Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Douglas S. Massey and Karen A. Pren, “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America,” Population and Development Review 38, no. 1 (March 2012): 6–7, http://wws.princeton.edu/coverstories/Massey_LatinAmericaImmigrationSurge/Unintended-Consequences.pdf.

2. See Thomas L. Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2005); reissued as The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (New York: Picador, 2007).

3. This concept has been suggested by a number of authors and organizations; see, for example, Joseph Nevins, Dying to Live: A Story of US Immigration in an Age of Global Apartheid (San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2008).

4. Evan Pellegrino, “Factory Justice? An Effort to Prosecute Illegal Immigrants Is Expensive and Time-Consuming—but Proponents Say It’s Worthwhile,” Tucson Weekly, February 11, 2010.

5. The differential was sometimes enforced by paying Mexicans in silver and “white men” in more valuable gold currency. See Rachel St. John, Line in the Sand: A History of the Western US-Mexico Border (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 72.

6. Charles C. Teague, “A Statement on Mexican Immigration,” Saturday Evening Post (March 10, 1928), reproduced in Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006), 26.

7. Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 18.

8. See Frank Bardacke, Trampling Out the Vintage: Cesar Chavez and the Two Souls of the United Farm Workers (New York: Verso, 2012), chap. 24, “The Wet Line.”

9. “California’s 1971 Employer Sanctions Law,” Rural Migration News 1, no. 3 (July 1995), http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=62_0_4_0.

10. Peter Brownell, “The Declining Enforcement of Employer Sanctions,” Migration Information Source, September 2005, http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus/display.cfm?ID=332.

11. Elizabeth Llorente, “Immigration Summit: Are Undocumented Workers Really Taking ‘American’ Jobs?” Fox News Latino, June 12, 2012, http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/politics/2012/06/12/immigration-summit-are-undoc-workers-really-taking-american-jobs/.

12. United States Sentencing Commission, “Overview of Federal Criminal Cases: Fiscal Year 2011,” September 2012, 4, http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Publications/2012/FY11_Overview_Federal_Criminal_Cases.pdf. The federal government and most other official sources use the term Hispanic to categorize peoples of Latin American or Spanish descent. Many Latin Americans find the term awkward or offensive, since it erases the indigenous and African populations of Latin America and creates a meaningless sociological category that lumps Spanish-speaking Latin Americans with European Spaniards. Many Latino activists prefer the term Latino as more inclusive of Latin Americans of all ethnicities. In this book, I use the term “Hispanic” when referring to government or other sources that use that term; otherwise, I use “Latino.”

13. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010), 2.

14. Ibid., 13.

15. Ibid., 4.

16. See ibid., 148. Alexander is quoting Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 90.

17. Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 139. She is quoting Webb Hubbell, “The Mark of Cain,” San Francisco Chronicle, June 10, 2001; Nora Demleitner, “Preventing Internal Exile: The Need for Restrictions on Collateral Sentencing and Consequences,” Stanford Law and Policy Review 11, no.1 (1999): 153–63.

18. Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 194.

19. See Eric Schlosser, “The Prison-Industrial Complex,” Atlantic, December 1998.

20. Manuel D. Vargas, “Immigration Consequences of New York Criminal Convictions,” November 8, 2011, citing Padilla v. Kentucky, 130 S. Ct. 1473, 1478 (2010). http://blogs.law.columbia.edu/4cs/immigration/.

21. Nicholas De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 214.

CHAPTER 1: WHERE DID ILLEGALITY COME FROM?

1. Anatole France, The Red Lily (Winifred Stephens, trans.), in Anatole France, Works, in an English Translation, ed. Frederic Chapman (London: John Lane, Bodley Head, 1916), 95.

2. “In European eyes most non-Europeans, and nearly all non-Christians, including such ‘advanced’ peoples as the Turks, were classified as ‘barbarians,’” writes Anthony Pagden in The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 13–14.

