When Victory in Europe was declared, the people of the county came together to celebrate the end of six long years of war. Accounts tell of how crowds thronged the streets of Norwich and Liberator aircraft from the American airbases flew overhead alongside RAF Mosquitoes, adding to the festivities by dropping coloured flares, whilst being illuminated in columns of light by the city’s searchlights. Following Japan’s subsequent surrender, the initial period of euphoria and aspiration for the future quickly gave way to a decade of realism.
Post-war Britain became a period of even deeper austerity than had been faced during the preceding six years. The war had already drained the country and reparations left it on the verge of bankruptcy. However, under the new Labour government, with its vision of a ‘New Jerusalem’, Britain looked forward to progressive new policies that included the introduction of the National Health Service, the Welfare State, and a major house-building programme.
On the international stage, a new political world order emerged, with two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The years between 1945 and 1990 are known as the Cold War. Norfolk once again found itself on the front line, this time of a very different type of conflict and being strategically positioned in relation to threats from Russia and continental Europe.
While the global impact of the confrontation was one of conflict and instability at many flashpoints around the globe, western Europe, in contrast, was to experience an unprecedented period of peace and stability, eventually leading to years of prosperity. In the West, this became a time of sustained economic growth, higher wages, shorter working weeks, improved health care and greater access to education. But people were also now hungry for change and there was a reaction across society against the old social order and establishment. The 1960s ushered in a cultural revolution across music and the arts, with strong new influences introduced from America and Europe. In 1973 Britain joined the European Union and in 1994 the Channel Tunnel opened, creating a physical link to the Continent.
Post-war Norfolk was faced with many immediate problems. Wartime had seen the influx of thousands of military personnel, especially at the airbases, but, at the end of hostilities, most of them had moved away within a year of the war’s end. This sudden withdrawal of so many people had a massive impact locally. The resident population was left alone to rebuild the county after the war damage it had sustained, especially in the main towns. There was an immediate shortage of both labour and funds to undertake the job. Yet, the visual face of urban Norfolk was to be transformed as the impact of the Second World War was addressed.
The local economy had been geared toward servicing the needs of the country in wartime and it needed to develop in new ways. The post-war economy maintained a focus on agriculture but also diversified further into other areas of food production, food processing and associated industries. There was also a steady emphasis on developing the tourism sector, which was centred on, and gave a boost to, some of the more deprived coastal areas.
A further consideration in the reconstruction of the county was to appreciate historical differences between its different sub-regions, especially between the east and west. Both have often developed independently and at a different pace, at stages throughout history. In terms of prosperity, King’s Lynn in the west and Norwich and Great Yarmouth in the east have remained prominent since their original foundation but in the south, Thetford has never fully regained its early importance, despite its position as a gateway into the county.
A precarious international balance of power existed throughout the period of the Cold War, which involved the creation of strategic defences based on the principle of a deterrent threat of nuclear weapons. At times, the world came perilously close to nuclear destruction, most notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Norfolk’s airfields are a reminder of its strategic location and international military importance in the nuclear age. RAF Swanton Morley was in service from 1942 until 1995 and RAF Coltishall from 1938 to 2006. RAF Marham, which had opened in 1916, was home to the V bombers and tankers that were the spearhead of the deterrent. Together with nearby Lakenheath and Mildenhall in Suffolk, these bases formed an important part of NATO’s strategic air defence.
On the ground, in 1959 the Royal Norfolks were amalgamated with the Suffolk Regiment to become part of the 1st East Anglian Regiment; later part of the Royal Anglian Regiment. They participated in campaigns across the world including in Korea, Cyprus and Aden. From 1970 the 1st Battalion, The Royal Anglian Regiment served in Northern Ireland.
The 1950s and ’60s gave rise to new social attitudes within a changing world. Post-war depression was replaced by a wave of rising optimism and excitement. At the same time, there was a reaction against the perceived complacency of the old political class and anti-establishment movements grew up.
Young people who had lived through depressed years were looking for a good time and a new youth culture emerged. Some more aggressive elements included the Mods and Rockers, who became notorious visitors to Norfolk’s east coast, especially to Great Yarmouth. Trouble first flared up in 1964, when a spate of unsociable behaviour led to confrontations on the seafronts. In the following years they invaded on a regular basis throughout the summer and at weekends, often clashing in public areas.
