1. AN ISLAND BY ANY OTHER NAME
1. On June 9, 1948, an American bomber discharged its cargo over the islands. Some maintain that the plane purposefully targeted fishermen on the rocks and in boats, but others claim it was accidental. Casualty estimates range from around thirty to more than three hundred dead, and during August 2006 a South Korean research team fished bomb shards and unexploded ordinance out of the nearby waters (Korean Broadcasting System, August 2, 2006).
2. See coverage throughout February and March 2005 in the Asahi Shim-bun and the Hankyoreh, as well as in the English-language dailies the Japan Times and the Korea Herald.
3. Korea Herald, February 23, 2005.
4. On the president’s official homepage, “Dokdo: Historic Land” archives statements about Korea’s claims, http://english.president.go.kr/ (accessed April 10, 2006).
5. The most articulate example of this viewpoint is Victor D. Cha, Alignment Despite Antagonism: The United States–Korea–Japan Security Triangle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).
6. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” quoted in Moishe Postone, “The Holocaust and the Trajectory of the Twentieth Century,” in Moishe Postone and Eric Santner, eds., Catastrophe and Meaning: The Holocaust and the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), p. 103.
7. Harry Harootunian, “Japan’s Long Postwar: The Trick of Memory and the Ruse of History,” South Atlantic Quarterly 99, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 715–739, esp. 719–720.
8. See William Underwood, “Names, Bones, and Unpaid Wages: Reparations for Korean Forced Labor in Japan,” parts 1 and 2, posted to Japan Focus, September 2006, http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2219; see also Oguri Kohei’s brilliant 1984 film, Kayako no tame ni (For Kayako).
11. Amino wrote more than twenty books and one hundred articles, yet almost none has been translated and published in its entirety in English. In Japanese, among his most important essays is “Nihon Rettō to Sono Shūhen: ‘Nihon ron’ no Genzai” (The Japanese Archipelago and Its Surrounding Area), in Iwanami Kōza Nihon Tsushi, vol. 1, Nihon Rettō to Jinrui Shakai (The Japanese Archipelago and Its People and Society) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1993), pp. 5–37. See William Johnston’s thoughtful consideration of Amino’s life and work, “From Feudal Fishing Villages to an Archipelago’s People: The Historiographical Journey of Amino Yoshihiko,” Harvard University, Reischauer Institute Occasional Papers in Japanese Studies, March 2005.
14. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (New York: Verso, 2005), p. 218.
15. Google it. Naver it. Yafuu it. That’s the point.
17. The Japanese government’s Web site has been updated since and made more elaborate with new maps and charts. More polished and better designed, it nonetheless retains if not amplifies the same logic.
18. The Korean site has also been updated, yet it archives its position papers and official statements online. Search for July 18, 2005, position report.
19. To reiterate, the Japanese site has been updated, yet throughout these pages I quote from the 2005 version as it appeared then. The text of the new Japanese version (as well as its English translation page) includes minor differences in wording—in this case, in English, “an integral part” has become “an inherent part”—and in some cases the argument has been substantially lengthened. The line of reasoning, however, follows the contours of its earlier version. For its part, the Korean site archives its July 2005 paper.
20. Given that the Japanese government has clearly paid attention to this Web site since 2005 and has clearly spent a good amount of tax-payer money in revising it, its continued failure to mention Japan’s colonization of Korea between 1905 and 1945 is especially noticeable.
22. Japan’s updated Web site refers to American occupation rule of the area as “an interim cessation by Japan of the exercise of governmental or administrative authority.”
23. The updated Web site has dropped this sentence. The more recent version, accessed August 5, 2007, continues to blur the issue by justifying its position on two pieces of correspondence dating from July 1951 between Seoul and Washington. As with its earlier paper, however, the Japanese government has overlooked the inner workings of the moment, using the end product to define the historical process.
24. Although the revised Japanese Web site now quotes this SCAP order, it denies history to the moment by concluding that, since the San Francisco Treaty superseded the orders, “none of the treatment of Takeshima prior to the effect of that Treaty affects the attribution issue of Takeshima.”