3. Quoted in Steven Stoll, The Great Delusion: A Mad Inventor, Death in the Tropics, and the Utopian Origins of Economic Growth (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008), 113.

4. Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: An Apache Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: Penguin, 2008), 109.

5. Speech at Columbia University, April 15, 1907. Quoted in Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, 1492–Present (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 362.

6. Teemu Ruskola, “Canton Is Not Boston: The Invention of American Imperial Sovereignty,” American Quarterly 57, no. 3 (September 2005): 860. On the general relationship between US expansion, citizenship, and sovereignty during this period, see also Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000).

7. Jared Diamond, The World Until Yesterday: What Can We Learn from Traditional Societies? (New York: Viking, 2012), 37.

8. See María Elena Martínez, Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza de Sangre, Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexico (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008).

9. See Margaret R. Greer, Walter D. Mignolo, and Maureen Quilligan, eds., Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourses of Religious and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

10. Aziz Rana, The Two Faces of American Freedom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 30.

11. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vintage, 1999), 167.

12. Rana, The Two Faces of American Freedom, 47.

13. Anderson argues, as others have, that “in Western Europe the eighteenth century marks not only the dawn of the age of nationalism but the dusk of religious modes of thought.” Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, new ed. (New York: Verso, 2006), 11.

14. John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1, 3. He was playing with sociologist Max Weber’s oft-quoted definition of a state as having a “monopoly on the use of violence.”

15. See James Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2005).

16. “Under the 1802 Naturalization Act, which remained in force for most of the nineteenth century, to gain formal citizenship foreigners merely had to reside in the country for five years, declare their intent to be naturalized at least three years before admission to citizenship (but at any point after residence), pledge an oath of allegiance to the federal Constitution, and give minimal proof of good character. Critically, this process was available only to ‘free white persons’” (Rana, The Two Faces of American Freedom, 115–16). Women, too, were nonvoting citizens. “Rather than a right that attended to all subjects of a sovereign power, suffrage was granted only to specific categories of citizens” (229).

17. Ibid., 237.

18. Ibid., 239.

19. Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 9.

20. Ibid., 7–8.

21. Helen B. Marrow, New Destination Dreaming: Immigration, Race, and Legal Status in the Rural American South (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 253.

22. Ibid., 244.

23. Jacqueline Stevens, States without Nations: Citizenship for Mortals (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 52–53.

24. Ibid., 51. See also Joseph Nevins, Dying to Live: A Story of US Immigration in an Age of Global Apartheid (San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2008).

25. See James C. Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009).

26. Rana, The Two Faces of American Freedom, 188.

27. Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 207. She is citing Loïc Wacquant, “From Slavery to Mass Incarceration: Rethinking the ‘Race Question’ in the United States,” New Left Review, 2nd series, no. 13 (February 2002): 53.

28. Nicolas De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Duke University Press, 2005), 123.

CHAPTER 2: CHOOSING TO BE UNDOCUMENTED

1. The admonition that the undocumented should “do it the right way” is extraordinarily common in anti-immigrant discourse. See, for example, Mike Huckabee’s statement at On the Issues, http://www.ontheissues.org/celeb/Mike_Huckabee_Immigration.htm.

2. See Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the US Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 26–27.

3. US, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Immigration Laws and Regulations of July 1, 1907, 14.

4. Marian L. Smith, “INS-US Immigration and Naturalization Service History,” United States Citizenship, http://www.uscitizenship.info/ins-usimmigration-insoverview.html. See also Mae Ngai, “The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921–1965,” Law and History Review 21, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 69–107.

5. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Labor Statistics (September 1931), 281.

6. Daniel Kanstroom, Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 165.

7. US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Labor Statistics, 249.

8. His story is recounted on the National Park Service Ellis Island website, http://www.nps.gov/elis/historyculture/upload/Irving-Berlin.pdf.

