1. Michael McCarthy, “After Storm Come the Vultures,” USA Today, August 20, 2004, p. 6B.
2. Joseph B. Treaster, “With Storm Gone, Floridians Are Hit with Price Gouging,” New York Times, August 18, 2004, p. A1; McCarthy, “After Storm Come the Vultures.”
3. McCarthy, “After Storm Come the Vultures”; Treaster, “With Storm Gone, Floridians Are Hit with Price Gouging”; Crist quoted in Jeff Jacoby, “Bring on the ‘Price Gougers,’ ” Boston Globe, August 22, 2004, p. F11.
4. McCarthy, “After Storm Come the Vultures”; Allison North Jones, “West Palm Days Inn Settles Storm Gouging Suit,” Tampa Tribune, October 6, 2004, p. 3.
5. Thomas Sowell, “How ‘Price Gouging’ Helps Floridians,” Tampa Tribune, September 15, 2004; also published as “‘Price Gouging’ in Florida,” Capitalism Magazine, September 14, 2004, at www.capmag.com/article.asp? ID=3918.
6. Ibid.
7. Jacoby, “Bring on the ‘Price Gougers.’ ”
8. Charlie Crist, “Storm Victims Need Protection,” Tampa Tribune, September 17, 2004, p. 17.
9. Ibid.
10. Jacoby, “Bring on the ‘Price Gougers.’ ”
11. Lizette Alvarez and Erik Eckholm, “Purple Heart Is Ruled Out for Traumatic Stress,” New York Times, January 8, 2009.
12. Ibid.
13. Tyler E. Boudreau, “Troubled Minds and Purple Hearts,” New York Times, January 26, 2009, p. A21.
14. Alvarez and Eckholm, “Purple Heart Is Ruled Out.”
15. Boudreau, “Troubled Minds and Purple Hearts.”
16. S. Mitra Kalita, “Americans See 18% of Wealth Vanish,” Wall Street Journal, March 13, 2009, p. Al.
17. Jackie Calmes and Louise Story, “418 Got A.I.G. Bonuses; Outcry Grows in Capital,” New York Times, March 18, 2009, p. A1; Bill Saporito, “How AIG Became Too Big to Fail,” Time, March 30, 2009, p. 16.
18. AIG CEO Edward M. Liddy quoted in Edmund L. Andrews and Peter Baker, “Bonus Money at Troubled A.I.G. Draws Heavy Criticism,” New York Times, March 16, 2009; see also Liam Pleven, Serena Ng, and Sudeep Reddy, “AIG Faces Growing Wrath Over Payments,” Wall Street Journal, March 16, 2009.
19. New York Post, March 18, 2009, p. 1.
20. Shailagh Murray and Paul Kane, “Senate Will Delay Action on Punitive Tax on Bonuses,” Washington Post, March 24, 2009, p. A7.
21. Mary Williams Walsh and Carl Hulse, “A.I.G. Bonuses of $50 Million to Be Repaid,” New York Times, March 24, 2009, p. A1.
22. Greg Hitt, “Drive to Tax AIG Bonuses Slows,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2009.
23. Not all recipients of the disputed A.I.G. bonuses were responsible for having made the risky investments that created the havoc. Some had joined the financial products division after the crash, to help clean up the mess. One such executive published an op-ed piece complaining that the public outrage had failed to distinguish between those responsible for the reckless investments and those who had had no part in them. See Jake DeSantis, “Dear AIG, I Quit!,” New York Times, March 24, 2009. Unlike DeSantis, Joseph Cassano, president of A.I.G.’s financial products for thirteen years, made $280 million before leaving the company in March 2008, shortly before the credit default swaps he championed ruined the company.
24. Senator Sherrod Brown quoted in Jonathan Weisman, Naftali Bendavid, and Deborah Solomon, “Congress Looks to a Tax to Recoup Bonus Money,” Wall Street Journal, March 18, 2009, p. A2.
25. President Barack Obama, remarks by the president, the White House, March 16, 2009, at www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-to-small-business-owners.
26. Michael Shnayerson, “Wall Street’s $16 Billion Bonus,” Vanity Fair, March 2009.
27. President Barack Obama, remarks by the president on executive compensation, the White House, February 4, 2009, at www.whitehouse.gov/blog_post/new_rules.
28. Senator Grassley made his comments on WMT radio in Iowa. They are reprinted in The Caucus, a blog on the New York Times website. See Kate Phillips, “Grassley: AIG Must Take Its Medicine (Not Hemlock),” March 17, 2009, at Click Here.
29. Ibid. See also Kate Phillips, “Senator Wants Some Remorse from C.E.O.’s,” New York Times, March 18, 2009, p. A15.
30. Alan Schwartz, former chief executive of Bear Stearns, quoted in William D. Cohen, “A Tsunami of Excuses,” New York Times, March 12, 2009.
