: Ruby, “Vegetarianism.”

137 As Saturday Night Live: Richard Zera, Business Wit & Wisdom (Washington, DC: Beard Books, 2005), 54.

137 They may watch: Ruby, “Vegetarianism.”

137 Psychologists say that: Nick Fox and Katie Ward, “You Are What You Eat? Vegetarians, Health and Identity,” Social Science & Medicine 66 (2008): 2585–2595.

138 When I ask her about: Kate Jacoby, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 15, 2013.

138 The author of the: Scott Gold, The Shameless Carnivore: A Manifesto for Meat Lovers (New York: Broadway Books, 2008), 150.

138 Back in the 1940s: Hyman S. Barahal, “The Cruel Vegetarian,” Psychiatric Quarterly Supplement 20 (1946), quoted in Ruby, “Vegetarianism.”

138 Twenty-first-century studies: Ruby, “Vegetarianism.”

138 In one experiment: Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, The Physiology of Taste or, Meditations on Transcendental Gastronomy (New York: Everymans Library, 2009), 132.

139 The results were: Kittler, Sucher, and Nelms, Food and Culture.

139 Psychologists have found: Matthew Ruby and Steven Heine, “Meat, Morals, and Masculinity,” Appetite 56 (2011): 447–450.

139 This perceived lack: “Why Some Meat-Eaters Wont Date Vegetarians,” Cosmopolitan, July 9, 2012, accessed December 7, 2014, www.cosmopolitan.com/health-fitness/news/a10375/dating-vegetarians/.

139 The source: a study: Annie Potts and Jovian Parry, “Vegan Sexuality: Challenging Heteronormative Masculinity Through Meat-free Sex,” Feminism & Psychology (2010): 53–68.

139 On Internet forums: Ibid.

139 According to one experiment: Jan Havlicek and Pavlina Lenochova, “The Effect of Meat Consumption on Body Odour Attractiveness,” Chemical Senses 31 (2006): 747–752.

139 If you send: Klaus Petzke, Heiner Boeing, and Cornelia Metges, “Choice of Dietary Protein of Vegetarians and Omnivores Is Reflected in Their Hair Protein 13C and 15N Abundance,” Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 19 (2005): 1392–1400.

140 By placing electrodes: Jessica Stockburger et al., “Vegetarianism and Food Perception: Selective Visual Attention to Meat Pictures,” Appetite 52 (2009): 513–516.

140 A study conducted: Fiona Breen, Robert Plomin, and Jane Wardle, “Heritability of Food Preferences in Young Children,” Physiology & Behavior 88 (2006): 443–447.

140 Another study: PS Prado-Lima et al., Human Food Preferences Are Associated with a 5-HT2A Serotonergic Receptor Polymorphism,” Molecular Psychiatry 11 (2006): 889–891.

140 Twin studies show: Lucy Cooke, Claire Haworth, and Jane Wardle, “Genetic and Environmental Influences on Childrens Food Neophobia,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 86 (2007): 428–433.

140 Neophobes are the people: Hely Tuorila et al., “Food Neophobia Among the Finns and Related Responses to Familiar and Unfamiliar Foods,” Food Quality and Preference 12 (2001): 29–37.

141 They are also less: Trevor Lunn et al., “Does Personality Affect Dietary Intake?,” Nutrition 30 (2014): 403–409.

141 Research shows that: Catharine Gale et al., “IQ in Childhood and Vegetarianism in Adulthood: 1970 British Cohort Study,” BMJ 334 (2007): 245.

141 “We want meat eaters: Evelyn Kimber, interview by author, Boston, MA, October 26, 2013.

142 A recent experiment: David Gal and Derek D. Rucker, “When in Doubt, Shout!: Paradoxical Influences of Doubt on Proselytizing,” Psychological Science (2010): 1701–1707.

142 (those who went: Terry McConnell, “Irresistible Force Versus Immovable Object,” Edmonton Journal, March 20, 2005, D2.

142 Since for vegans: Hank Rothgerber, “Horizontal Hostility Among Non-Meat Eaters,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014).

142 That is also why: Ibid.

142 In experiments, putting: Ibid.

143 Kristin Lajeunesse, an author: Kristin Lajeunesse, interview by author, Boston, MA, October 26, 2013.

143 But those omnivores: Hank Rothgerber, “Efforts to Overcome Vegetarian-Induced Dissonance Among Meat Eaters,” Appetite 79 (2014): 32–41.