9. Mae Ngai, “How Grandma Got Legal,” Los Angeles Times, May 16, 2006.

10. Ngai, “The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien.”

11. Ibid., 107.

12. Ngai, “How Grandma Got Legal.”

13. Donna Gabaccia, “Great Migration Debates: Keywords in Historical Perspective,” in Social Science Research Council, Border Battles: The US Immigration Debates, 2006, http://borderbattles.ssrc.org/Gabaccia/index1.html.

14. Michael Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Bryan Baker, “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2011,” Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Population Estimates, March 2012.

15. Ibid.

16. Douglas S. Massey and Karen A. Pren, “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America,” Population and Development Review 38, no. 1 (March 2012): 25, 23, http://wws.princeton.edu/coverstories/Massey_LatinAmericaImmigrationSurge/Unintended-Consequences.pdf.

17. Ibid., 17. See also Hoefer, Rytina, and Baker, “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States.”

18. Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 24.

19. Jeffrey Passel and D’Vera Cohn, “Unauthorized Immigrant Population: National and State Trends, 2010,” part II, Pew Hispanic Center, February 1, 2011, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2011/02/01/ii-current-estimates-and-trends/.

20. Jeffrey Passel, D’Vera Cohn, and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero—and Perhaps Less,” Pew Hispanic Center, April 23, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/vi-characteristics-of-mexican-born-immigrants-living-in-the-u-s/.

21. Jennifer Cairns, Francis Smart, William Kandel, and Steven Zahniser, “Agricultural Employment Patterns of Immigrant Workers in the United States,” Selected paper prepared for presentation at the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association 2010, AAEA, CAES, and WAEA Joint Annual Meeting, Denver, July 25–27, 2010, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/61327/2/5_2_2010.pdf.

22. Victor S. Clark, “Mexican Labor in the United States,” in US Bureau of Labor, Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (1908): 466.

23. Ibid., 485.

24. Gilbert G. Gonzalez, “Mexican Labor Migration, 1876–1924,” in Beyond La Frontera: The History of Mexico-US Migration, ed. Mark Overmyer-Velázquez (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 31. A few decades later, railroads would similarly structure the Great Migration of African Americans to the North. Rail lines led blacks from “Tennessee, Alabama, western Georgia, or the Florida panhandle” to Detroit. The Illinois Central took “upward of a million colored people from the Deep South up the country’s central artery . . . and into a new world called the Midwest . . . along with the Atlantic Coast line and Seaboard Air Line railroads, running between Florida and New York, and the Southern Pacific, connecting Texas and California,” they became “the historic means of escape, the Overground Railroad for slavery’s grandchildren.” After the Civil War, “the railroad laid or acquired tracks into the more isolated precincts of Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Louisiana and unwittingly made the North a more accessible prospect for black southerners desperate to escape.” See also Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Vintage, 2010), 178, 190, 191.

25. Gonzalez, “Mexican Labor Migration,” 33.

26. Eric V. Meeks, Border Citizens: The Making of Indians, Mexicans, and Anglos in Arizona (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007), 27.

27. Clark, “Mexican Labor in the United States,” 469–70.

28. Ibid., 471.

29. Paul S. Taylor, A Spanish-Mexican Peasant Community: Arandas in Jalisco, Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933), 13.

30. Ibid., 35.

31. Ibid., 36.

32. Ibid., 45.

33. Gonzalez, “Mexican Labor Migration,” 39.

34. Taylor, A Spanish-Mexican Peasant Community, 36, 40.

35. United States Bureau of Labor, Handbook of Labor Statistics (1931), 281.

36. Taylor, A Spanish-Mexican Peasant Community, 41.

37. Ibid., 43.

38. Ibid., 45–46.

39. Aristide Zolberg, “A Century of Informality on the US-Mexico Border,” in Social Science Research Council, Border Battles: The US Immigration Debates, August 17, 2006, http://borderbattles.ssrc.org/Zolberg/.

40. Lytle-Hernandez, Migra! A History of the US Border Patrol, 3.

41. Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006), 11.