31. Ibid.
32. Shnayerson, “Wall Street’s $16 Billion Bonus.”
33. David R. Francis, “Should CEO Pay Restrictions Spread to All Corporations?,” Christian Science Monitor, March 9, 2009.
34. Ibid.
35. CEO pay figures from analysis of 2004–2006 data by Towers Perrin, cited in Kenji Hall, “No Outcry About CEO Pay in Japan,” BusinessWeek, February 10, 2009.
36. The classic formulations of the trolley case are Philippa Foot, “The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of Double Effect,” in Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1978), p. 19, and Judith Jarvis Thomson, “The Trolley Problem,” Yale Law Journal 94 (May 1985): 1395–415.
37. The following account is drawn from Marcus Luttrell, with Patrick Robinson, Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10 (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2007).
38. Ibid., p. 205.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid., pp. 206–207.
1. Queen v. Dudley and Stephens, 14 Queens Bench Division 273, 9 December 1884. Quotes from newspaper account in “The Story of the Mignonette,” The Illustrated London News, September 20, 1884. See also A. W. Brian Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
2. Jeremy Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), J. H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart, eds. (Oxford University Press, 1996), chap. 1.
3. Ibid.
4. Jeremy Bentham, “Tracts on Poor Laws and Pauper Management,” 1797, in John Bowring, ed., The Works of Jeremy Bentham, vol. 8 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), pp. 369–439.
5. Ibid., p. 401.
6. Ibid., pp. 401–402.
7. Ibid., p. 373.
8. Ursula K. Le Guin, “The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas,” in Richard Bausch, ed., Norton Anthology of Short Fiction (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).
9. Gordon Fairclough, “Philip Morris Notes Cigarettes’ Benefits for Nation’s Finances,” Wall Street Journal, July 16, 2001, p. A2. The text of the report, “Public Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic,” November 28, 2000, as prepared for Philip Morris by Arthur D. Little International, Inc., is available online at Click Here and at Click Here.
10. Ellen Goodman, “Thanks, but No Thanks,” Boston Globe, July 22, 2001, p. D7.
11. Gordon Fairclough, “Philip Morris Says It’s Sorry for Death Report,” Wall Street Journal, July 26, 2001, p. B1.
12. The court case was Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Co., 174 Cal. Reporter 348 (Cal. Ct. App. 1981). The cost-benefit analysis was reported in Mark Dowie, “Pinto Madness,” Mother Jones, September/October 1977. For a similar General Motors case, see Elsa Walsh and Benjamin Weiser, “Court Secrecy Masks Safety Issues,” Washington Post, October 23, 1988, pp. A1, A22.
13. W. Kip Kiscusi, “Corporate Risk Analysis: A Reckless Act?,” Stanford Law Review 52 (February 2000): 569.
14. Katharine Q. Seelye and John Tierney, “E.P.A. Drops Age-Based Cost Studies,” NewYork Times, May 8, 2003, p. A26; Cindy Skrzycki, “Under Fire, E.P.A. Drops the ‘Senior Death Discount,’” Washington Post, May 13, 2003, p. E1; Robert Hahn and Scott Wallsten, “Whose Life Is Worth More? (And Why Is It Horrible to Ask?),” Washington Post, June 1, 2003.
15. Orley Ashenfelter and Michael Greenstone, “Using Mandated Speed Limits to Measure the Value of a Statistical Life,” Journal of Political Economy 112, Supplement (February 2004): S227–67.
16. Edward L. Thorndike, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Macmillan, 1940). Abridged version edited by Geraldine Joncich Clifford, (Boston: MIT Press, 1969), pp. 78–83.
17. Ibid., p. 43.
18. Ibid.
19. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859), Stefan Collini, ed. (Cambridge University Press, 1989), chap. 1.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., chap. 3.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. The quote comes from an obscure writing by Bentham, The Rationale of Reward, published in the 1820s. Bentham’s statement was brought to prominence by John Stuart Mill. See Ross Harrison, Bentham (London: Routledge, 1983), p. 5.
25. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (1861), George Sher, ed. (Hackett Publishing, 1979), chap. 2.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid., chap. 4.
28. Ibid., chap. 2.
29. Ibid.
30. I draw here and in the following paragraphs on the excellent account by Joseph Lelyveld, “English Thinker (1748–1832) Preserves His Poise,” New York Times, June 18, 1986.
31. “Extract from Jeremy Bentham’s Last Will and Testament,” May 30, 1832, on the Web site of the Bentham Project, University College London, at www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/will.htm.
32. These and other anecdotes are related on the Web site of the Bentham Project, University College London, at www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/jb.htm.