25. United States, State Department Record Group 59, General Records of the Department of State, Records of the U.S. Department of State Relating to the Internal Affairs of Japan, 1945–1954, Washington, D.C., Diplomatic Branch, National Archives. Cited also in Cheong Sung-hwa, The Politics of Anti-Japanese Sentiment in Korea: Japanese-South Korean Relations under the American Occupation, 1945–1952 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1991), chap. 3.
26. Washington’s side of the 1951 correspondence that the government of Japan uses on its updated Web site quotes from this document.
27. William Sebald’s commentary on the sixth draft of the treaty quoted in Kajimura Hideki, “The Question of Takeshima/Tokdo,” in Chōsen Kenkyū, no. 182 (September 1978); reprinted in Korea Observer 28, no. 3 (Autumn 1997): 462, and in Kim Young Koo, A Pursuit of Truth in the Dokdo Island Issue: Letters to a Young Japanese Man (Seoul: Bub Young Sa, 2003), p. 5 n. 5. Professor Kim also has his own Web site devoted to the island debate, http://www.kocean.org. Recently, the South Korean newspaper Segye Ilbo reported on a 1954 report in which General James A. Van Fleet urged President Eisenhower to continue U.S. support of Japanese control of the disputed islands. The monumental “Report of the Van Fleet Mission to the Far East” is catalogued in the George C. Marshall Library and was declassified in 1986. As far as the islands are concerned, Van Fleet follows the contours of Sebald’s note and the San Francisco Treaty.
28. Korea Herald, March 2005.
29. Although the islands were in the American-occupied Korean zone, the occupation authorities issued no-go instructions only in Japanese to Japanese fishermen.
30. The Japanese government’s revised Web site (accessed August 5, 2007) newly addresses this thorn in a specially boxed explanation at the bottom of its page called “Self-Restraint on the Issue of Entering Takeshima from the ROK Mainland.” For some at least, however, its words would suggest more than diplomatic niceties: “Under the circumstances in which the illegal occupation of Takeshima by the ROK persisits [sic], the entry of Japanese nationals to Takeshima via the ROK mainland might give wrong impressions that the Japanese nationals admit that they are subject to the jurisdiction of the ROK in Takeshima and that they recognize the ROK’s sovereignty over Takeshima. The understanding and cooperation of the people of Japan on this point are therefore requested.”
32. Unlike the Takeshima site, the government of Japan has not substantially changed the Sea of Japan page.
34. There are some wonderful Dokdo songs, including “Dokdo Is Our Land” (Dokdo nun uri ttang imnida) linked to the Cyber Dokdo Web site under “Dokdo noreh.” If you do not read Korean, look for the button decorated with stereo equipment on the right-hand side, in the middle of the page, http://www.dokdo.go.kr (accessed March 10, 2006).
35. It is important to note that a political party that descended from former president Kim Dae-jung, the architect of current unification policy, was called the Uri Party.
36. Asahi Shimbun, January 8, 2007.
37. Asahi Shimbun, August 20, 2002.
2. APOLOGIES ALL AROUND
1. The note is catalogued among papers at Yale University’s Manuscripts and Archives collection: Horace Capron Papers, no. 128, Box 1, Folders 14, 15.
2. Norma Field, “War and Apology: Japan, Asia, the Fiftieth, and After,” in “The Comfort Women: Colonialism, War, and Sex,” ed. Choi Chungmoo, special issue, Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 5, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 5.
3. For a well-written example, see Funabashi Yoichi, “Kako Kokufuku Seisaku o Teisho Suru,”(A Proposal for a Policy to Overcome the Past), Sekai, no. 692 (2001): 48–62, esp. 50–51.
4. Asahi Shimbun, February 21, 1965.
5. September 6, 1984, Reception at the Imperial Palace, Tokyo. For a useful compendium, see Arai Shinichi and Iko Toshiya, “Compendium List of Apologies,” Sekai (World), no. 696 (December 2001): 178–196.
6. Michael Frayn’s elaboration of Willy Brandt’s gesture in his 2004 play, Democracy, raises still important questions of its motivation, timing, and reception.