42. Gonzalez, “Mexican Labor Migration,” 34.

43. Ibid., 38–39.

44. Ibid., 46.

45. Balderrama and Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal, 1.

46. See Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 2.

47. Michael Snodgrass, “Patronage and Progress: The Bracero Program from the Perspective of Mexico,” in Workers across the Americas: The Transnational Turn in Labor History, ed. Leon Fink (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 252. See also Taylor, A Spanish-Mexican Peasant Community.

48. Ibid., 254.

49. Zolberg, “A Century of Informality.”

50. Snodgrass, “Patronage and Progress,” 254–55.

51. Ibid., 257, 260.

52. Ibid., 261.

53. Michael Snodgrass, “The Bracero Program, 1942–1964,” in Overmyer-Velázquez, Beyond La Frontera, 91.

54. Mark Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction: Histories and Historiographies of Greater Mexico,” in Overmyer-Velázquez, Beyond La Frontera, xxxvii.

55. Cited in Kanstroom, Deportation Nation, 219.

56. Ibid., 222.

57. Wetbacks is a derogatory term referring to the idea that Mexicans entered the country by crossing the Rio Grande river and avoiding official entry points.

58. Cindy Hahamovitch, No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 124–25.

59. Don Mitchell, They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 223.

60. Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 153.

61. Kanstroom, Deportation Nation, 224.

62. Snodgrass, “The Bracero Program,” 91.

63. See Kanstroom, Deportation Nation, 161.

64. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 154. See also Lorena Oropeza, ¡Raza Sí, Guerra No! Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), for an analysis of Mexican American organizations’ aspirations toward acceptance as white in the midcentury.

65. Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 22.

66. Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xxxviii.

67. Oscar J. Martínez, “Migration and the Border, 1965–1985,” in Overmyer-Velázquez, Beyond La Frontera, 110.

68. Ibid., 106.

69. Ibid., 111.

70. Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey, “What We Learned from the Mexican Migration Project,” in Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration Project, ed. Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 6.

71. Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xlii.

72. Helen B. Marrow, “Race and the New Southern Migration, 1986 to the Present,” in Overmyer-Velázquez, Beyond La Frontera, 130.

73. Philip L. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry: IRCA and US Agriculture,” Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science 534 (July 1994): 50–51.

74. See Roberto Suro, “False Migrant Claims: Fraud on a Huge Scale,” New York Times, November 12, 1989.

75. See ibid.

76. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry,” 52.

77. Nicholas De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 237–381.

78. Durand and Massey, “What We Learned from the Mexican Migration Project,” 11–12.

79. The Mexican governments identifies four regions of out-migration: The Traditional region, encompassing Aguascalientes, Colima, Durango, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas; the Northern region, comprised of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Nuevo León, Sinaloa, Sonora and Tamaulipas; the Central region: Distrito Federal, Hidalgo, México, Morelos, Puebla, Querétaro and Tlaxcala; and the South-Southeast region: Campeche, Chiapas, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Veracruz y Yucatán. See Consejo Nacional de Población, “Flujos Migratorios EMIF Norte,” http://conapo.gob.mx/es/CONAPO/flujos_Migratorios_EMIF_NORTE.

80. In Mexico, mestizos generally refers to people of mixed Spanish and indigenous origin.

81. See Overmyer-Velázquez, “Introduction,” xxxii; Angus Wright, The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990; rev. ed., 2005), 138, 309; Jeffrey Harris Cohen, The Culture of Migration in Southern Mexico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004); David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008), especially chap. 2.

82. Lynnaire M. Sheridan, “I Know It’s Dangerous”: Why Mexicans Risk Their Lives to Cross the Border (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 56.

83. Ibid., 57.

84. De Genova argues that today’s “illegality” is something “produced” by the law, rather than by the actions of individual Mexicans (Working the Boundaries, chap. 6, esp. p. 244).