143 A common strategy: Ibid.

143 As a journalist: Verena Besso, “Reason, and the Rights of Animals,” Toronto Star, October 4, 1990, A25.

144 Bastian was raised: Brock Bastian, phone interview by author, August 27, 2013.

144 In one of his experiments: Brock Bastian et al., “Dont Mind Meat? The Denial of Mind to Animals Used for Human Consumption,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 38 (2012): 247.

144 “Thinking of a cow: Bastian, interview.

144 This time he made: Boyka Bratanova, Steve Loughnan, and Brock Bastian, “The Effect of Categorization as Food on the Perceived Moral Standing of Animals,” Appetite 57 (2011): 193–196.

145 While men are more: Rothgerber, “Real Men Dont Eat.”

145 Would we be so: Bernard Shaw, Shaw: An Autobiography 1856–1898; Selected from His Writings, ed. Stanley Weintraub (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1969), 92.

145 Experiments show: Melanie Joy, Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows: An Introduction to Carnism (San Francisco: Conari Press, 2010), 121.

145 Fifty-eight billion: “Meat Indigenous, Chicken,” FAOstat, accessed December 7, 2014, http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=569#ancor.

145 Returning to our: Rothgerber, “Efforts to Overcome.”

146 In one Canadian survey: Ruby, Vegetarianism.”

146 In another poll: Rothgerber, “Efforts to Overcome.”

146 This means that: Alan Beardsworth and Teresa Keil, Sociology on the Menu: An Invitation to the Study of Food and Society (London: Routledge, 1997), 225.

146 This particular technique: Rothgerber, “Efforts to Overcome.”

146 When people go “veg”: Daniel Fessler et al., “Disgust Sensitivity and Meat Consumption: A Test of an Emotivist Account of Moral Vegetarianism,” Appetite 41 (2003): 31–41.

147 When you cook it: Richard Landau, interview by author, Philadelphia, PA, October 15, 2013.

147 Approximately 45 percent: David T. Neal, Wendy Wood, and Jeffrey M. Quinn, “Habits—A Repeat Performance,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006): 198–202.

147 Same goes for food: Brian Wansink, Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think (New York: Bantam Books, 2006), 94.

147 We like our habits:raldine Coppin and David Sander, “The Flexibility of Chemosensory Preferences,” Neuroscience of Preference and Choice (2011): 267.

147 “Many people wonder: Kimber, interview.

148 Lack of cooking skills: Jennie Yabroff, “No More Sacred Cows,” Newsweek, January 11, 2010, 66.

148 In surveys they: Kenneth Menzies and Judy Sheeshka, “The Process of Exiting Vegetarianism: An Exploratory Study,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 73 (2012): 165.

148 Things like turnips: Landau, interview.

148 Says Landau: Ibid.

148 A typical ex-vegetarian: Menzies and Sheeshka, “The Process of Exiting Vegetarianism,” 167.

Chapter 10: Dog Skewers, Beef Burgers, and Other Weird Meats

151 This is a traditional: Calvin W. Schwabe, Unmentionable Cuisine (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), 174.

151 It was in the Ituri Forest: Richard Wrangham, phone interview by author, December 1, 2013.

151 Wrangham, primatologist Elizabeth Ross: Wrangham, interview.

153 To some Somali tribes: Frederick J. Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994), 161, 261–262.

153 Meanwhile in Asia: Anthony Podberscek, “Good to Pet and Eat: The Keeping and Consuming of Dogs and Cats in South Korea,” Journal of Social Issues 65 (2009): 617.

153 Dogs, according: Ibid., 623.

154 Professor Alan Reilly: Jethro Mullen, “Horsemeat Found in Hamburgers in Britain and Ireland,” CNN Wire, January 16, 2013.

154 They left archaeologists: Finbar McCormick, “Ritual Feasting in Iron Age Ireland,” in Relics of Old Decency: Archaeological Studies in Later Prehistory, ed. Gabriel Cooney et al. (Dublin, Ireland: Wordwell, 2009), 410.

154 In prehistoric times: Chris Otter, “Hippophagy in the UK: A Failed Dietary Revolution,” Endeavour 35 (2011): 81.

154 According to the Bible: Leviticus 11:8.

154 To make things worse: Schwabe, Unmentionable Cuisine, 158; Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, 183–184.