33. Ibid.
1. Matthew Miller and Duncan Greenberg, “The Forbes 400,” Forbes, September 17, 2008, at Click here.
2. Lawrence Michel, Jared Bernstein, and Sylvia Allegretto, The State of Working America 2006/2007: An Economic Policy Institute Book, Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, an imprint of Cornell University Press, 2007, using data from Edward N. Wolff (2006), at Click Here. See also Arthur B. Kennickell, “Currents and Undercurrents: Changes in the Distribution of Wealth, 1989–2004,” Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C., January 30, 2006, at Click here.
3. Friedrich A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).
4. Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 188.
5. Ibid., p. 111.
6. Ibid., pp. 137–60.
7. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. ix.
8. Ibid., pp. 149–60.
9. Ibid., pp. 160–64.
10. Ibid., p. 169.
11. Ibid., p. 172.
12. Ibid., p. 171.
13. Monica Davey, “Kevorkian Speaks After His Release From Prison,” New York Times, June 4, 2007.
14. Mark Landler, “Eating People Is Wrong! But Is It Homicide? Court to Rule,” New York Times, December 26, 2003, p. A4.
15. Mark Landler, “German Court Convicts Internet Cannibal of Manslaughter,” New York Times, January 31, 2004, p. A3; Tony Paterson, “Cannibal of Rotenburg Gets 8 Years for Eating a Willing Victim,” The Independent (London), January 31, 2004, p. 30.
16. Luke Harding, “German Court Finds Cannibal Guilty of Murder,” The Guardian (London), May 10, 2006, p. 16.
17. Karen Bale, “Killer Cannibal Becomes Veggie,” Scottish Daily Record, November 21, 2007, p. 20.
1. James W. Geary, We Need Men: The Union Draft in the Civil War (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991), pp. 3–48; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 490–94.
2. McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 600–11.
3. Ibid.; Geary, We Need Men, pp. 103–50.
4. McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 601; Geary, We Need Men, p. 83.
5. Geary, We Need Men, p. 150, and The Civil War: A Film by Ken Burns, episode 5, “The Universe of Battle,” chapter 8.
6. Jeffrey M. Jones, “Vast Majority of Americans Opposed to Reinstating Military Draft,” Gallup News Service, September 7, 2007, at Click here.
7. Hon. Ron Paul (R-Texas), “3000 American Deaths in Iraq,” U.S. House of Representatives, January 5, 2007; at www.ronpaullibrary.org/document .php? id=532.
8. “Army Recruitment in FY 2008: A Look at Age, Race, Income, and Education of New Soldiers,” National Priorities Project; data from chart 6: Active-duty Army: Recruits by Neighborhood Income, 2005, 2007, 2008; at Click Here.
9. Ibid. A study by the Heritage Foundation challenges this finding, in part by showing that officers come disproportionately from more affluent zip codes. See Shanea J. Watkins and James Sherk, “Who Serves in the U.S. Military? Demographic Characteristics of Enlisted Troops and Officers,” Heritage Center for Data Analysis, August 21, 2008, at Click Here.
10. “Military Recruitment 2008: Significant Gap in Army’s Quality and Quantity Goals,” National Priorities Project; data from Table 1: Educational Attainment, FY 2008, at Click Here.
11. David M. Kennedy, “The Wages of a Mercenary Army: Issues of Civil-Military Relations,” Bulletin of the American Academy (Spring 2006): 12–16. Kennedy cites Andrew Bacevich, The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 28.
12. Kathy Roth-Douquet and Frank Schaeffer, AWOL: The Unexcused Absence of America’s Upper Classes from Military Service (New York: HarperCollins, 2006).
13. Arielle Gorin, “Princeton, in the Nation’s Service?,” The Daily Princetonian, January 22, 2007. The Princeton figures are from Charles Moskos, a sociologist who studies the military. Moskos is quoted in Julian E. Barnes and Peter Spiegel, “Expanding the Military, Without a Draft,” Los Angeles Times, December 24, 2006.
14. USA Today reports that, according to the U.S. Senate Library, at least 9 of the 535 members of Congress have sons or daughters who have served in Iraq. Kathy Kiely, “Lawmakers Have Loved Ones in Combat Zone,” USA Today, January 23, 2007.
15. Charles Rangel, “Why I Want the Draft,” New York Daily News, November 22, 2006, p. 15.
16. Ibid.
17. Kennedy, “The Wages of a Mercenary Army”; see also David M. Kennedy, “The Best Army We Can Buy,” New York Times, July 25, 2005, p. A19.
18. Ibid., p. 13.
19. Ibid., p. 16.
20. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762), Book III, chap. 15, translated by G.D.H. Cole (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1973).
21. Doreen Carvajal, “Foreign Legion Turns to Internet in Drive for Recruits,” Boston Sunday Globe, November 12, 2006; Molly Moore, “Legendary Force Updates Its Image: Online Recruiting, Anti-Terrorist Activities Routine in Today’s French Foreign Legion,” Washington Post, May 13, 2007, p. A14.