85. For a historical summary of Mayan migration, see Christopher H. Lutz and W. George Lovell, “Survivors on the Move: Maya Migration in Time and Space,” in The Maya Diaspora: Guatemalan Roots, New American Lives, ed. James Loucky and Marilyn M. Moors (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000), 11–34.

86. See David McCreery, Rural Guatemala, 1760–1940 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Julio C. Cambranes, Café y campesinos en Guatemala, 1853–1897 (Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria, 1985); Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 32.

87. Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 32.

88. Rigoberta Menchu, with Elisabeth Debray, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman from Guatemala (New York: Verso, 1987), 21–23.

89. Ibid., 23.

90. Daniel Wilkinson, Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 43.

91. Patricia Foxen, In Search of Providence: Transnational Mayan Identities (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2007), 63.

92. Ibid., 78.

93. Ibid., 99.

94. Ibid., 100. David Stoll describes a similar phenomenon in another Guatemalan town, where labor contractors have been using force, debt, or landlessness and need to recruit indigenous workers for migrant labor for over a century. Today’s coyotes and contractors simply recruit them to work in another country. David Stoll, El Norte or Bust! How Migration Fever and Microcredit Produced a Financial Crash in a Latin American Town (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 198.

95. Stoll describes this process in El Norte or Bust!, 89.

96. Lutz and Lovell, “Survivors on the Move,” 33.

97. Foxen, In Search of Providence, 149.

98. Ibid., 115.

99. Ibid., 115; Sarah J. Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 141.

100. Erik Camayd-Freixas, US Immigration Reform and its Global Impact: Lessons from the Postville Raid (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 100.

101. Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,” New York Times, April 26, 2013.

CHAPTER 3: BECOMING ILLEGAL

1. Ruth Ellen Wasem, Nonimmigrant Overstays: Brief Synthesis of the Issue, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, May 22, 2006, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/library/P735.pdf.

2. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, “2010 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics,” table 26, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/2010/ois_yb_2010.pdf.

3. Randall Monger, “Non-Immigrant Admissions to the United States, 2011,” Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, July 2012, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ni_fr_2011.pdf; Department of State, “Non-Immigrant Visas Issued, 2007–2011,” http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/NIVClassIssued-DetailedFY2007–2011.pdf; Department of State, “Nonimmigrant Visa Issuance by Visa Class and Nationality, FY 2011,” http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/FY11NIVDetailTable.pdf. The Visa Waiver Program applies to thirty-seven mostly European countries and allows would-be visitors to be processed at the border without obtaining a visa prior to departure.

4. In 2009, 126.8 million of 163 million total entries were Border Crossing Cards rather than nonimmigrant visa entries. See Ruth Ellen Wasem, US Immigration Policy on Temporary Admissions, Congressional Research Service, February 8, 2011, 15–16, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL31381.pdf.

5. Pew Hispanic Center, “Modes of Entry for the Unauthorized Migrant Population,” May 22, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/19.pdf.

6. Lynnaire M. Sheridan, “I Know It’s Dangerous”: Why Mexicans Risk Their Lives to Cross the Border (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 66.

7. Ibid., 61.

8. Ibid., 79.

9. See Florida Fruit and Vegetable Association, “Who Will Harvest the Food?” November 2011, http://www.ffva.com/imispublic/Content/NavigationMenu2/NewsCenter/HarvesterOnline/Mainfeature1111/default.htm.

10. United States Government Accountability Office, “Report to the Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives: H-2B VISA PROGRAM Closed Civil and Criminal Cases Illustrate Instances of H-2B Workers Being Targets of Fraud and Abuse,” September 2010, 4, http://www.gao.gov/assets/320/310640.pdf.

11. Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas,” Impremedia, May 11, 2011, http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/11/a-merced-de-fraudes-con-visas-255317–1.html.

12. Gardenia Mendoza Aguilar, “El botín de los coyotes: Miles deben pagar para tramitar trabajo temporal en EEUU,” Impremedia, May 9, 2011, http://www.impre.com/noticias/2011/5/9/el-botin-de-los-coyotes-legale-254910–2.html.

