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Académie des sciences morales et politiques, 117, 118, 141, 149
Adam, Juliette Lamber, 140
Albert (19th-century French worker), 120
American Marxist-feminists, 36
American women: historians, 178–98; ideology of, 20
Analytic category, gender as, 41–50
Anarchists, and gender relationships, 23, 48
Anarchists of Andalusia (Kaplan), 23
Anglo-American school of psychoanalytic theory, 37
Antifeminism, 230n2; among historians, 55
Apocalyptic movements, 76, 77
Artistic creation, gender coding, 82–83
Association Fraternelle des Ouvrières Lingères, 105
Audiences for feminist history, 17
Authoritarian regimes, and gender relationships, 47
Benefit societies, female, 74
Berkshire Conference of Women
Bodily differences, 45; meanings for, 2
Bourgeoisie: feminism and, 79–80; 19th-century French views, 110–11
Building trades, 19th-century France, 95, 131, 132
Buret, Eugène, The Poverty of the Working Classes, 146
Canonical texts, analysis of, 69, 89
Capitalism, 86; feminist theories, 35; imagery of, 77; Marxist views, 73; 19th-century French views on, 108–11, 119, 126–27; and working-class politics, 76, 93; and working women, 74
Carlile, Richard, followers of, 78
Case studies in women’s history, 16, 30
Caucuses, of women professionals, 193
Causality, 4, 5, 10, 31, 42; in labor history, 45, 94; in theories of moral development, 40
Cavaignac, Louis Eugène, 117
CCWHP (Coordinating Committee on Women in the Historical Profession), 193
Childbirth, 144; and subordination of women, 33
Child development, and gender identity, 37
Child labor laws, 19th-century France, 118
Class, 30, 56–66; Chartist concept, 61; feminist histories, 19; formation, questions of, 88–90; and gender, 66, 79; Marxist concepts, 68, 69–70; masculine representation, 62–64, 72; 19th-century concepts, 48; and sexuality, 136; as sociological
category, 84; Thompson’s idea, 71–72, 88; universal category, 60
Class conflict, 19th-century France, 121
Class consciousness, 56, 70, 79, 88; of Chartism, 62; and domesticity, 74; Marxist concept, 68; questions of, 85; Thompson’s view, 76; of women, 64, 79
Coding, gender-related, 63; of politics, 83, 86; of social terminology, 48
Collective identity, 5, 6, 25, 60, 61, 87; of women historians, 193
Collective political action of female artisans, 73–75, 104–7
Committee of Women Historians (CWH), 185, 193
Competition from women, in labor movement, 64; male fears of, 149
Conflict: analysis of, 9; in history, 191; sexual, 85–86
Consciousness: of class, 56–57, 70–72, 76; post-structuralist views, 6; questions of, 87–88
Consciousness-raising, 34
Constituent Assembly, 19th-century France, 120
Consumption, and female sexuality, 143
Cooperative producer’s associations, 95, 103; female, 105–6
Coordinating Committee on Women in the Historical Profession (CCWHP), 193
Cross-collaboration of gender differences, 25, 32, 49, 94
Cry of a Wise Man; by a Woman, The (pamphlet), 207–208
Cultural determination of gender differences, 25, 32, 49, 94
Culture, female, 16, 195; feminist histories, 20
Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen of 1791 (de Gouges), 199, 207
de Condorcet, Marquis, 203
Deconstruction, 7–9, 41; of class formation process, 89–90; as a political strategy, 9, 176
Definitions, and differentiation, 59–60
Democratic centralism, 81
Democratic revolution, feminist histories, 19
Demographic crises, and gender relationships, 49
Derrida, Jacques, 4, 7, 41
Descriptive approach to history, 31
Descriptive usage of gender, 33
Differentiation: in conceptual languages, 45; and construction of meaning, 59–60; by gender, 60