22. Julia Preston, “U.S. Military Will Offer Path to Citizenship,” NewYork Times, February 15, 2009, p. 1; Bryan Bender, “Military Considers Recruiting Foreigners,” Boston Globe, December 26, 2006, p. 1.
23. T. Christian Miller, “Contractors Outnumber Troops in Iraq,” Los Angeles Times, July 4, 2007.
24. Peter W. Singer, “Can’t Win with ’Em, Can’t Go to War Without ’Em: Private Military Contractors and Counterinsurgency,” Brookings Institution, Foreign Policy Paper Series, September 2007, p. 3.
25. According to U.S. Department of Labor insurance claims, 1,292 contractors had been killed as of April 2008. Figures quoted in Peter W. Singer, “Outsourcing the Fight,” Forbes, June 5, 2008. On contractor deaths not being counted by the U.S. military, see Steve Fainaru, “Soldier of Misfortune: Fighting a Parallel War in Iraq, Private Contractors Are Officially Invisible—Even in Death,” Washington Post, December 1, 2008, p. C1.
26. Evan Thomas and March Hosenball, “The Man Behind Blackwater,” Newsweek, October 22, 2007, p. 36.
27. Prince quoted in Mark Hemingway, “Warriors for Hire: Blackwater USA and the Rise of Private Military Contractors,” The Weekly Standard, December 18, 2006.
28. The billion-dollar figure for Blackwater in Iraq is from Steve Fainaru, Big Boy Rules: America’s Mercenaries Fighting in Iraq (New York: Da Capo, 2008), quoted in Ralph Peters, “Hired Guns,” Washington Post, December 21, 2008.
29. Ginger Thompson and James Risen, “Five Guards Face U.S. Charges in Iraq Deaths,” New York Times, December 6, 2008.
30. Singer, “Can’t Win with ’Em,” p. 7.
31. The facts of the case presented in this and the following paragraphs are drawn from the court opinions: In re Baby M, 217 New Jersey Superior Court, 313 (1987), and Matter of Baby M, Supreme Court of New Jersey, 537 Atlantic Reporter, 2d Series, 1227 (1988).
32. In re Baby M, 217 New Jersey Superior Court, 313 (1987).
33. Ibid., p. 374–75.
34. Ibid., p. 376.
35. Ibid., p. 372.
36. Ibid., p. 388.
37. Matter of Baby M, Supreme Court of New Jersey, 537 Atlantic Reporter, 2d Series, 1227 (1988).
38. Ibid., p. 1248.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid., p. 1249.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid., pp. 1248–49.
43. Elizabeth S. Anderson, “Is Women’s Labor a Commodity?” Philosophy and Public Affairs 19 (Winter 1990): 71–92.
44. Ibid., p. 77.
45. Ibid., pp. 80–81.
46. Ibid., p. 82.
47. Susannah Cahalan, “Tug O’ Love Baby M All Grown Up,” New York Post, April 13, 2008.
48. Lorraine Ali and Raina Kelley, “The Curious Lives of Surrogates,” Newsweek, April 7, 2008; Debora L. Spar, The Baby Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2006), pp. 83–84.
49. In Spar, The Baby Business. Spar has since become president of Barnard College.
50. Ibid., p. 79.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid., p. 80.
53. Ibid., p. 81.
54. Ibid.
55. Sam Dolnick, “World Outsources Pregnancies to India,” Associated Press Online, December 30, 2007.
56. Ibid. See also Amelia Gentleman, “India Nurtures Business of Surrogate Motherhood,” New York Times, March 10, 2008, p. 9.
57. Dolnick, “World Outsources Pregnancies to India.”
58. Ibid.
59. Gentleman, “India Nurtures Business of Surrogate Motherhood.”
60. The woman and her economic situation are reported in Dolnick, “World Outsources Pregnancies to India.”
61. Ibid.
1. See Christine M. Korsgaard, “Introduction,” Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. vii–viii.
2. Immanuel Kant, Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), translated by H. J. Paton (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964), 442. Since readers will use various editions of Kant’s Groundwork, I cite the standard page numbers, drawn from the edition of the Groundwork published by the Royal Prussian Academy in Berlin. Most contemporary editions of the Groundwork use these page references.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid., 394.
5. Ibid., 390.
6. I am indebted to Lucas Stanczyk for this formulation of Kant’s view.
7. Ibid., 397.
8. Hubert B. Herring, “Discounts for Honesty,” New York Times, March 9, 1997.
9. Kant, Groundwork, p. 398.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. “Misspeller Is a Spelling Bee Hero” (UPI), New York Times, June 9, 1983.