7. In an essay discussing Korean soldiers in the Japanese Army, the wonderful social critic Utsumi Aiko observes that, “in exchange for not having to learn military patriotism, I also never learned about the history of Japan’s war of invasion.” See Utsumi Aiko, “Korean ‘Imperial Soldiers’: Remembering Colonialism and Crimes against Allied POWs,” in T. Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, Lisa Yoneyama, eds., Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), p. 200.
8. W. G. Sebald, On the Natural History of Destruction (New York: Penguin, 2004), p. 4. Robert Moeller has drawn important attention to some of the troubling consequences of the recent trend toward re-remembering the bombings of German cities. See Moeller, “On the History of Man-made Destruction: Loss, Death, Memory, and Germany in the Bombing War,” History Workshop Journal, no. 61 (Fall 2006): 103–134.
9. Sebald, On the Natural History of Destruction, p. 4.
12. John Treat, Writing Ground Zero: Japanese Literature and the Atomic Bomb (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
13. Article III of Ito Hirobumi, Commentaries on the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (1889), translated by Ito Miyoji (Tokyo: Chuo University Press, 1906), p. 2.
14. New York Times, January 1, 1946. This sentence is taken from a larger proclamation that historians call “Emperor Hirohito’s Rescript Disavowing His Own Divinity.” Japan’s Minister of Education at the time, Maeda Tamon, wrote the document and discussed working with Hirohito on it in a 1962 article in the Japanese magazine Bungei Shunjū. See Maeda Tamon, “Ningen sengen no uchi-soto,” (The Inside Story of the Emperor’s Declaration), Bungei Shunjû, March 1962.
15. General Douglas MacArthur to Chief of Staff Eisenhower, Telegram, January 25, 1946, collected in U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. 8, The Far East (Washington, D.C.: State Department/GPO, 1971), p. 395.
16. The most comprehensive discussion in English is Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: Harper’s, 2001).
17. See “What Do You Tell the Dead When You Lose?” in John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: Norton, 1999), chap. 9.
18. Former Japanese soldiers who have come forward during recent years to testify about the comfort woman system make this abundantly clear. See, for example, Matsui Minoru, Riben Guizi (Japanese Devils) (Tokyo: Directors System, 2001); Nancy Tong, In the Name of the Emperor (New York: Film News Now Foundation, 1996).
19. Jeffrey Olick, “Genre Memories and Memory Genres: A Dialogical Analysis of May 8, 1945 Commemorations in the Federal Republic of Germany,” American Sociological 64 (1999): 381–402, quote at 382.
20. Asahi Shimbun, December 6, 2004.
21. Asahi Shimbun, March 9, 2006.
22. Asahi Shimbun, December 17, 2006.
23. Arai and Iko, “Compendium List of Apologies,” p. 194.
24. Only the rarest of Japanese politicians has publicly noticed that the rhetoric of “sorrow and regret” itself sustains the problems. On the eve of the inauguration of South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun, Japanese parliamentarian Okazaki Tomoko visited Seoul to speak with him. Later, she informed reporters that she “requested (President-elect) Roh to take the [comfort women] issue seriously. As Roh emphasizes a ‘future-oriented’ relationship, I pointed out that the future can only begin after clearing up the past.” Quoted in the Korea Herald, February 13, 2003.
25. The tragic June 1948 bombing by the U.S. Air Force of the Korean fishermen on the islands contested between Japan and South Korea happened because neither the U.S. military authority in Korea nor the Koreans themselves understood the details of MacArthur’s fishing guidelines for Japan.
26. On July 27, 1953, delegates met at Panmunjom to formalize the armistice. Nam Il, a North Korean general, and William K. Harrison Jr., Lieutenant General of the U.S. Army, signed the paper. Although Harrison signed on behalf of the United Nations, the Americans took charge of the South’s decision.
27. United Nations, Treaty Series: Treaties and International Agreements Registered or Filed and Recorded with the Secretariat of the United Nations, Vol. 583 (New York: United Nations Publications, 1966).