13. Dan LaBotz, “Farm Labor Organizer Murdered in Mexico, Labor Contractors Suspected,” CounterPunch, April 14–16, 2007, http://www.counterpunch.org/labotz04142007.html.

14. Mendoza Aguilar, “A merced de fraudes con visas.”

15. Southern Poverty Law Center, Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States, April 2007, http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/publications/close-to-slavery-guestworker-programs-in-the-united-states#.UaIQ-cokSSo.

16. Jeffrey Passel, D’Vera Cohn, and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zero—and Perhaps Less,” Pew Hispanic Center, April 23, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/vi-characteristics-of-mexican-born-immigrants-living-in-the-u-s/.

17. Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos (CNDH), “Informe especial sobre secuestro de migrantes en México,” February 22, 2011, 5, http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/fuentes/documentos/informes/especiales/2011_secmigrante.pdf.

18. Randal C. Archibold, “In Trek North, First Lure Is Mexico’s Other Line,” New York Times, April 26, 2013.

19. Olga R. Rodríguez, “Central American Migrants Flood North Through Mexico to US,” Huffington Post, July 13, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/13/central-americans-in-the-united-states_n_1671551.html.

20. Abril Trigo, Memorias migrantes: Testimonios y ensayos sobre la diáspora uruguaya (Rosario, Argentina: Beatriz Viterbo Editora, 2003), 190.

21. Maxine L. Margolis, Little Brazil: An Ethnography of Brazilian Immigrants in New York City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 49–50.

22. Samuel Martinez, “Migration from the Caribbean: Economic and Political Factors versus Legal and Illegal Status,” in Illegal Immigration in America: A Reference Handbook, ed. David W. Haines and Karen E. Rosenblum (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 278–79.

23. Margolis, Little Brazil, 51.

24. Kurt Birson, “Mexico: Abuses against US Bound Migrant Workers,” NACLA Report, September 23, 2010, https://nacla.org/node/6753.

25. Centro de Derechos Humanos Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez, A.C. (Centro ProDH) et al., “Secuestros a personas migrantes en tránsito por México,” 7–8, http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/docs/ngos/prodh_Mexico_CAT47.pdf.

26. Sebastian Rotella, “The New Border: Illegal Immigration’s Shifting Frontier,” ProPublica, December 6, 2012, http://www.propublica.org/article/the-new-border-illegal-immigrations-shifting-frontier.

27. Paul Imison, “The Freight Train That Runs to the Heart of Mexico’s ‘Drugs War’: Riding ‘La Bestia’ to Freedom or Death,” Independent, February 3, 2013; Archibold, “In Trek North”; Karl Penhaul, “‘Train of Death’ Drives Migrant American Dreamers,” CNN, June 25, 2010, http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/06/23/mexico.train.death/index.html. See also Sonia Nazario, Enrique’s Journey (New York: Random House, 2007).

28. CNDH, “Informe especial,” 12.

29. Ibid., 26–27.

30. Ibid., 28–29.

31. Centro ProDH, “Secuestros a personas migrantes,” 1.

32. Ibid., 9.

33. Ibid., 9.

34. CNDH, “Informe especial,” 37.

35. La Redacción, “Capturan al responsable de la masacre de indocumentados en San Fernando,” Proceso, June 17, 2011, http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=273018; Voz de América, “Detenido por masacre en México,” June 16, 2011, http://www.voanoticias.com/content/detenido-masacre-indocumentados-mexico-124079179/100610.html.

36. El Salvador Noticias.net, “Masacre de 49 supuestos migrantes en Nuevo León, México,” May 13, 2012, http://www.elsalvadornoticias.net/2012/05/13/masacre-de-49-supuestos-migrantes-en-nuevo-leon-mexico/.