Norfolk’s physical isolation from other parts of the country was an obstacle to the pace of post-war change. It suffered further reduction in its transport capability when much of the railway infrastructure was removed through the reshaping of British Railways in 1963–65 under Dr Beeching, who was the first Chairman of the British Railways Board. These cutbacks resulted in the removal of the direct rail line linking east and west Norfolk and restricted travel across the county.
Communications between Norfolk and the rest of the country remained slow, and the county experienced a sense of isolation. Long drives were needed to reach other parts. The nearest city beyond the county is Cambridge, 65 miles from Norwich, which is still a long journey on roads lacking motorways.
Many of Norfolk’s residents felt that this isolation was a blessing in disguise; contributing to the quality of life by slowing down the pace of change. However, demands of the economy and a growing population required modernisation and better connections beyond the county.
Communications have improved significantly, particularly since the 1990s, with dual carriageway links southward, through Suffolk and on to London. Improved rail services have enabled regular train journeys to London in under two hours and an occasional ninety-minute service started in 2019.
Today, air transport provides new benefits to the economy, connecting Norwich with the North Sea gas fields and business worldwide and for tourism. Norwich International Airport provides a one-hour connection to the major international air hub at Amsterdam Schiphol, helping to connect the county with other parts of the world.
There was a revival in Norfolk’s agriculture after 1945. New farming techniques started to be introduced following the end of the war. In particular, mechanisation quickly replaced the remnants of horse power. The appearance of the landscape altered, although perhaps not aesthetically improved, with hedgerows removed and fields opened up. Norfolk’s modern agriculture is now dominated by cereal production. The agricultural sector remains of prime importance, with strong linkages to retail and to food processing, which is served by a number of famous national brands.
The name Colman’s remains synonymous with Norwich and Norfolk. The company continues to be a major regional employer. Turkey farming was introduced on an intensive scale by Bernard Matthews, who was farming ten million birds in the mid-1990s. Many other companies have been engaged in food processing, while sugarbeet production, another important employer, is centred at Cantley in the east and King’s Lynn in the west.
In the south, Thetford Forest has become the largest area of pine woodland in lowland Britain. This artificially created landscape has transformed Breckland into a highly distinctive landscape that characterises the southern border of Norfolk and signals entry into the county.
Despite the predominantly advantageous natural climate, Norfolk’s east coast, particularly to the north of Great Yarmouth, remains vulnerable to extreme weather conditions. The area has been subjected to flooding for centuries and there have been dreadful floods within living memory. Overnight on 31 January 1953, 100 people on Norfolk’s east coast were killed when a high spring tide and windstorm combined to produce an abnormal and lethal storm tide.
In addition to agriculture, Norfolk’s leading industrial sectors are tourism, engineering, business and financial services, and the offshore industry. A famous Norfolk company associated with motor engineering is Lotus Cars. In 1966 the company and associated racing team created by Colin Chapman relocated from Herefordshire to Hethel in Norfolk. The site was built during 1942 as an RAF base, used by the US Air Force. The runway and access roads were to form the basis of their test track. Lotus Cars is still based at this site.
The county has a strong track record of attracting film-makers for location shooting. Some of the more famous films shot in Norfolk include The Dam Busters (1954), The Go-Between (1971), The Eagle Has Landed (1976), Revolution (1985), Out of Africa (1985), Full Metal Jacket (1987), Shakespeare in Love (1999), Die Another Day (2002), Stardust (2007), Atonement (2007) and The Duchess (2008), together with TV series including Dad’s Army (1968–77), ’Allo ’Allo (1982–92), David Copperfield (2000) and Kingdom (2007–09).
There was a long-standing association between the TV series Dad’s Army and the town of Thetford. Set in the fictional location of Warmington-on-Sea, most of the external location filming was done around Thetford. The cast and crew were regular guests of the town, where they came to stay each summer for the location work. The town now hosts its own Dad’s Army museum.