Discourse: of Chartism, 66; of class formation, 88; of French labor history, 94–95; political, 56, 57; of political economy, 140–41, 153, 162–63; socialist-feminist, 71; theory of, 54, 67, 88
Division of labor, 6, 74; Marxist theories, 35; in 19th century, 65, 102, 148
Divorce, political theory, 47
Documents, assessment of, 8, 137–38
Domestic service, study of, 246n11
Economic conditions: 19th-century France, 119, 122–24; and morality, 147; and prostitution, 142; regulation of, 128
Economic history, feminist questions, 21–22
Economic policies, 19th-century France, 149
Economic systems: and class, 30; and gender relationships, 35
Education, and gender identity, 43
Egalitarianism, 172–73, 187; and sexual differences, 83
Eighteenth-century political theories, 76
Employers, 19th-century France, 127
Employment: in factories, 148–52; gender relationships, 49; 19th-century France, 131; sexual differences in, 169; social history, 21–22
Engels, Friedrich, Origins of the Family, 35
English Marxist-feminists, 36, 83–87
English women’s movement, feminist studies, 23
Enquête industrielle (1848; France), 119, 120–21
Entrepreneurs: 19th-century France, 123, 126–27; female, 134
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Sears case, 167–77
Equality: as absolute principle, 202–204; and difference, 196–98; during French Revolution, 202; of labor, 19th-century France, 100; and social history, 75
Experience, 4, 5; historical significance, 20, 29; and identity, 5, 34, 56; moral development theories, 40; of social class, 56, 61, 69–70, 89, 231n7; of women, 18, 20
Expressivity: and class, 79; and politics, 82
Family: Chartist organization, 65; as utopian theme, 93–94; working-class roles, 65
Family, 19th-century France, 108–11, 129–33, 146, 147, 154, 155, 158, 160; and moral conduct, 134
Family, relationships, 47; and gender identity, 38
Fathers, 38; economic value, 145
Female Reform Societies, 73
Feminine identity, 38; 19th-century work-identity, 104, 107
Feminine imagery, and social movements, 77
Feminism: categorization of women and, and group identifications, 207; and history, 3, 10–11; 19th-century views, 79–80, 104–8; and post-structuralism, 4; and socialist politics, 84–85
Feminist historians, 9, 18, 25, 29, 30, 33, 41, 53, 84–87; theoretical formulations, 30–41
Feminist politics, 6; in 1970s, 194
Feminization of labor, male fears of, 149
Firestone, Shulamith, 33–34
Foucault, Michel, x, 2, 4, 36, 59, 113; The History of Sexuality, 23, 26
France, 19th-century: statistical survey of labor, 113–38; views of women workers, 139–63; working-class movement, 93–112
France, Revolutionary, sexual discrimination, 23
France, suffrage movement, 19
French school of psychoanalytic theory, 37
Freud, Sigmund, theories of, 85–86
Fundamentalist religious groups, 43
Gender, ix–x, 2, 6, 25, 33; Chartism and, 63; and class, 50, 60, 66, 134; definitions, 42–45, 55; ideology of, 86–87; indeterminacy of, x, xi; International Criminal Court on, xv; French labor movement, 111–12; 19th-century distinctions, 102; relationships, questions of, 49–50; sex differences and, xi; use of term, 28–33
Gendered coding of social terminology, 48
Genealogy, Foucaultian perspective of, 85
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 44
Glaize, Auguste-Barthélemy, 139–40
Government investigations of labor, 19th-century France, 119, 122, 142
Hiring places, 19th-century France, 131
Historians, 7; American women, 178–98
History, 2–3, 8, 178–79; feminist rewritings, 17–18; “from below,” 69; and gender, 6–7; and identity, 83–84; new approach, 29–30; organization of knowledge, 9–10; scholarship, 244n2; study of, 8, 42, 182–83; teaching of, 181–83; of women, 15–27, 175, 192, 194–95
History of Sexuality, The (Foucault), 23, 25–26
Home-based work: and labor conflict, 96–102; women and, 103