154 In the end, rather: Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, 187–188.

154 Even faced with: Ibid., 188.

154 A ninth-century Irish: Ibid., 187.

154 longer than was: Byrne Fone, Homophobia: A History (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000), 124.

155 Their carcasses would: Otter, “Hippophagy in the UK,” 84.

155 In the medical press: Ibid., 83.

155 According to historians: Ibid.

155 The venue was magnificent: Daily Phoenix (Columbia, SC), July 26, 1865, accessed January 5, 2015, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

156 The guests applauded: Tom Hughes, “Falling at the First,” Marylebone Journal, accessed January 15, 2015, http://marylebonejournal.com/history/falling-at-the-first.

156 He dined on Japanese: Jerry Hopkins, Extreme Cuisine: The Weird & Wonderful Foods That People Eat (Singapore: Periplus, 2004), 11–12.

156 A few days after: Hughes, “Falling at the First.”

156 In 1879, the: Otter, “Hippophagy in the UK.”

156 As one historian said: Ibid.

156 Although horsemeat was: Sylvain Leteux, “Is Hippophagy a Taboo in Constant Evolution?” Menu: Journal of Food and Hospitality (2012): 1–13.

157 China is the most: Ibid.

157 According to the Kazakhs: Marsha Levine, “Eating Horses: The Evolutionary Significance of Hippophagy,” Antiquity 72 (1998): 90–100.

157 Yet anthropologist: Daniel Fessler, e-mail message to author, August 19, 2014.

157 According to a theory: Clyde Manwell and Ann Baker, “Domestication of the Dog: Hunter, Food, Bed-warmer, or Emotional Object?,” Zeitschrift für Tierzüchtung und Züchtungsbiologie 101 (1984): 241–256.

157 By the Bronze Age: Sarah Knight and Harold Herzog, New Perspectives on Human-Animal Interactions: Theory, Policy and Research (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 616.

157 The Ancient Greeks: Sophia Menache, “Dogs: God’s Worst Enemies?,” Society and Animals 5 (1997): 27.

157 Even the early: Earley Vernon Wilcox and Clarence Beaman Smith, Farmer’s Cyclopedia of Live Stock (New York: Orange Judd Company, 1908), 691.

157 Today, about sixteen million: Podberscek, “Good to Pet and Eat.”

158 As long as it is properly: Jonathan Safran Foer, “Let Them Eat Dog,” Wall Street Journal, October 31, 2009.

158 South Koreans, the biggest fans: Podberscek, “Good to Pet and Eat.”

158 Also, because dog: Ibid.

158 One thing the campaign: Ibid.

158 The lack of consistency: Ibid.

158 If South Koreans: Ibid.

159 And good for: “Kawior i Ślimaki. Polska to “Luksusowy” Eksporter,” TVN24, July 12, 2011, accessed January 15, 2015, http://tvn24bis.pl/wiadomosci-gospodarcze,71/kawior-i-slimaki-polska-to-luksusowy-eksporter,177782.html.

159 The !Kung bushmen: Frederic Simoons, “Traditional Use and Avoidance of Foods of Animal Origin,” BioScience 28 (1978): 178–184.

159 North Americans are: Daniel Fessler and Carlos David Navarrete, “Meat Is Good to Taboo,” Journal of Cognition and Culture 3 (2003): 1–40.

160 The majority of: Podberscek, “Good to Pet and Eat.”

160 The worth of: Ibid.

160 Surprisingly, pet owners: Ibid.

160 In Melanesia, pigs are: Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh.

160 They can be taught: “Pigs Smarter Than They Look,” Lewiston Daily Sun (Maine), February 21, 1984, 23.

161 At Pennsylvania State: Miguel Helft, “Pig Video Arcades Critique Life in the Pen,” Wired, June 6, 1997, accessed January 15, 2015, http://archive.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/1997/06/4302.

161 It appears that: Liz Shankland, “Are They the Next Pig Thing?,” Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales), November 30, 2004, 11.

161 Cows may not: “The Hidden Lives of Cows,” PETA, accessed January 15, 2015, www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-food/hidden-lives-of-cows.aspx.

161 For example, they: Ingvar Ekesbo, Farm Animal Behaviour: Characteristics for Assessment of Health and Welfare (Wallingford, UK: CABI, 2011), 116.