13. Kant, Groundwork, p. 412.
14. Ibid., 395.
15. Kant uses this phrase in an essay he wrote several years after the Groundwork. See Immanuel Kant, “On the Common Saying: ‘This May Be True in Theory, But It Does Not Apply in Practice” (1793), in Hans Reiss, ed., Kant’s Political Writings, translated by H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 73.
16. Kant, Groundwork, p. 414.
17. Ibid., 416.
18. Ibid., 425. See also 419–20.
19. Ibid., 421.
20. Ibid., 422.
21. Ibid., 428.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., 429.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid., 433.
26. Ibid., 440.
27. Ibid., 447.
28. Ibid., 452.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 453.
31. Ibid., 454.
32. Ibid., 454.
33. Ibid., 456.
34. Immanuel Kant, “Duties Toward the Body in Respect of Sexual Impulse” (1784–85), translated by Louis Infield and published in Immanuel Kant, Lectures on Ethics (Cambridge, Mass.: Hackettt Publishing, 1981), p. 164. This text is based on lecture notes taken by students who attended Kant’s lectures.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid., p. 165.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., pp. 165–66.
39. Ibid., p. 167.
40. Immanuel Kant, “On a Supposed Right to Lie Because of Philanthropic Concerns” (1799), translated by James W. Ellington and published as a supplement to Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (Cambridge, Mass.: Hackett Publishing, 1993), p. 64.
41. Ibid., p. 65.
42. Kant quoted in Alasdair MacIntyre, “Truthfulness and Lies: What Can We Learn from Kant?” in Alasdair MacIntyre, Ethics and Politics: Selected Essays, vol. 2 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 123.
43. Ibid.
44. House Judiciary Committee, December 8, 1998. Exchange transcribed from CNN coverage. A partial transcript of the exchange can be found at Click here.
45. Immanuel Kant, “On the Common Saying: ‘This May Be True in Theory, but It Does Not Apply in Practice,’ ” (1793), translated by H. B. Nisbet and published in Hans Reiss ed., Kant’s Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 73–74.
46. Ibid., p. 79.
47. Ibid.
1. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (1690), in Peter Laslett, ed., Locke’s Two Treatises of Government, 2d ed. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1967), sec. 119.
2. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971).
3. See the excellent history of contract law, P. S. Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979; also Charles Fried, Contract as Promise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
4. Associated Press, “Bill for Clogged Toilet: $50,000,” Boston Globe, September 13, 1984, p. 20.
5. David Hume, Treatise of Human Nature (1739–40), Book III, part II, sec. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 1978).
6. Ibid., Book III, part III, sec. 5.
7. The story is related in Atiyah, The Rise and Fall of Freedom of Contract, pp. 487–88; Atiyah cites E. C. Mossner, Life of David Hume (Edinburgh: Kelson, 1954), p. 564.
8. Hume quoted in Atiyah, Rise and Fall, p. 487.
9. Steve Lee Myers, “‘Squeegees’ Rank High on Next Police Commissioner’s Priority List,” New York Times, December 4, 1993, pp. 23–24.
10. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, sec. 24.
11. Ibid., sec. 12.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., “Harrison Bergeron” (1961), in Vonnegut, Welcome to the Monkey House (New York: Dell Publishing, 1998), p. 7.
16. Ibid., pp. 10–11.
17. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, sec. 17.
18. Ibid., sec. 12.
19. Ibid., sec. 48.
20. Ibid.
21. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (2d ed., 1999), sec. 17.
22. Ibid., sec. 48.
23. Woody Allen, Stardust Memories, United Artists, 1980.
24. Milton and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1980), pp. 136–37.
25. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, sec. 17.
26. Ibid. In the revised edition of A Theory of Justice (1999), Rawls dropped the phrase about sharing one another’s fate.
1. The facts of Hopwood’s case are presented in Cheryl J. Hopwood v. State of Texas, United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, 78 F.3d 932 (1996), and in Richard Bernstein, “Racial Discrimination or Righting Past Wrongs?,” New York Times, July 13, 1994, p. B8. The district court opinion pointed out, in a footnote, that Hopwood’s LSAT score, in the eighty-third percentile, placed her “well below the median LSAT for nonminorities in the 1992 entering class.” See Cheryl J. Hopwood v. State of Texas, United States District Court for the Western District of Texas, 861 F. Supp. 551 (1994), at 43.
2. Michael Sharlot, quoted in Sam Walker, “Texas Hunts for Ways to Foster Diversity,” Christian Science Monitor, June 12, 1997, p. 4.
3. Bernstein, “Racial Discrimination or Righting Past Wrongs?”
4. Regents of University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).
5. Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
6. Ethan Bronner, “Colleges Look for Answers to Racial Gaps in Testing,” NewYork Times, November 8, 1997, pp. A1, A12.
7. Michael Sharlot, then the acting dean of the University of Texas Law School, quoted in Bernstein, “Racial Discrimination or Righting Past Wrongs?”