28. In May 1964, for example, the National Security Council staff member Robert Komer wrote to the National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy: “We’re still spending over $300 million a year on 20 million ROKs with really no end in sight. So we’ve got to find someone to share the long-term burden, and it’s logically the Japs.” Catalogued in Karen L. Gatz, ed., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, Vol. 29, pt. 1, Korea (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2000), p. 760.
29. For a compelling discussion of Japan’s formula for redress in Southeast Asia, see Sayuri Shimizu, Creating a People of Plenty: The United States and Japan’s Economic Alternatives, 1950–1960 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2001), esp. chap. 4.
30. In Gatz, Foreign Relations of the United States, No. 349, Reischauer to Rusk, September 8, 1964, p. 770.
31. Ibid., No. 353, Reischauer to Rusk, November 21, 1964, p. 778.
32. Asahi Shimbun, February 17, 1965, front page, evening edition.
34. In Gatz, Foreign Relations of the United States, No. 357, Thomson to Mc-George Bundy, February 20, 1965, p. 784.
35. Okuda Masanori, “Sengo Hosho Saiban no Doko to Rippoteki Kaiketsu,” (Movements in Postwar Compensation Decisions and Their Legal Interpretations), in Chi Myon Gwan, Igarashi Masahiro, et al., Nikkan no Sogo Rikai to Sengo Hosho (New Japan-Korea Partnership and Postwar Compensation) (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 2002), pp. 131–146, and especially the useful chronological chart of claims against Japan from 1990 to the present, pp. 147–159.
36. See coverage in Asahi Shimbun, October 9, 1998; Chosun Ilbo, October 9,1998; and the New York Times, October 9, 1998. The full text is in Arai and Iko, “Compendium List of Aplogies,” p. 195; for the English translation, see http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asiapaci/korea/joint9810.html (accessed January 10, 2007).
37. During preparation for the most recent normalization talks in August 2002, North Korea’s demands for apology and reparations emerged as a chief obstacle. See Asahi Shimbun, August 26, 2002.
38. Michael Robinson has written extensively on Japan’s self-consciously launched era of “cultural sharing” during its colonial rule of Korea. See Robinson, “Broadcasting, Cultural Hegemony, and Colonial Modernity in Korea, 1924–1945,” in Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson, eds., Colonial Modernity in Korea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 52–69.
39. See Koichi Iwabuchi’s fascinating analysis of this moment as a “Return to Asia” in “Nostalgia for a (Different) Asian Modernity: Media Consumption of ‘Asia’ in Japan,” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 10, no. 3 (Winter 2002): 547–573.
40. Google him. There are more than a million sites in English alone.
41. Rakuen Korea, Inc., was the first to realize the trend as it was one of the only registered companies that introduced Japanese women and South Korean men when the “Yon-sama” craze first broke. The company reported eighty requests in October 2003 and seventeen hundred in April 2004, with the spike coming right after the mega-star visited Japan. See Sakagami Yasuko’s online reports on the Nipponia Web site among others.
42. According to the Korean National Tourist Organization, the number of Japanese tourists to Chunchon jumped from 40,000 to 140,000 in a single year.
44. Yamano Sharin, Manga Kenkanryū (Hating the Korean Wave) (Tokyo: Shinyusha, 2005).
45. Asahi Shimbun, September 17, 2002.
47. Charles Jenkins published his story in Japanese in 2005 and in Korean the following year. There is still no English translation of his story, titled To Tell the Truth. See Jenkins, Kokuhaku (Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 2005). A Web site called Black Ship features a number of photos from the book as well as sections in English translation, http://www.imbermedia.net/politics/en/ (accessed January 20, 2007).
48. See philosopher Takahashi Tetsuya’s powerful comment in “Koreans under Assault from the Japanese Right,” Hankyoreh, March 12, 2007.
49. A year after the senior foreign ministry official Tanaka Hitoshi paved the way for Koizumi’s historic visit to Pyongyang, members of a group known as “The Brigade for Conquering North Korea” hurled firebombs at his house to protest his “treacherous” acts. Tanaka has since been forced out of public service. See Tessa Morris-Suzuki’s succinct summary of the September 2003 attack, “When Is a Terrorist Not a Terrorist?” posted to Japan Focus, October 10, 2003, http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/1838.