The North Sea has provided a major boost to the county’s economy through the offshore industry. Exploration in the early 1960s discovered oil and gas, bringing new and significant benefits. As the energy fields were opened up, Great Yarmouth developed into the largest offshore marine base in Europe, to support this industry. A terminal was constructed at Bacton, in the north-east, and gas began to be piped there from the Leman Field in 1968. Bacton currently handles a third of the UK’s total gas supply. Oil started to be piped ashore in 1975, from the massive fields, which included Brent and Alpha. Today, there are some 350 companies located in and around Great Yarmouth that are engaged with the offshore industry.
Norfolk and Norwich are well served through two universities; the University of East Anglia (UEA), established in 1963, and Norwich University of the Arts (NUA), which was founded over 170 years ago by the artists of the Norwich School of Artists. Norwich Research Park is a leading centre for innovation and is considered to be one of Europe’s leading centres for research into biotechnology, the environment, food and health, all of which are key areas for the future of mankind in the twenty-first century.
Today, Norfolk is renowned for its beautiful natural environment and quality of life. It combines the benefits of being a rural area with a vibrant economy, flourishing businesses and new industries, and is a centre of innovation. It is close to mainland Europe and valued as a hub of culture and heritage. It is a desirable holiday destination and north Norfolk is a popular location for second homes.
The main urban centres continue to be the historic towns of Norwich, King’s Lynn, Great Yarmouth and Thetford. Norwich is regarded as both the county and regional capital. Important for its industry and as a commercial centre, it is also appreciated as the cultural capital of East Anglia. It is the centre for administration, a range of services and regional media.
Great Yarmouth is the second largest urban centre in Norfolk. Its historically important fishing industry has been extinguished since 1945 through foreign intervention and the introduction of industrial fishing. This decline has changed the character of the town. Most of the medieval Rows were finally destroyed by Hitler’s air raids. Sadly, the town was deprived of the scale of post-war investment seen at other damaged British urban centres. Today, Great Yarmouth is important for port-related activities, as well as serving the offshore oil and gas industry. An ambitious Outer Harbour project began in 2007 and has continued to attract further investment and development. Yarmouth is the third largest holiday resort in the country and the hub for visits to the Norfolk Broads.
King’s Lynn is the third largest centre. Its commerce is centred on the modern docks and its industrial estates. Manufacturing industries again include food processing. It has maintained its two regular historic markets and is an important regional arts venue. Lynn retains a richness of architecture, with some very special survivals from earlier centuries. Other centres in west Norfolk are the seaside town of Hunstanton and the market town of Downham Market.
Thetford experienced post-war growth that has been boosted by the process of London overspill; a scheme that saw residents of Greater London move away from the capital to establish new communities and industry across south-east England. Thetford is a distribution centre and the focal location on the main route into the county from London and the south, and just 30 miles from Cambridge. It is the home to a number of manufacturing companies.
Norfolk’s single city and three largest towns are supported by its network of smaller market towns in between, which continue to provide housing, services and employment for their surrounding rural areas. These all have a distinctive character, reflecting their local regions.
The royal connection through the Sandringham Estate in west Norfolk is held in special affection by the people of the county. Sandringham has been the private home for four generations of British monarchs. King George V (r. 1910–36) called it ‘the place I love better than anywhere else in the world’. Today’s royal family spend the winter months there and it is where the Queen broadcasts to the nation each Christmas. The late Diana, Princess of Wales, was born at Park House near the church and grew up on the Sandringham Estate. Sandringham today is a popular tourist destination, attracting visitors from across the country and abroad.
Tourism has now become the largest single industry sector in Norfolk. It increasingly supports employment, accounting for 65,400 jobs in 2017, which was 18.4 per cent of all employment in the county. In the same year it also contributed £3.2 billion to the local economy.
The traditional focus of tourist activity has been concentrated on the coastal resorts, centring on Great Yarmouth in the east, Cromer and Sheringham in the north, and Hunstanton in the west, as well as in Norwich and the Broads. Today the offer embraces more diverse attractions, including a range of leisure activities, museums, castles and historic buildings, stately homes, sports, zoos, leisure parks and heritage railways.
Norwich and Norfolk are a vibrant centre for the arts and with a strong heritage commitment. There are around ninety museums in the county. The flagship organisation is Norfolk Museums Service, which was created in 1974 and comprises a network of ten museums that reflect the county’s geographical sub-regions and their communities. The Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts is also a museum and art gallery, opened in 1978 on the campus of UEA, with award-winning buildings designed by Norman Foster and Wendy Cheesman.