8. Regents of University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978), appendix to opinion of Justice Powell, pp. 321–24.
9. Ibid., 323.
10. Ronald Dworkin, “Why Bakke Has No Case,” New York Review of Books, vol. 24, November 10, 1977.
11. Ibid.
12. Lowell quote from “Lowell Tells Jews Limit at Colleges Might Help Them,” New York Times, June 17, 1922, pp. 3.
13. Dartmouth quotes from William A. Honan, “Dartmouth Reveals Anti-Semitic Past,” New York Times, November 11, 1997, p. A16.
14. Dworkin, “Why Bakke Has No Case.”
15. An excellent account of the Starrett City quotas is Jefferson Morley, “Double Reverse Discrimination,” The New Republic, July 9, 1984, pp. 14–18; see also Frank J. Prial, “Starrett City: 20,000 Tenants, Few Complaints,” New York Times, December 10, 1984.
16. These hypothetical letters are adapted from Michael J. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2d ed., 1998).
1. Callie Smartt’s story was reported in Sue Anne Pressley, “A ‘Safety’ Blitz,” Washington Post, November 12, 1996, pp. A1, A8. The analysis I present here draws on Michael J. Sandel, “Honor and Resentment,” The New Republic, December 23, 1996, p. 27; reprinted in Michael J. Sandel, Public Philosophy: Essays on Morality in Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), pp. 97–100.
2. Aristotle, The Politics, edited and translated by Ernest Barker (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), Book III, chap. xii [1282b].
3. Ibid.
4. A. A. Milne, Winnie-the-Pooh (1926; New York: Dutton Children’s Books, 1988), pp. 5–6.
5. Aristotle, The Politics, Book III, chap. ix [1280b].
6. Ibid. [1280a].
7. Ibid. [1280b].
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., [1281a]; Book III, chap. xii [1282b].
10. Ibid., Book I, chap. ii [1253a].
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, translated by David Ross (New York: Oxford University Press, 1925), Book II, chap. 3 [1104b].
14. Ibid., Book II, chap. 1 [1103a].
15. Ibid. [1103a–1103b].
16. Ibid. [1003b].
17. Judith Martin, “The Pursuit of Politeness,” The New Republic, August 6, 1984, p. 29.
18. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, chap. 2 [1104a].
19. Ibid., Book II, chap. 9 [1109a].
20. Ibid., Book VI, chap. 6 [1140b].
21. Ibid., Book VI, chap. 7 [1141b].
22. Ibid., Book VI, chap. 5 [1140b].
23. Ibid., Book VI, chap. 7 [1141b].
24. I am indebted here to the illuminating discussion in Bernard Williams, Shame and Necessity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 103–29.
25. Aristotle, The Politics, Book I, chap. v [1254a].
26. Ibid. [1254b].
27. Ibid. [1254b].
28. Ibid. [1255a].
29. Ibid., Book I, chap. vi [1254b].
30. Ibid. [1255b].
31. Ibid., Book I, chap. iii [1253b].
32. For an illuminating discussion of this point, see Russell Muirhead, Just Work (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004).
33. PGA Tour v. Martin, 532 U.S. 661 (2001).
34. Ibid., Justice Scalia dissent, at 700.
35. Ibid., Justice Stevens opinion, at 682.
36. Ibid., at 687.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., Justice Scalia dissent, at 701.
39. Tom Kite, “Keep the PGA on Foot,” New York Times, February 2, 1998.
1. Elazar Barkan, The Guilt of Nations (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), offers a good overview of post–World War II restitutions and apologies. On German reparations to Israel and Jews, see pp. 3–29. See also Howard M. Sachar, A History of Israel (London: Basil Blackwell, 1976), pp. 464–70.
2. Konrad Adenauer speech to Bundestag quoted in “History of the Claims Conference,” at the official website of the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany, at www.claimscon.org/? url=history.
3. Johannes Rau quoted in Karin Laub, “Germany Asks Israel’s Forgiveness over Holocaust,” Associated Press, in The Independent, February 16, 2000.
4. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations, pp. 46–64. Hiroko Tabuchi, “Historians Find New Proof on Sex Slaves,” Associated Press, April 17, 2007.
5. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations.
6. Norimitsu Onishi, “Call by U.S. House for Sex Slavery Apology Angers Japan’s Leader,” New York Times, August 1, 2007.
7. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations, pp. 245–48; “Australia Apologizes ‘Without Qualification,’ ” Interview with Professor Patty O’Brien, Center for Australian and New Zealand Studies, Georgetown University, on National Public Radio, February 14, 2008.
8. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations.