50. Kobayashi Yoshinori, SensŌron (On War) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1998); Kobayashi Yoshinori, SensŌron 2 (On War 2) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 2001). For a thoughtful discussion, see Rebecca Clifford, “Cleansing History, Cleansing Japan: Kobayashi Yoshinori’s Analects of War and Japan’s Revisionist Revival,” in Oxford University’s Nissan Occasional Papers Series, 2004.
51. Kobayashi, SensŌron, p. 19.
52. Ibid., pp. 196–197; Kobayashi, SensŌron 2, p. 91.
53. One group led by Umeno Masanobu and Sawada Tatsuo protested their opposition to Kobayashi in a volume entitled SensŌron/Mosoron (Tokyo: Kyoiku Shiryo Shuppankai, 1999); see also a series of articles on SensŌron published in Sensō Sekinin Kenkyū 27 (spring 2000): 35–57.
54. Bill O’Reilly, Culture Warrior (New York: Broadway, 2006); see also Jacob Heilbrunn’s review in the New York Times Book Review, January 14, 2007.
55. Kobayashi blends well-known photographs of actual events with his own drawing to heighten their impact—or to completely change the story—and Bill O’Reilly launches his attack on “secular-progressive fanatics” by beginning his book with an imagined State of the Union Address in 2020 from the equally fantastical president of the United States, Gloria Hernandez. See O’Reilly, Culture Warrior, pp. 9–13.
56. Kobayashi, SensŌron, p. 38.
57. Kobayashi, SensŌron 2, pp. 9–31.
60. Kato Kyoko, “Fuin sareta Shosho Soko o Yomitoku,” Bungei Shunjū (July 2003): 94–113.
62. Quoted in ibid., p. 95.
63. The South Korean journalist Koh Sung-il noted that the October 2003 issue of Bungei Shunjū continues in this vein, leading him to describe a resurgence of support for Hirohito in Japan. See “Muneh Chunju, ‘Hirohito Shideh’ Chondanghwa Tukchip,” Yonhap Wire Service, September 17, 2003. Arguably, this find is of a piece with the discovery of a document that appeared in July 2006 expressing the emperor’s apparent misgivings about including war criminals in Japan’s Yasukuni Shrine as well as the March 2007 discovery of the diary of the emperor’s wartime chamberlain which suggests that the emperor did not want to fight a war with China because he feared Russia.
3. ILLEGAL JAPAN
1. AP Wire Service, June 17, 2000.
2. See Bruce Cumings’s enduring analysis in The Origins of the Korean War: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1981), esp. chaps. 3 and 4.
3. Cumings, The Origins of the Korean War, p. 108.
5. Cumings has long stressed that “Stalin permitted joint action in a region where he had the power to take control” (Origins, p. 121). See also historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa’s more recent discussion in Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005).
6. See Charles Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004).
7. The Korean writer Yi Sang’s 1936 story, “Wings,” most famously describes Koreans’ inability to protest Japanese rule as well as what he viewed as a widespread, resigned collaboration with it. The story ends with the young Korean male protagonist committing suicide by leaping off a Japanese department store in downtown colonized Seoul.
8. Edwin Pauley, Report on Japanese Reparations to the President of the United States, November 1945 to April 1, 1946 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1948), p. 12. The value of assets in the northern part of the country was higher than the south—again a point that is difficult to conceive today—because the Japanese had targeted their heavy industries there while maintaining the south in a state of underdevelopment as its “rice basket.”
9. Begin with Keith Howard, ed., True Stories of the Korean Comfort Women (London: Cassell, 1996).
10. For elaboration, see my book, Japan’s Colonization of Korea: Discourse and Power (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005).
11. Catalogued in Peter Lee, ed., Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 2:350–351.
12. Ho Wi’s demands are also published in Lee, Sourcebook, pp. 406–407.
13. The best treatment in English of this issue is Andre Schmid, Korea between Empires, 1895–1919 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
14. See Second Exhibition Hall on their Web site, which offers a virtual tour in Korean, Japanese, English, and Chinese, http://www.independence.or.kr (accessed June 12, 2006).