Norfolk’s long tradition as a home for writers, spanning the years from Julian of Norwich to Sir Andrew Motion (Poet Laureate 1999–2009), paved the way for Norwich to make a successful bid in 2012 to become designated England’s first UNESCO City of Literature; a home to writers, thinkers and storytellers.
Many artists have lived and worked in Norfolk in the years since the Second World War. Prominent names include Michael Andrews (1928–95) and Colin Self (b. 1941), while numerous others have left a significant mark. Hallam Ashley (1900–87) was a photographer of East Anglian subjects whose pictures have featured in exhibitions around the world. His work is evocative of earlier twentieth-century life across Britain. He has left a delightful record of the rural lifestyle and trades that characterised Norfolk and Suffolk at that time.
Another artist worthy of note is John Moray-Smith (1888–1958), who has been described as an eccentric genius. Moray-Smith created three-dimensional panels depicting episodes from Norfolk’s past and themes relating to its social history. Many of his works were displayed in local pubs, where they could be enjoyed by ordinary people. A number of these quirky works can still be seen in different parts of the county, including some in museums and others still surviving as fittings in pubs.
Norfolk plays host to a wide range of top sports. Norwich City Football Club has been at the heart of Norfolk’s community since its foundation in 1902. Unlike the situation in most cities and other parts of Britain, they enjoy support from the whole county and also across the wider region. Their first home was at Newmarket Road, until 1908, when they moved to ‘The Nest’, in Rosary Road, nestling in the space vacated by a disused quarry. The name of the ground was in keeping with both the nickname, ‘the Canaries’, and with the shape of the ground as a bird’s nest.
The club moved to its current home at Carrow Road in 1935, following promotion to Division 2. The Canaries first won promotion to the top (First) Division in 1972. They have won the League Cup twice, in 1962 and 1985. They enjoy a long-standing rivalry with their East Anglian neighbours Ipswich Town. The song sung by fans ‘On the Ball City’ is recognised as the oldest football song anywhere in the world.
There is horseracing at Great Yarmouth and Fakenham and greyhound racing at Great Yarmouth and Swaffham. Popular motor sports include speedway in King’s Lynn and motor racing at Snetterton. There is also a strong tradition of boxing in the county.
Norfolk’s waterways provide extensive opportunities for boating, with sailing and yachting on the Broads and at the coast. Holiday cruising on the Broads, centred at Wroxham, is a popular tourist attraction.
There has been a nationwide boom in the discipline of archaeology since the 1970s, resulting in a transformation of our understanding of the past. In 1974 Norfolk was the first county in Britain to create a county archaeological unit. At around the same time, it was becoming recognised that the majority of new archaeological discoveries were being made by amateur enthusiasts, especially those employing new technology in the form of metal detectors. Norfolk’s archaeologists subsequently gained a reputation for working closely with metal detector users to maximise recorded information about these new finds. This approach was aggressively criticised beyond the county borders, supposedly for encouraging what was termed ‘the looting of our past’. But since the mid-1990s, the ‘Norfolk System’ of proactive liaison with detectorists has become adopted on a national basis, within the national Portable Antiquities Scheme.
The Norfolk approach has resulted in more archaeological finds being recorded than in any other part of Britain. In particular, the largest number of Britain’s discoveries classified as ‘Treasure’ come from the county, accounting for around 12 per cent of all national cases (currently in the region of 130 each year). As a result of this proliferation of finds, it has often been a temptation to overemphasise the significance of Norfolk’s historic role.
It has long been a question as to whether, and when, Norfolk’s extraordinarily large volume of archaeological finds reflects genuinely significant events. The system of reporting finds, together with the large amounts of agricultural land available for metal detecting, undoubtedly contribute to the above normal number of discoveries. The result may sometimes lead us to infer an exaggerated importance of a site or time period.
However, it is clear that Norfolk has always played a role in the unfolding history of England, even if it has not always been a central one. Its geographical position as a borderland or edgeland has often defined this role, on the periphery but still engaged in national events.