9. Tim Johnston, “Australia Says ‘Sorry’ to Aborigines for Mistreatment,” New York Times, February 13, 2008; Misha Schubert and Sarah Smiles, “Australia Says Sorry,” The Age (Melbourne, Australia), February 13, 2008.
10. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations, pp. 30–45.
11. Ibid., pp. 216–31.
12. Ibid., pp. 283–93; Tamar Lewin, “Calls for Slavery Restitution Getting Louder,” NewYork Times, June 4, 2001.
13. On Rep. John Conyers’s bill to study reparations, see Click here.
14. Walter Olson, “So Long, Slavery Reparations,” Los Angeles Times, October 31, 2008, A19.
15. Survey research by Michael Dawson, reported in Harbour Fraser Hodder, “The Price of Slavery,” Harvard Magazine, May–June 2003, pp. 12–13; see also Alfred L. Brophy, “The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery,” DePaul Law Review 53 (Spring 2004): 1201–11.
16. Wendy Koch, “Virginia First State to Express ‘Regret’ over Slavery,” USA Today, February 26, 2007, p. 5A. On slaveholding population of Virginia and other states, see Christine Vestal, “States Lead Slavery Apology Movement,” Stateline .org, April 4, 2008, at www.stateline.org/live/details/story? contentId =298236.
17. Vestal, “States Lead Slavery Apology Movement.” See also “Apologies for Slavery,” State Legislatures, June 2008, p. 6.
18. Darryl Fears, “House Issues an Apology for Slavery,” Washington Post, July 30, 2008, p. A3; House Resolution 194: “Apologizing for the Enslavement and Racial Segregation of African-Americans,” Congressional Record House 154, no. 127 (July 29, 2008): 7224–27,
19. For an insightful analysis of this issue, see David Miller, National Responsibility and Global Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 135–62.
20. Gay Alcorn, “The Business of Saying Sorry,” Sydney Morning Herald, June 20, 2001, p. 17.
21. Henry Hyde quoted in Kevin Merida, “Did Freedom Alone Pay a Nation’s Debt?,” Washington Post, November 23, 1999.
22. Williams quoted in Lewin, “Calls for Slavery Restitution Getting Louder.”
23. Tom Hester, Jr., “New Jersey Weighs Apology for Slavery,” Boston Globe, January 2, 2008.
24. Darryl Fears, “Slavery Apology: A Sincere Step or Mere Politics?,” Washington Post, August 2, 2008.
25. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (1690), sec. 95, in John Locke, Two Treatises of Goverment, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd ed., 1988).
26. Aristotle, The Politics, Book VII, 1323a, translated by Ernest Barker (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946).
27. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1788), translated by Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis: Library of Liberal Arts, 1956), pp. 66–67.
28. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), sec. 33, p. 211.
29. Ibid., sec. 84, p. 560.
30. Ibid., sec. 85, p. 561.
31. Ibid., sec. 84, p. 560.
32. For elaboration of this point, see Michael J. Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 280–84; also James Holt, “The New Deal and the American Anti-Statist Tradition,” in John Brae-man, Robert H. Bremner, and David Brody, eds., The New Deal: The National Level (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1975), pp. 27–49.
33. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Message to Congress on the State of the Union,” January 11, 1944, in Public Papers and Addresses, vol. 13, pp. 40–42.
34. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), p. 33.
35. Barry Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative (1960; Washington, D.C.: Regnery, Gateway edition, 1990), pp. 52–53, 66–68.
36. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), p. 201.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., p. 204.
39. Ibid., pp. 204–205.
40. Ibid., p. 205.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, pp. 108–17.
44. Ibid., p. 114.
45. “Airlift to Israel Is Reported Taking Thousands of Jews from Ethiopia,” New York Times, December 11, 1984; Hunter R. Clark, “Israel an Airlift to the Promised Land,” Time, January 14, 1985.
46. Peres quoted in Anastasia Toufexis, “Israel Stormy Skies for a Refugee Airlift,” Time, January 21, 1985.
47. Stephen Spector, Operation Solomon: The Daring Rescue of the Ethiopian Jews (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). See also the website of the Israel Association for Ethiopian Jews: www.iaej.org.il/pages/history.htm.
48. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, “Discourse on Political Economy” (1755), translated by Donald A. Cress (Cambridge, Mass.: Hackett Publishing), p. 173.
49. Ibid., p. 174.
50. John Burnett, “A New Way to Patrol the Texas Border: Virtually,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, February 23, 2009. See www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php? storyId=101050132.
51. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), p. 62.
52. For a thoughtful argument in favor of open borders, see Joseph H. Carens, “Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders,” The Review of Politics 49 (Spring 1987).