15. An excellent resource is the Supreme Commander for Allied Powers, General Headquarters, Statistics and Reports Section, History of the Non-Military Activities of the Occupation of Japan (Tokyo: SCAP, 1952).
16. Chosun Ilbo, June 8, 1949 (also quoted in Cheong, The Politics of Anti-Japanese Sentiment in South Korea, p. 26.).
17. In English, one of the best windows on this moment is Cho Chong-rae’s novel, Playing with Fire, trans. Chun Kyung-ja, East Asian series (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997).
18. “The Korean Government’s Refutation of the Japanese Government’s Views Concerning Dokdo (‘Takeshima’) Dated July 13, 1953,” included on Mark S. Lovmo’s magnificent Web site, http://www.geocities.com/mlovmo (accessed March 10, 2006).
19. Ironically, today even South Korea’s government is nervous about this state of amnesia and is backing a project to construct a “Hall of Democracy” to ensure that the nation’s young learn at least an officially approved version of the recent past.
20. Korea Herald, January 2007.
21. Presidential Truth Commission on Suspicious Deaths of the Republic of Korea (First Term Report, 10.2000–10.2002), A Hard Journey to Justice (Seoul: Samin Books, 2004).
23. Han Sang-bum, “Head Commissioner’s Message,” in Hard Journey to Justice, p. 17.
24. Sixty-five percent of the “suspicious deaths” the commission investigated occurred under Chun Doo-hwan’s regime in the 1980s.
25. Choi In-Hoon, “The Voice of the Governor General,” in Chun Kyung-Ja, trans. and comp., The Voice of the Governor General and Other Stories of Modern Korea (Norwalk, Conn.: EastBridge, 2002), pp. 165–185.
26. Sarah Soh has quite a number of thoughtful essays as well as an excellent manuscript on the history of the comfort women and the problems in their quest for apology and reparations. Begin with Soh, “Japan’s Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors,” available online, http://www.icasinc.org/lectures/soh3.html (accessed June 5, 2006).
29. New York Times, March 6, 2007.
30. For a moving history of the Wednesday Demonstration protests in front of the Japanese Embassy in Seoul, which reached its seven hundredth gathering on March 15, 2006, see http://www.womenandwar.net/.
31. The Japanese journalist Senda Kako was one of the pioneering forces, and her 1992 synopsis of her efforts is an excellent account of her own work as well as collaboration with others. See Senda, Jugun Ianfu to Tennō (Comfort Women and the Emperor) (Kyoto: Kamogawa Shuppan, 1992).
33. Susan Moeller, Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War, and Death (New York: Routledge, 1999).
34. The unstructured dialogue of Byun Kyung-joo’s monumental documentary trilogy, The Murmuring (1995), Habitual Sadness (1997), and My Own Breathing (1999), drives this powerfully home.
35. Kim Dae-jung and Okamoto Atsushi, “Kokuminteki Koryu to Yuko no Jidai o,” (Toward a More Citizen-Oriented Pattern of Exchange) in Sekai, no. 653 (1998): 61.
36. The historian William Underwood doggedly chronicles the Chinese forced labor cases, with numerous reports posted to japanfocus.org.
37. The journalist Kinue Tokudome passionately follows this issue regarding American POWs, the only group likely to make any progress with this law. Among her many articles and books, see “POW Forced Labor Lawsuits Against Japanese Companies,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper No. 82, November 2001, and published online at http://www.jpri.org/publications/workingpapers/wp82.html (accessed February 10, 2007).