Human agency, 42; in class formation, 70; Marxist concept, 68
Humanist politics, English, 68
Identity, 6, 25; categories of, 4, 62, 86; construction of, role of history, 83–84; and difference, 7; and experience, 5, 34, 56; female, as workers, 104, 106, 107, 108; 19th-century workers, 95, 96, 97; occupational, 179; political, 88; psychoanalytic theories, 37–39; of women historians, 193; of working class, 56, 69–70, 88
Industrial cities, morality in, 150–51
Industrialization: and morality, 153–62; and sexual difference, 159
Industry, 19th-century France, 119; views of, 126–27
Inequality: Chartist ideas, 61; end of, 67; historical treatment, 225n32. See also Equality
Interdisciplinary work, 8–9
International Criminal Court, xv
Islamic political theory, 46
Itinerant workers, 19th-century France, 132
Jameson, J. Franklin, 180, 181
Jewelry workers, 19th-century France, 130–31
Jones, Gareth Journal des Economistes, Le, 141, 143
Journal des Tailleurs, Le, 100
Journals, feminist, 219n2
Journeymen, in 19th century, 97–98
July Monarchy, 125; overthrow of, 120
Kaplan, Temma, Anarchists of Andalusia, 23
Kelly, Joan, 22; “The Doubled Vision of Feminist Theory,” 35
Kinship systems, and gender identity, 43–44
Knowledge, 2; and political identity, 6; production of, x, 7, 8–11; of sexual difference, 6; about women, 16
Labor historians, politics of, 67
Labor market: female, 19th-century French views, 129; and gender identity, 43
Labor movements: English, 62; French, 111–12, 113, 117; and masculine representation of class, 64–65; view of feminism, 79–80
Language: conceptual, differentiation in, 45; and gender identity, 37, 38–39, 42, and reality, 57; theories of, 53–56, 59
Languages of Class (Stedman Jones), 56–67
Legitimizing function of gender, 45
Liaisons dangereuses, xii
Literature, and study of history, 8
Locke, John, 46; theory of property, 62–63
Love, 19th-century French views, 109, 156
Luxembourg Commission, 120
Luxury, taste for, 135; and prostitution, 142–43
Making of the English Working Class, The (Thompson), 62, 68–90
Male domination, theories of, 33–34
Marginalization of women, 163; in American Historical Association, 184
Marriage: 19th-century French views, 110; political analogies, 46–47
Marx, Karl, and prostitution, 242n22
Marxism: class theories, 30; feminism and, 16, 33, 34–37; social history, 68; Thompson and, 69–70; and working-class history, 85
Masculine representation of class, 62–64, 72, 76
Masculinity, psychoanalytic theories, 38–39
Masons, 19th-century France, 132
Maternity, and morality, 153–54
Meaning, 7, 66; for bodily difference, 2; and class formation, 89; history and, 9, 42; post-structuralist views, 4–5; theories of construction, 53, 55, 59–60
Mechanization, 19th-century France, 148–52; and women’s employment, 154–55
Medical science, feminist views, 19
Medieval spirituality, study of, 45
Methodism, orthodox, 76, 77
Milliners, 19th-century France, 134
Ministry of labor, demand for, 120
Moniteur Industriel, Le, 117
Montagu, Mary Wortley, 28
Moralization of working classes, 152
Moreau, Jacques-Louis, 203
National Organization of Women, 163
National workshops, 19th-century France, 104–5, 120; protests at closing, 117
Natural laws, economic, 148
Natural rights, Chartism and, 62
Nazi Germany, gender studies, 23
New Left, 79; and feminism, 80; scholarship of, 69
Nuclear family, feminist views, 19
Objectification, sexual, of women, 34
Organisation du Travail, 119
Origins of the Family (Engels), 35
Orthodox Methodism, 76, 77
“Outside the Whale” (Thompson), 75, 82
Palmer, George Herbert, 189
Parent-Duchâlet, Alexandre, 114, 142
Paris, 19th-century garment trades, 95–112
Participatory democracy, 70; in Luddite movement, 81