37. Centro ProDH, “Secuestros a personas migrantes,” 10.

38. Ibid., 13.

39. Univision.com, “A dos años de masacre de migrantes en San Fernando, Tamaulipas,” August 22, 2012, http://noticias.univision.com/narcotrafico/reportajes/article/2012–08–22/dos-anio-masacre-san-fernando-tamaulipas#ixzz2BPEzSZg9.

40. See Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the US–Mexico Boundary, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010), chap. 5, for a detailed discussion of how California politicians, led by Governor Pete Wilson, created and manipulated the so-called “crisis” of “illegal immigration.”

41. Ibid., 111.

42. Office of the Inspector General, “Background to the Office of the Inspector General Investigation,” July 1998, http://www.justice.gov/oig/special/9807/gkp01.htm.

43. Maria Jimenez, “Humanitarian Crisis: Migrant Deaths at the US-Mexico Border,” American Civil Liberties Union, October 1, 2009, 7, http://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/immigrants/humanitariancrisisreport.pdf.

44. Ibid., 21.

45. Coalición de Derechos Humanos, “Arizona Recovered Bodies Project,” http://derechoshumanosaz.net/projects/arizona-recovered-bodies-project/.

46. US Government Accountability Office, “Illegal Immigration: Border-Crossing Deaths Have Doubled since 1995,” August 2006, 4, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06770.pdf.

47. Stephen Dinan, “Figures Point to Securer Border, But Risk of Death for Illegals Still High,” Washington Times, March 22, 2012, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/mar/22/figures-point-to-securer-border-but-risk-of-death-/?page=all.

48. US Border Patrol, Southwest Border Sectors, “Southwest Border Deaths by Fiscal Year (October 1 through September 30),” http://www.cbp.gov/linkhandler/cgov/border_security/border_patrol/usbp_statistics/usbp_fy12_stats/border_patrol_fy.ctt/border_patrol_fy.pdf.

49. Brady McCombs, “No Signs of Letup in Entrant Deaths,” Arizona Daily Star, December 27, 2009, http://azstarnet.com/news/local/border/article_faf5b437-b728–527b-9eb8–77977d0cdf84.html.

50. Jimenez, “Humanitarian Crisis,” 33.

51. Las Americas Premium Outlets, San Ysidro, CA, Yelp.com, http://www.yelp.com/biz/las-americas-premium-outlets-san-ysidro.

CHAPTER 4: WHAT PART OF “ILLEGAL” DO YOU UNDERSTAND?

1. Jose Antonio Vargas, “Not Legal Not Leaving,” Time, June 25, 2012, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2117243,00.html#ixzz27acH8fKJ.

2. Twenty-nine percent arrived between 2000 and 2004, and 26 percent between 1995–1999, with another 14 percent arriving between 1990 and 1994 and 17 percent arriving in the 1980s. Michael Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Bryan Baker, “Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2011,” Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Population Estimates, March 2012.

3. Jeffrey Passel and D’Vera Cohn, “Unauthorized Immigrant Population: National and State Trends, 2010,” part II, 10–11, February 1, 2011, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2011/02/01/ii-current-estimates-and-trends/.

4. Sarah Gammage, “El Salvador: Despite End to Civil War, Emigration Continues,” Migration Information Source, July 2007, http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=636; Hemispheric Migration Project, Central Americans in Mexico and the United States, Center for Immigration Policy and Refugee Assistance (Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 1988), 29.

5. “Salvadoran TPS to Expire,” Migration News 2, no.1 (January 1995), http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=512_0_2_0.

6. Cecilia Menjívar and Leisy Abrego, “Parents and Children across Borders: Legal Instability and Intergenerational Relations in Guatemalan and Salvadoran Families,” in Across Generations: Immigrant Families in America, ed. Nancy Foner (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 165.

7. Ester E. Hernandez, “Relief Dollars: US Policies toward Central Americans, 1980s to Present,” in Immigration, Incorporation and Transnationalism, ed. Elliott Robert Barkan (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007), 216.