38. Hwang Geum Joo et al. v. Japan, U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, Case No. 00–CV-2233.
39. Hwang Geum Joo et al. v. Japan, United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, Case No. 01–7169.
40. Che 6–7 Ch’a Han-Il Huitam; Ch’onggugwon Kwanryon Munsuh (Seoul: Han’guk Ch’ulpanwon, 2005).
4. HISTORY OUT OF BOUNDS
1. See Donga Ilbo and the Korea Herald, November 28, 2002.
3. One particularly enterprising South Korean nongovernmental organization (NGO) recorded an excellent DVD in 2002 chronicling South Korea’s military involvement in the Vietnam War. In addition to some astonishing footage, the disc contains numerous oral testimonies describing atrocities that Koreans committed against Vietnamese, as well as efforts to promote reconciliation today. See Institute of Democracy and Society/ Cyber NGO Resource Center, Mian haeyo, Pet’tunam: Chonchaeng ui kiok uro ssunun p’yonghwa iyagi, Pet’tunamjon tasibogi (We’re Sorry, Vietnam: Another Look at the Vietnam War, The Story of Peace through Memories of War) (Seoul, 2002), http://www.demos.or.kr.
4. An excellent book is available in Korean and Japanese describing select incidents involving South Korean civilians and U.S. soldiers since 1950. See From Nogunri to Maehyangri Publication Committee, Nogunri e su Maehyangri kkaji (Seoul: Kippun Jayu, 2001) (the Japanese translation is published by the Osaka branch of Deep Freedom, 2002).
5. New York Times, January 12, 2001; Washington Post, January 12, 2001. Also, the Public Broadcasting Service has a highly useful online archive of events, as well as a chronicle of the coverage of No Gun Ri and links to documents, http://www.pbs.org.
6. Less than two months later, on January 26, 2003, a U.S. Air Force spy plane flying a reconnaissance mission crashed into the town of Hwasung twenty miles south of Seoul. No one died, and yet Brigadier General Mark G. Beesley, vice commander of the Seventh Air Force, immediately visited the four mildly injured civilians, because, as journalist Don Kirk explained, the “U.S. military command [is] wary of providing more ammunition for foes of American troop presence [in South Korea], [and Beesley] promptly expressed sorrow for the accident” (New York Times, January 27, 2003).
7. For coverage of the event and the history of the developing story, see Charles Hanley, Sang-hun Choe, and Martha Mendoza, The Bridge at No Gun Ri: A Hidden Nightmare of the Korean War (New York: Henry Holt, 2001).
8. William Cohen to Louis Caldera, September 30, 1999, catalogued as Enclosure 1, in Chapter 1, United States Army, Report of the No Gun Ri Review (January 2001). The Report is available in its entirety at http://www.army.mil/nogunri/ (accessed October 1, 2006).
9. William Cohen to Louis Caldera, October 15, 1999, Enclosure 2, Chapter 1, in Report.
10. Review members are listed in Enclosure 5, Chapter 1, in Report.
11. Chapter 5, Section 8, in Report.
12. Chapter 5, Section 5, in Report,
13. AP Wire Service, January 13, 2001.
15. Korea Times, September 27, 2006.
16. Chapter 2, Section 2, in Report.
17. See Sahr Conway-Lanz, Collateral Damage: Americans, Noncombatant Immunity, and Atrocity after World War II (New York: Routledge, 2006).
18. See Kai Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima’s Shadows: Writings on the Denial of History and the Smithsonian Controversy (New York: Pamphleteer’s Press, 1998); see also Robert Jay Lifton and Greg Mitchell, Hiroshima in America: A Half Century of Denial (New York: Harper Perennial, 1996).
19. In English, begin with Thomas Havens, Valley of Darkness: Japanese People and World War II (New York: Norton, 1978).
20. Wilfred Burchett, Shadows of Hiroshima (London: Verso, 1983), p. 25.
21. “The Atomic Plague,” Daily Express, September 5, 1945, p. 1; see Paul Boyer, By the Bombs Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1985); see also Beverley Deepe Keever, News Zero (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 2004).
22. The September 4 evening editions of some American newspapers such as the Boston Globe carried stories, including the account of the sick by the United Press correspondent James McGlincy. Yet, as a matter of record, and because of all sorts of imperial legacies such as time zones, the London paper counts as the “first.”
23. “The Atomic Plague,” Daily Express, September 5, 1945. See also Burchett, Shadows, p. 34.