Paternal responsibility, 161–62
Pelletier, Madeleine, 207
Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women, 1
Phallus, and gender identification, 38–39
Physical difference, historical theories, 34
Pinchbeck, Ivy, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 74
Pluralism: feminists and, 3; and power, 176, 196
Poetry, and politics, 81–82
Political behavior of women, 75–76, 79
Political history, 46; and gender difference, 25–26; questions of, 49–50
Politics, 5, 7, 87, 183; and deconstruction, 9; discourse of, 94–95; and domesticity, 74; feminist, 6, 10–11, 16; feminist studies, 23–24; and gender, 46–47, 48–49, 83; group identity, 201; Marxist concept, 68; and poetry, 81–82; post-structuralist, 9–10; of power relationships, 25–26; Thompson’s view, 76
Population statistics, 115
Positivism, feminists and, 3
Poverty of the Working Classes, The (Buret), 146
Power: and feminist politics, 6; and gender, 42–49; inequalities, 30; and knowledge, 2; political, 46–49, 57, 182, 183; statistical reports and, 115; studies of, 23–26; subjection of women, 34
Pressure group of women historians, 190
Producers, Statistique definition, 126–27
Production: masculine representation, 78; political economy and, 144–45; and sexual relationships, 35; and socioeconomic systems, 86
Productive activity, Statistique definition, 126
Productive relations: 19th-century France, 93; and class, 69–70
Property, of labor, Chartists’ idea, 62–63
Protectionism, 19th-century France, 133
Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, 140
Rationalism, 76, 79–80; and romanticism, 80, 82; women and, 86; of working class, 81
Reagan administration, and affirmative action, 172
Reality: and language, 57–58; 19th-century French, 136–37
Reform, social, 19th-century France, 118–19, 121
Regulation, 19th-century French views: of economy, 128; of workers, 132
Renaissance, feminist histories, 19
Representation: political, 115; systems of, 88
Repression, 7; 19th-century France, 132; and gender identity, 38–39
Reproduction: histories of, 16; as Marxist production, 35–36; and patriarchy, 33–34; political economy and, 144–45
Revolution, 70; and gender relationships, 49
Revolutionary politics, poetry and, 81
Rights of Man (Paine), 78
Robinson, Florence Porter, 189–90
Roles: gender, 19th-century France, 157–58; of women, 43, 65
Room of One’s Own, A (Woolf), 14
Saint-Simonians: garment workers, 95; and marriage, 110; representations of women, 109
Satan, masculine imagery, 77
Say, Jean-Baptiste Léon, 125
Sears, Roebuck & Company, sex-discrimination case, 167–77
Second Republic, France, 120, 125
Self, sense of (in object-relations theory), 38
Separate sphere, female, 20–21, 157–58, 195; 19th-century French views, 160; and women’s studies, 32
Servants, and prostitution, 241n12
Sex-discrimination case, 167–77
Sexual difference, x–xi, 4, 25; among historians, 179–98; and class, 60, 66, 88–89; and industrialization, 159; knowledge of, 2, 6; and meaning, 55; 19th-century French views, 154; political aspects, 167–68; questions of, 75, 169–77; social organization of, 2, 6, 10; in wages, 143–48
Sexual imagery, and social movements, 76–77
Single working women, 19th-century French views, 135–36
Small businesses, 19th-century France, 127
Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, 20
Social Contract (de Gouges), 199
Social disorders, and factory work, 149–50
Social history, 6, 8; and gender inequality, 4; of labor, feminist, 19; and women’s history, 21–22
Social investigators, 19th-century France, 118–19
Socialization, and sexual difference, 173–74
Social organization, theories of, 94
Social reality: and gender relationships, 35, 39, 83; and language, 56–58
Social relationships, and gender, 2, 42–43, 46