162 It was only in 1859: Marvin Harris, The Sacred Cow and the Abominable Pig: Riddles of Food and Culture (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 69.

162 Undercooked beef is: Ibid.

162 Anthropologist Marvin Harris: Ibid., 71.

162 If the Jews and Muslims: Ibid., 70–73.

163 The earliest Vedas: Marvin Harris, “India’s Sacred Cow,” Human Nature (1978): 28–36.

163 “The farmers who decided: Ibid.

163 It’s been calculated: Ibid.

163 And so, as Harris: Ibid.

164 Some such tribes: Simoons, Eat Not This Flesh, 262.

164 These taboos acted: Richard Wrangham, e-mail message to author, August 22, 2013.

164 Other scientists agree: Nigel Barber, “Why Are Some Animals Considered Unclean?” Psychology Today, February 10, 2011, accessed January 15, 2015, www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-human-beast/201102/why-are-some-animals-considered-unclean.

Chapter 11: The Pink Revolution, or How Asia Is Getting Hooked on Meat, Fast

167 In fact, their urine: Elizabeth Soumya, “Sacred Cows and Politics of Beef in India,” Aljazeera, April 20, 2014, accessed January 6, 2015, www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/04/india-bjp-piggybacks-cow-milk-votes-2014417142154567121.html.

168 What’s more, India: “Indias Agricultural Exports Climb to Record High,” USDA, August 29, 2014, accessed January 6, 2015, www.fas.usda.gov/data/india-s-agricultural-exports-climb-record-high.

168 Granted, India still: Mark Eisler et al., “Agriculture: Steps to Sustainable Livestock,” Nature 507 (2014): 32–34.

168 By 2030: Timothy Robinson and Francesca Pozzi, “Mapping Supply and Demand for Animal-Source Foods to 2030,” FAO, 2011, accessed January 6, 2015, www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2425e/i2425e00.pdf.

168 There are five recognized: Benjamin Caballero and Barry Popkin, eds., The Nutrition Transition: Diet and Disease in the Developing World (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Academic Press, 2002).

168 One study showed: Richard York and Marcia Hill Gossard, “Cross-national Meat and Fish Consumption: Exploring the Effects of Modernization and Ecological Context,” Ecological Economics 48 (2004): 293–302.

169 As late as 1939: Vaclav Smil and Kazuhiko Kobayashi, Japan’s Dietary Transition and Its Impacts (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012), 49.

169 Today, the daily meat: “Livestock and Fish Primary Equivalent,” FAOstat, 2011, accessed January 7, 2015, http://faostat.fao.org/site/610/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=610#ancor.

169 Growing livestock takes: Katarzyna J. Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power and National Identity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 24–27; see also Hank Rothgerber, “Real Men Don’t Eat (Vegetable) Quiche: Masculinity and the Justification of Meat Consumption,” Psychology of Men & Masculinity 14 (2013).

169 That year, on January 24: R. Kenji Tierney and Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, “Anthropology of Food,” in The Oxford Handbook of Food History, ed. Jeffrey M. Pilcher (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012), 128.

170 Over just five years: Cwiertka, Modern Japanese Cuisine, 33; Ibid., 152.

170 Back then, typical: Ibid., 63–64.

170 The words of Den Fujita: Jeremy Rifkin, Beyond Beef: The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), 271.

171 as Anjanappa explains: Ajath Anjanappa, interview by author, Bengaluru, India, January 6, 2014.

171 Unbeknownst to many: PK Krishnakumar, “Indias Beef Exports Rise 31% in 2013–14,” Economic Times (India), June 25, 2014.

172 A big chunk: “Exports from India of Buffalo Meat,” APEDA Agri Exchange, 2014–2015, accessed January 7, 2015, http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/product_profile/exp_f_india.aspx?categorycode=0401.

172 Instead, water buffaloes: Pratiksha Ramkumar, “Beef Exports up 44% in 4 Years, India Top Seller,” Times of India, April 1, 2013.

172 According to a local: Cithara Paul, “UPAs Pink Revolution Makes India Worlds Biggest Beef Exporter,” Sunday Standard (India), February 9, 2014; Soumya, “Sacred Cows and Politics.”

172 As Anjanappa tells me: Anjanappa, interview.

172 Meanwhile, even though: Benjamin Caballero, Lindsay Allen, and Andrew Prentice, eds., Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Academic Press, 2005), 98.