Modern Norfolk has become a relatively quieter part of England, maintaining a balance between preserving its natural beauty, alongside encouraging new industries and technological innovation. But the twenty-first century is posing new challenges. The delicate balance between sustaining the environment and providing the services needed by the growing population is being challenged. The natural world is under threat as never before and Norfolk’s coastline, with its soft geology, continues to face quickening erosion by the North Sea. A rapid expansion in home building, with accompanying road developments, is causing massive pressure in and around the towns and villages to encroach on sensitive locations and agricultural land. Today’s developments could potentially change the character of the county and make its towns and most beautiful locations unrecognisable.
Energy needs are growing and wind power has been characterised as an ecologically friendly form for the future. Offshore wind farms have already been established around Norfolk’s long coastline at Wells, Great Yarmouth and Sheringham Shoals. Now, some of the world’s biggest wind farms are planned for the future around Norfolk’s coast. Not only will they supply the energy needs of the rural population and beyond but the growing industry will also be a source of skilled jobs and attract other financial investment. But there will again be some cost and a balance to be struck in terms of impact on the coastline and local countryside, its population and wildlife.
In addition to the threatened encroachment into the rural environment, the future of Norfolk’s historic legacy is also under threat. Its surviving churches and other ancient buildings are costly to maintain and many are now being used for purposes not always sympathetic to their historic significance. Concerns over the intrusion of high-rise constructions on the cityscape of Norwich, together with the disappearance of familiar historic buildings, are live current issues. Local organisations including the Norfolk Archaeological Trust and the Norwich Society are leading the way with initiatives to preserve the historic past, including preservation by acquisition and active engagement with the legal planning process.
Norfolk is recognised as a great place to live and to visit. It lies beneath big skies, with diverse landscapes ranging from the spectacular white- and red-banded cliffs at Hunstanton, through marshes at Cley and Thornham, the Broads at Hickling, Ranworth and Wroxham, and the billiard-table-flat Fenland and Wash in the far west, with its murmurations of seabirds. It is a county of great beaches with endless stretches of golden sand at Holkham, Wells-next-the-Sea, Holme, Great Yarmouth and Brancaster. A star cast of great houses at Blickling, Houghton, Felbrigg, Oxborough, Holkham and Sandringham is accompanied by other historic locations, including the atmospheric Castle Acre, Castle Rising and abundant medieval buildings at King’s Lynn. Beautiful destination towns include Holt and Burnham Market, within a landscape interspersed with castles, round-towered churches and windmills. Surviving ancient archaeological sites include Seahenge, Grimes Graves, Caistor Roman Town and Burgh Castle; all nationally recognised in their own right. Its rich cultural heritage is showcased at Norwich Castle Museum, where it can also be found beautifully portrayed in the works of the Norwich School artists.
Nature abounds, with birdwatching at Titchwell and Strumpshaw Fen, home to bitterns, marsh harriers and the swallowtail butterfly, while seal colonies thrive on the coast at Blakeney and Horsey. Norfolk’s cuisine reflects its rural and maritime legacy, with samphire scoured from the salt marshes, Cromer crabs, shrimps and oysters from the Wash, together with Norfolk Black Turkeys – the oldest turkey breed in the UK.
The county is learning to prosper in new ways to meet the needs of our changing world. In 2016 the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union, yet the county of Norfolk is geographically well positioned to benefit from economic ties with countries across the North Sea and retains close links with Europe. Ironically, improving routes and communications facilitate quicker travel to Holland and Belgium than with much of England. Norfolk also maintains an important military role in the security of Great Britain. The airbase at RAF Marham is home to 617 ‘Dambusters’ Squadron. In 2018 it was equipped with the new generation of F-35 Lightning fighter aircraft, already performing a major role in the safeguarding of Western Europe. The radar station at Neatishead has played an important role in the defence of the country since 1941 and today it is key to national and NATO air defences as part of the UK Air Surveillance and Control System (ASACS), in coordination with other sites across north Norfolk.
In the twenty-first century, Norfolk is looking outward and forward. Its improving communications link it to other parts of Britain and abroad, which will benefit the regional economy. It remains well placed, both geographically and in its outlook, to successfully embrace new challenges and to remain engaged in national developments and innovation, while managing to retain its special quality of life.