Social republic, 19th-century French ideas, 107
Society of Political Economy, France, 125, 141
Southcott, Joanna, 72, 76, 78; male followers, 86
Spirituality, medieval, study of, 45
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 45
State: radical views, 58; regulation of economy, 128
Stedman Jones, Gareth, Languages of Class, 56–67
Subject, historical, 183; Universal Man as, 189; women as, 9, 17, 18–22, 25, 38, 44, 194–95
Subordination of women: and economic systems, 35; patriarchal theories, 33; and political dominance, 47; sexual objectification, 34
Suffrage, universal, for men, 63, 120; exclusion of women, 106, 108
Suffrage movement, feminist histories, 19
Symbols and gender, 43, 49, 77
Textile industry, 19th-century France, 148
Textile workers, English women, 73
Theory: analysis of gender, 33; debates about, 41–42; epistemological, 4, 9–11, 53–55; feminist, 30–41; in history study, 3, 7–9; of language, 53–60; Marxist, 16, 30, 34–37, 69–70, 85; of patriarchy, 33–35; political, 34, 36, 62–63, 76, 128–29; post-structuralist, 1, 4–5, 7–9, 37, 44, 54, 85; psychoanalytic, 37–40, 85–86; utopian, 47–48, 65, 76–77, 80–81, 81, 84–85, 93, 110–11
Third Republic, France, 137
Thistlewood, Susan, 78–79
Thompson, E. P.: The Making of the English Working Class, 62, 68–90; “Outside the Whale,” 75, 82
Totem and Taboo (Freud), xiii
Trades, sexual discrimination, 242n35
Traité d’économie politique (J.-B. Say), 126, 128, 129
Tribune des Femmes, La, 95
Unconscious, 37, 85; and gender identity, 39
Union movements, in 19th century, 62; women in, 64–65
United States, women’s history, 18
Universality: of class, 60; of sexual difference, 40–41
Universal Man, 72, 183, 189; fiction of, 197; and particularity of women, 18; particularization of, 179, 196; women and, 24–25, 186–87, 192
Universal manhood suffrage, 63, 120; exclusion of women, 106, 108
University of California, 212
University of Michigan, 189
University of Wisconsin, 190
Urbanization, 19th-century France, 147
Victorian ideology of domesticity, 43, 157
Wages, and equality of women, 106–7
Wages, and prostitution, 142
War, gender relationships, 48
Washerwomen, 19th-century France, 131
Welfare state, gender relationships, 47
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 72, 78
Women: ahistorical notion, 40; as category, 87–88; Chartism and, 65; class representations, 63–64; exclusion from citizenship, 202–203, 207; historians, 178–98, 245n2, 248n37, 248n38, 248n42, 248–49n43; historical invisibility, 179; historical representation, 183; history of, 3, 15–27, 30–31, 196; and labor movement, 63; in The Making of the English Working Class, 72–79; 19th-century French views, 134–35, 144–48, 155; in protest movements, 95–96; representation, 72; as subject of history, 9, 17, 18–22, 25, 53, 84, 194–95; as wage earners, 21–22, 73, 104
“Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution (Pinchbeck), 74
Woolf, Virginia, A Room of One’s Own, 14
Work, and class consciousness, 79, 94
Workers, female, 19th-century France, 106, 140–63; in factories, 148–52; and morality, 162; protests, 117; representation of family, 109–10; single, 135–36; views of, 126–28, 130, 132, 134, 155–57; wages of, 143–46; work identity, 108, 123
Working class, 55, 60, 206, 240n82; Chartism and, 61, 66; coding of terms, 48; English, women in, 68–90; French, 19th century, 93–112, 118–19, 136; identity of, 88; masculine representation, 63–65, 72, 76; morality of, 150–52; politics of, 76, 81; questions of formation, 89–90; theories of, 56–67; women, political history, 19
Workplace: 19th-century French views, 131–32; division of labor, 74
Workshops, national, for women, 104–5
Writings on women’s issues, 19th-century France, 140