172 Today, devout Hindus: Rifkin, Beyond Beef, 37; Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996, 77; see also Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1996), 47–48.

173 Until recently, killing: Rifkin, Beyond Beef, 37.

173 The fact that: Soumya, “Sacred Cows and Politics.”

173 Vegetarianism in India: Ludwig Alsdorf, The History of Vegetarianism and Cow-Veneration in India (London: Routledge, 2010).

173 Although he was born: Mahatma Gandhi, An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Waiheke Island, New Zealand: Floating Press, 2009), 47–49.

174 He admitted in his: Ibid., 90.

174 But in time, Gandhi: Ibid.

174 The protein myth: Teja Lele Desai, “How They Turned Vegetarians and for Good,” Times of India, April 26, 2014.

175 Just think about it: Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz, Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2010), 136.

175 A prominent Indian food: K. T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 263.

175 “Beef is a symbol: “HCU Students Eating Beef, Organized ASA,” YouTube, September 24, 2012, accessed January 7, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=AB-Z99unUMU.

175 It opposes the caste: Rick Dolphijn, “Capitalism on a Plate: The Politics of Meat Eating in Bangalore, India,” Gastronomica: The Journal of Critical Food Studies 6 (2006): 52–59.

175 Before the elections: Shilpa Kannan, “Indias Elections Spark Debate on Beef Exports,” BBC, May 4, 2014, accessed January 8, 2015, www.bbc.com/news/business-27251802.

176 In a country where: Vaclav Smil, “Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences,” Population and Development Review 28 (2002): 599–639.

176 Since the 1980s: Mindi Schneider and Shefali Sharma, “Chinas Pork Miracle? Agribusiness and Development in Chinas Pork Industry,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014, http://www.iatp.org/files/2014_03_26_PorkReport_f_web.pdf.

176 China is already: Shefali Sharma, “The Need for Feed: Chinas Demand for Industrialized Meat and Its Impacts,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014, http://www.iatp.org/files/2014_03_26_FeedReport_f_web.pdf.

176 As anthropologist Yunxiang Yan: Yunxiang Yan, “McDonalds in Beijing: The Localization of Americana,” in Golden Arches East: McDonald’s in East Asia, ed. James L. Watson (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 42.

177 The Chinese ate: Frederick Simoons, Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1991), 295.

177 By the sixth century: John Kieschnick, “Buddhist Vegetarianism in China,” in Of Tripod and Palate: Food, Politics and Religion in Traditional China, ed. Roel Sterckx (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 191–203.

178 The rich of China: Roel Sterckx, “Food and Philosophy in Early China,” in Of Tripod and Palate, ed. Sterckx, 39.

178 To rise through: Kieschnick, “Buddhist Vegetarianism in China,” 204.

178 Meat avoiders were: Vincent Goossaert, “The Beef Taboo and the Sacrificial Structure of Late Imperial Chinese Society,” in Of Tripod and Palate, ed. Sterckx, 239.

178 To make the character: Katharine Rogers, Pork: A Global History (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 91.

179 In time I came: Ibid.

179 Every other pig: Sharma, “The Need for Feed.”

179 The Communist government: Fred Gale, Daniel Marti, and Dinghuan Hu, “Chinas Volatile Pork Industry,” USDA, February 2012, accessed January 8, 2015, www.ers.usda.gov/media/262067/ldpm21101_1_.pdf.

179 There are already: Meena Daivadanam, “Lifestyle Change in Kerala, India: Needs Assessment and Planning for a Community-Based Diabetes Prevention Trial,” BMC Public Health 13 (2013).

179 In the twin city: Constanze Weigl, “Lifestyle Diseases in India—The Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) in Kerala,” Viennese Ethnomedicine Newsletter 13 (2011): 40–47.

180 The waists of Asia: Shan Juan, “Chinese Consume Too Much Food from Animals, Experts Say,” China Daily, February 13, 2014, 4.

180 One hundred million: Schneider and Sharma, “Chinas Pork Miracle?”

180 In March 2013: Nicola Davison, “China Loves Pork Too Much,” Guardian, March 23, 2013, accessed January 8, 2015, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/23/china-loves-pork-pig-carcasses.

180 There was the: Chendong Pi, Zhang Rou, and Sarah Horowitz, “Fair or Fowl? Industrialization of Poultry Production in China,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014.