53. Ibid., pp. 37–38.
54. Byron Dorgan, “Spend Money on U.S. Goods,” USA Today, February 2, 2009, p. 14A.
55. Douglas A. Irwin, “If We Buy American, No One Else Will,” New York Times, February 1, 2009; Anthony Faiola, “‘Buy American’ Rider Sparks Trade Debate,” Washington Post, January 29, 2009.
56. Michael Mandel, “Can Obama Keep New Jobs at Home?,” BusinessWeek, November 25, 2008.
57. Lee quoted in Douglas Southall Freeman, R. E. Lee (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934), pp. 443, 421. See also Morton Grodzins, The Loyal and the Disloyal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), pp. 142–43.
58. In this and the following paragraph I draw on Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent, pp. 15–16.
59. Dick Lehr, “Bulger Brothers Find Their Worlds Colliding,” Boston Globe, December 4, 2002, p. B1; Eileen McNamara, “Disloyalty to the Dead,” Boston Globe, December 4, 2002; www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/fugitives/bulger.htm.
60. Scot Lehigh, “Bulger Chose the Code of the Streeet,” Boston Globe, December 4, 2002, p. A19.
61. Nicolas Zamiska, “In South Boston, Belief and Sympathy,” Boston Globe, June 20, 2003, p. A22.
62. Lehigh, “Bulger Chose the Code of the Street.”
63. Shelley Murphy, “No U.S. Charges Against Bulger,” Boston Globe, April 4, 2007, p. A1.
64. David Johnston and Janny Scott, “Prisoner of Rage: The Tortured Genius of Theodore Kaczynski,” New York Times, May 26, 1996.
65. Ibid.
66. David Johnston, “Judge Sentences Confessed Bomber to Four Life Terms,” New York Times, May 5, 1998.
67. William Glaberson, “In Book, Unabomber Pleads His Case,” New York Times, March 1, 1999.
68. William Glaberson, “The Death Penalty as a Personal Thing,” New York Times, October 18, 2004.
69. Matthew Purdy, “Crime, Punishment and the Brothers K.,” New York Times, August 5, 2001.
70. Johnston and Scott, “Prisoner of Rage.”
1. Theodore H. White, The Making of the President 1960 (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1961), pp. 295–98.
2. Address of Senator John F. Kennedy to the Greater Houston Ministerial Asso-ciation, Houston, Texas, September 12, 1960, at Click here.
3. White, The Making of the President 1960, p. 298.
4. Barack Obama, “Call to Renewal Keynote Address,” Washington, D.C., June 28, 2006, at Click Here
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. For elaboration of this theme, see Michael J. Sandel, Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 278–85.
10. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971).
11. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981); Michael J. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Charles Taylor, “The Nature and Scope of Distributive Justice,” in Charles Taylor, Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Philosophical Papers, vol. 2 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), p. 289.
12. John Rawls, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 31.
13. Ibid., pp. 29–31.
14. Ibid., p. 58.
15. Ibid., pp. xx, xxviii.
16. Ibid., p. 215.
17. Ibid., p. 254.
18. Ibid., p. 236.
19. The phrase is from Richard John Neuhaus, The Naked Public Square (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1984).
20. See Michael J. Sandel, Public Philosophy: Essays on Morality in Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), pp. 2–3.
21. Obama, “Call to Renewal Keynote Address.”
22. I take up the question of the moral status of the embryo in Michael J. Sandel, The Case Against Perfection (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), pp.102–28.
23. Connecticut (2008) and Iowa (2009) legalized same-sex marriage through rulings of their state supreme courts.
24. See Tamara Metz, “Why We Should Disestablish Marriage,” in Mary Lyndon Shan-ley, Just Marriage (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 99–108.
25. Michael Kinsley, “Abolish Marriage,” Washington Post, July 3, 2003, p. A23.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. Hillary Goodridge vs. Department of Public Health, Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, 440 Mass. 309 (2003).
29. Ibid., p. 312. The sentence quoted in the court’s opinion (“Our obligation is to define the liberty of all, not to mandate our own moral code”) is from Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003), the U.S. Supreme Court decision that overturned a Texas law banning homosexual practices. The Lawrence opinion, in turn, had quoted this sentence from Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992), a U.S. Supreme Court decision that dealt with abortion rights.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., p. 329.
32. Ibid., p. 320.
33. Ibid., p. 313.
34. Ibid., p. 342.
35. Ibid., p. 321.
36. Ibid., p. 322.
37. Ibid., p. 331.
38. Ibid., p. 333.
39. Robert F. Kennedy, “Remarks at the University of Kansas,” March 18, 1968, at Click here.
40. Ibid.
41. Barack Obama, “A New Era of Service,” University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, July 2, 2008, in Rocky Mountain News, July 2, 2008.
42. Gary Becker, “Sell the Right to Immigrate,” The Becker-Posner Blog, February 21, 2005, at Click here.
43. See Robert B. Reich, The Work of Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), pp. 249–315.