25. Burchett, Shadows, p. 30
27. New York Times, September 5, 1945, “Visit to Hiroshima Proves It World’s Most Damaged City,” p. 1. See also McGlincy’s continued coverage in the Boston Globe.
28. The journalist Amy Goodman has drawn attention to this moment in her online essay published with David Goodman, August 10, 2004 “Hiroshima Cover-up: How the War Department’s Timesman Won a Pulitzer,” http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0810-01.htm.
29. Burchett, Shadows, p. 41.
30. New York Times, September 5, 1945.
31. Keever, News Zero, p. 78
32. Goodman, “Hiroshima Cover-up.”
33. Keever, News Zero, p. 78.
34. New York Times, September 12, 1945.
35. Historian Barton J. Bernstein’s brief discussion of the numbers game involved in projecting American casualty figures should be required reading for all. See Bernstein, “A Post-War Myth: 500,000 U.S. Lives Saved,” in Bird and Lifschultz, Hiroshima’s Shadows, pp. 130–134. Bernstein has even located one document in army archives from July 1945 that places the estimate as low as 20,000.
36. John Hersey, Hiroshima (New York: Knopf, 1946).
37. See James Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995).
38. See Barton Bernstein, “Seizing the Contested Terrain of Early Nuclear History,” in Bird and Lifschultz, Hiroshima’s Shadows, pp. 163–196.
39. Conant to Bundy (September 23, 1946), Conant Presidential Papers, quoted in Barton J. Bernstein, “Seizing the Contested Terrain of Early Nuclear History,” in Kay Bird and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds., Hiroshima’s Shadows: Writings on the Denial of History and the Smithsonian Controversy (Stony Creek, Conn.: The Pamphleteer’s Press, 1998), p. 166.
40. See Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York: Vintage, 2006), chaps. 22, 23.
41. Reprinted in Bird and Lifschultz, Shadows, pp. 197–210.
42. Quoted in Alfred Steinberg, The Man from Missouri: The Life and Times of Harry S. Truman (New York: Putnam’s, 1962), p. 259.
43. Kobayashi Masaki, Tokyo Saiban (International Military Tribunal for the Far East) (1983) (Released on DVD, Tokyo: Kodansha, 2000), Disc 1; T1: 47 (1:12–1:18).
44. In Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, pp. 438–453.
45. Holly Barker, Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-Nuclear, Post-Colonial World (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004), p. xiii.
46. Robert Stone, Radio Bikini: The Most Terrifying and Unbelievable Story of the Nuclear Age (Released on DVD by New Video Group, 2003).
47. Donald F. McHenry, Micronesia: Trust Betrayed (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1975); see also Jane Dibblin, Day of Two Suns: U.S. Nuclear Testing and the Pacific Islanders (New York: New Amsterdam Books, 1990).
48. The “tuna panic,” as it was known temporarily, devastated Japan’s fishing industry. Prices plummeted as Japanese stopped eating fish entirely, and fishermen across the country were impoverished overnight.
49. See http://www.atomicbombmuseum.org (accessed October 20, 2006). See also George Totten and Tamio Kawakami, “Gensuikyo and the Peace Movement in Japan,” Asian Survey 4 (May 1964): 833–841.
50. For the significance of such women-driven political momentum, see Robin LeBlanc, Bicycle Citizens: The Political World of the Japanese Housewife (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
51. Letter from John M. Allison to Shigemitsu Mamoru, January 4, 1955, Tokyo, collected at the Archives of the Foreign Ministry, Tokyo, Japan (reel A-1 01–419).
52. Hirano Keiji, Chugoku Shimbun Peace News, Kyodo Wire Service, February 29, 2004.
53. AP Wire Service, April 15, 1995.
54. On May 16, 1997, Clinton apologized to five of the eight remaining survivors of a forty-eight-year-long study that withheld treatment; during his March 1998 trip to Uganda, Clinton made the now famous speech, which, as Alfred Brophy argued subsequently, necessitated President George W. Bush’s visit during his first term; on March 10, 1999, Clinton addressed the issue of the death squads and the massacres of Mayans. See Alfred Brophy, Reparations: Pro and Con (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).