180 Take ractopamine: Schneider and Sharma, “Chinas Pork Miracle?”

180 But when the Chinese: Ibid.

180 China has a mere: “Arable Land (Hectares per Person),” World Bank, 2014, accessed January 8, 2015, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.HA.PC.

181 In the last decade: Nadia Arumugam, “Shuanghui-Smithfield Deal Means China Wants American Pork: Surely This Is a Good Thing?,” Forbes, June 6, 2013, accessed January 8, 2015, www.forbes.com/sites/nadiaarumugam/2013/06/06/shuanghui-smithfield-deal-means-china-wants-american-pork-surely-this-is-a-good-thing/.

181 While the Chinese: Tom Philpott, “Are We Becoming Chinas Factory Farm?,” Mother Jones, November 1, 2013, 72.

181 A lot of it comes: “Changes of Soybean Imports from Different Countries in 2012,” CnAgri, January 30, 2013, accessed January 9, 2015, http://en.cnagri.com/news/insight/20130130/296455.html.

181 Already over 80 percent: Sharma, “The Need for Feed,” 24.

181 A slice of Brazil: Ibid., 26.

181 Ninety-nine percent of the: Beth Hoffman, “How Increased Meat Consumption in China Changes Landscapes Across the Globe,” Forbes, March 26, 2014, accessed January 9, 2015, www.forbes.com/sites/bethhoffman/2014/03/26/how-increased-meat-consumption-in-china-changes-landscapes-across-the-globe/.

181 In Argentina’s soy-growing: Sharma, “The Need for Feed,” 29.

Chapter 12: The Future of Our Meat-Based Diets

183 Already, 33 percent: “Livestock a Major Threat to Environment,” UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), November 26, 2006, accessed January 9, 2015, www.fao.org/newsroom/en/News/2006/1000448/index.html.

183 If the 9.3 billion people: World meat production in 2014 was about 256 million tons, see Rob Cook, “World Meat Production (1960–2014),” Beef2Live, accessed January 9, 2015, http://beef2live.com/story-world-meat-production-1960-2014-89-111818; American meat consumption was 125 kg (275.5 pounds) per person per year in 2007, see Mark C. Eisler et al., “Agriculture: Steps to Sustainable Livestock,” Nature 507 (2014); world milk production is projected to increase from 580 million tons in 2001 to 1,043 million tons in 2050, see “Livestock a Major Threat to Environment,” FAO; American dairy consumption is about 630 pounds per person per year, see Allison Aubrey, “The Average American Ate (Literally) a Ton This Year,” December 31, 2011, NPR, accessed January 9, 2015, www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2011/12/31/144478009/the-average-american-ate-literally-a-ton-this-year.

183 Even in many rich: James Galloway et al., “International Trade in Meat: The Tip of the Pork Chop,” Ambio 36 (2007): 622–629.

184 In 2013 it was: “Food Outlook,” FAO, June 2013, accessed January 9, 2015, www.fao.org/docrep/018/al999e/al999e.pdf.

184 If the current growth: Shefali Sharma, “The Need for Feed: Chinas Demand for Industrialized Meat and Its Impacts,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014, 9, http://www.iatp.org/files/2014_03_26_FeedReport_f_web.pdf.

184 In general, to feed: “How to Feed the World in 2050,” FAO, accessed January 9, 2015, www.fao.org/wsfs/forum2050/wsfs-forum/en/.

184 To grow a pound: David Pimentel and Marcia Pimentel, “Sustainability of Meat-Based and Plant-Based Diets and the Environment,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 78 (2003): 660S–663S.

184 In the US, livestock: Vaclav Smil, “Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences,” Population and Development Review 28 (2002) (see Amanda Radke, “New Beef, Pork Names Dont Do Us Any Special Favors,” Beef, June 27, 2013).

184 A pound of beef: “Meat Atlas,” Friends of the Earth Europe, January 2014, accessed January 10, 2015, www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/publications/foee_hbf_meatatlas_jan2014.pdf.

184 In about a decade: Ibid.

184 Of all greenhouse: “Major Cuts of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Livestock Within Reach,” FAO, September 26, 2013, accessed January 10, 2015, www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/197608/icode/.

184 If this number doesn’t: “Reducing Transport Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Trends & Data 2010,” OECD/ITF, accessed January 10, 2015, www.internationaltransportforum.org/Pub/pdf/10GHGTrends.pdf.

184 If we do nothing: Elke Stehfest et al., “Climate Benefits of Changing Diet,Climatic Change 95 (2009): 83–102.

184 To have a good chance: Frederik Hedenus, Stefan Wirsenius, and Daniel J. A. Johansson, “The Importance of Reduced Meat and Dairy Consumption for Meeting Stringent Climate Change Targets,” Climate Change 124 (March 28, 2014): 79–91.

185 It’s very close: Hanni Rützler, interview by author, London, August 5, 2013.

185 “Many TV crews: Anon van Essen, interview by author, Maastricht, May 12, 2014.

186 And yet the mastermind: Mark Post, interview by author, London, August 5, 2013.

186 In theory, lab-grown: Marta Zaraska, “Lab-Grown Beef Taste Test: ‘AlmostLike a Burger,” Washington Post, August 5, 2013, 1.

187 Even though cultured: Brandon Griggs, “How Test-Tube Meat Could Be the Future of Food,” CNN Wire, April 30, 2014.

187 “These cells are dead: Van Essen, interview.

187 “I think people are: Clément Scellier, interview by author, Paris, February 27, 2014.

187 “That’s just bad quality: Bastien Rabastens, interview by author, Paris, February 27, 2014.

188 Yet two billion other: Claire MacEvilly, “Bugs in the System,” Nutrition Bulletin 25 (2000): 267–268.

188 In Uganda, a pound: Arnold van Huis, “Potential of Insects as Food and Feed in Assuring Food Security,” Annual Review of Entomology 58 (2013): 563–583.

188 Plenty of species: Ibid.

188 Because they are: Ibid.

188 Arnold van Huis, professor: Arnold van Huis, interview by author, Wageningen, May 13, 2014.

189 Already, one out of: Wim Verbeke, “Profiling Consumers Who Are Ready to Adopt Insects as a Meat Substitute in a Western Society,” Food Quality and Preference 39 (2015): 147–155.

189 In the States: “Defect Levels Handbook,” FDA, accessed January 10, 2015, www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/sanitationtransportation/ucm056174.htm.

189 We could also:Insects au Gratin: LSBU Academics 3D Print Edible Insects,” London South Bank University, February 11, 2014, accessed January 10, 2015.

190 Korteweg, the “butcher”: Jaap Korteweg, interview by author, The Hague, May, 14, 2014.

190 “Come and taste it: Ibid.

190 When Ferran Adrià: Ibid.

191 When in 2013: Stephanie Strom, “Fake Meats, Finally, Taste Like Chicken,” New York Times, April 3, 2014, 1.

191 What’s more, nutritionally: Ibid.

191 “This smells like Band-Aids”: “Pilot,” Breaking Bad, AMC, New York, January 20, 2008.

191 The global meat: “Meat Substitutes Market Worth $4,622.4 Million by 2019,” PR Newswire, June 3, 2014, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/meat-substitutes-market-worth-46224-million-by-2019-261662621.html.

191 Compared to real meat: Glenn Zorpette, “The Better Meat Substitute,” IEEE Spectrum, June 3, 2013, accessed January 10, 2015, http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/environment/the-better-meat-substitute.

191 Saying it tastes: Brian Wansink, Mitsuru Shimizu, and Adam Brumberg, “Dispelling Myths About a New Healthful Food Can Be More Motivating Than Promoting Nutritional Benefits: The Case of Tofu,” Eating Behaviors, 15 (2014): 318–320.

191 “We make vegan ham: Ingrid Newkirk, phone interview by author, June 17, 2014.

191 In the States: Zorpette, “The Better Meat Substitute.”

192 The first would be: “Global Food Losses and Food Waste—Extent, Causes and Prevention,” FAO, 2011, accessed January 10, 2015, www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e.pdf.

192 Half of unused meat: Ibid.

192 In Europe, it has: Ffion Lloyd-Williams et al., “Estimating the Cardiovascular Mortality Burden Attributable to the European Common Agricultural Policy on Dietary Saturated Fats,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 86 (2008): 497–576.

192 A “fat tax”: Torben Jørgensen et al., “The Danish Fat Tax—a Story of Political Incompetence?,” European Journal of Public Health 24 (2014).

193 In a soft voice: Peter Singer, phone interview by author, June 23, 2014.

193 Singer himself says: Ibid.

193 As Paul Rozin once: Paul Rozin, interview by author, Paris, July 20, 2014.

194 At the time of writing: “Meat Atlas,” Friends of the Earth Europe.

194 In the States: Eliza Barclay, “Why Theres Less Red Meat on Many American Plates,” NPR, June 27, 2012, accessed January 11, 2015, www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/06/27/155837575/why-theres-less-red-meat-served-on-many-american-plates.

194 In Germany that number: Georgi Gyton, “Spotlight on Flexitarianism,” September 3, 2014, accessed January 11, 2015, www.globalmeatnews.com/Analysis/Spotlight-on-flexitarianism-are-consumers-cutting-their-meat-intake.

194 Moreover, polls show: Nick Cooney, Veganomics: The Surprising Science on What Motivates Vegetarians, from the Breakfast Table to the Bedroom (New York: Lantern Books, 2014).

194 Lord Stern, former vice president: Steve Dubé, “Welsh Red Meat Is Better for the Environment Than Other Products: UK Livestock Farming Accounts for only 2.9% of Climate Change Gases,” Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales), November 17, 2009, 3.

194 But Morgaine Gaye: Morgaine Gaye, interview by author, London, July 14, 2014.

194 “I don’t think we will: Ibid.

194 She also tells me: Ibid.

195 Or “cultured,” as Andras: Andras Forgacs, phone interview by author, September 25, 2014.

195 As Forgacs once told me: Ibid.

195 That’s why Modern Meadow: Ibid.

195 A recent USDA study: “The Nationwide Microbiological Baseline Data Collection Program: Raw Chicken Parts Survey,” USDA, 2012, accessed January 12, 2015, www.fsis.usda.gov/shared/PDF/Baseline_Data_Raw_Chicken_Parts.pdf.

195 According to the CDC: “Attribution of Foodborne Illness, 1998–2008,” CDC, accessed January 12, 2015, www.cdc.gov/foodborneburden/attribution-1998-2008.html.

195 As authors of one study: An Pan et al., “Red Meat Consumption and Mortality: Results from Two Prospective Cohort Studies,” Archives of Internal Medicine 172 (2012): 555–563.

196 In the US, 80 percent: Mindi Schneider and Shefali Sharma, “Chinas Pork Miracle? Agribusiness and Development in Chinas Pork Industry,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014 (see Chendong Pi, Zhang Rou, and Sarah Horowitz, “Fair or Fowl? Industrialization of Poultry Production in China,” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, February 2014).

196 At the same time: Ibid.

196 Studies have found: Alan Mathew, Robin Cissell, and S. Liamthong, “Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria Associated with Food Animals: A United States Perspective of Livestock Production,” Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 4 (2007): 115–133.

196 It could be easier: Henk Westhoek et al., “Food Choices, Health and Environment: Effects of Cutting Europes Meat and Dairy Intake,” Global Environmental Change 26 (2014): 196–205.

196 In Europe, 23 percent: Ibid.

196 As Jeremy Rifkin wrote: Jeremy Rifkin, Beyond Beef: The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture (New York: Penguin Books, 1992), 289 (see David Kesmodel and Laurie Burkitt, “Inside Chinas Supersanitary Chicken Farms,” Wall Street Journal, December 9, 2013, accessed December 3, 2014, http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303559504579197662165181956).

196 What about unemployment: L. V. Anderson, “What If Everyone in the World Became a Vegetarian?,” Slate, May 1, 2014, accessed January 12, 2015, www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/feed_the_world/2014/05/meat_eating_and_climate_change_vegetarians_impact_on_the_economy_antibiotics.html.

196 To take just one example: “Meat Atlas,” Friends of the Earth Europe.

197 I’m talking about: Ibid.

198 Potatoes used to be: Paul Fieldhouse, Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture (Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes, 1998), 56 (see “Hearing to Review the Proposal of the United States Department of Agriculture for the 2007 Farm Bill with Respect to Specialty Crops and Organic Agriculture,” US Government Printing Office, accessed December 4, 2014, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-110hhrg48113/html/CHRG-110hhrg48113.htm).

198 Marie Antoinette wore: Ibid.

198 Communist fare: E. N. Anderson, Everyone Eats: Understanding Food and Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 106.