8. Ibid., 217.

9. Menjívar and Abrego, “Parents and Children across Borders,” 164.

10. Cecilia Menjívar, “Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants’ Lives in the United States,” American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (January 2006): 1000–1001.

11. US Code, 2011 Edition, Title 8—ALIENS AND NATIONALITY. CHAPTER 14—RESTRICTING WELFARE AND PUBLIC BENEFITS FOR ALIENS. SUBCHAPTER IV—GENERAL PROVISIONS. Sec. 1641—Definitions, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2011-title8/html/USCODE-2011-title8-chap14-subchapIV-sec1641.htm.

12. Steve A. Camarota, The High Cost of Cheap Labor: Illegal Immigration and the Federal Budget, Center for Immigration Studies, August 2004, http://www.cis.org/High-Cost-of-Cheap-Labor.

13. See Edmund H. Mahony, “Fifty Indicted in Identity Theft Ring,” Hartford Courant, January 11, 2012.

14. See Marianne McCune, “Puerto Rican Birth Certificates Will Be Null and Void,” National Public Radio, March 18, 2010, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=124827546.

15. In fact, these payments subsidize the Social Security system, since undocumented immigrants using false numbers will never receive the benefits that they are paying into. The Social Security Administration estimated these payments came to about $12 billion a year in 2007, adding up to somewhere between $120 billion and $240 billion over the years. See Edward Schumacher-Matos, “How Illegal Immigrants Are Helping Social Security,” Washington Post, September 3, 2010.

16. Susan Carroll, “Immigrant Drivers in US Now Face an Uncertain Road,” Houston Chronicle, January 11, 2011.

17. Julia Preston and Robert Gebeloff, “Some Unlicensed Drivers Risk More Than a Fine,” New York Times, December 9, 2010.

18. Ibid.

19. Dennis Romero, “Illegal Immigrants Can Now Drive in L.A. Without Fear of Having Cars Taken by Police,” LA Weekly Blog, February 28, 2012, http://blogs.laweekly.com/informer/2012/02/illegal_impound_tow_lapd_police_policy.php.

20. Maria Sacchetti, “Framingham, Barnstable No Longer Enforcing US Immigration Laws,” Boston Globe, October 1, 2009.

21. Mary MacDonald, “Local Officials Disappointed by Governor’s ‘No’ on Secure Communities,” Milford (MA) Patch, June 8, 2011, http://milford-ma.patch.com/articles/local-officials-disappointed-by-governors-no-on-secure-communities.

22. Michael John Garcia, Criminalizing Unlawful Presence: Selected Issues, CRS Report for Congress, May 3, 2006, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/library/P585.pdf.

23. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Voluntary Departure,” http://www.uscis.gov/. See also Michael A. Pearson, Executive Associate Commissioner, Field Operations, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Statement before the Committee on Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations United States Senate Regarding Processing Persons Arrested for Illegal Entry into the United States Between Ports of Entry, November 13, 2001, http://www.aila.org/content/default.aspx?docid=6549.

24. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Deportation,” http://www.uscis.gov/portal/.

25. US Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS), “2011 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics,” table 39, p. 102, http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2011/ois_yb_2011.pdf.

26. Spencer H. Hsu, “Arrests on US-Mexico Border Decline 27%,” Washington Post, May 21, 2009; Lourdes Medrano, “Bullets vs. Rocks? Border Patrol Under Fire for Use of Deadly Force,” Christian Science Monitor, December 3, 2012; US Department of Homeland Security, “About Customs and Border Protection: Organization,” http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/about/organization/assist_comm_off/.

27. US Department of Homeland Security, OIS, “2011 Yearbook,” table 35.

28. Encuesta sobre la Migración en la Frontera Norte de México, Boletín EMIF Norte 2011, http://www.colef.mx/emif/resultados/boletines/Boletin%20NTE%202011.pdf.

29. Andrew Becker, “Rebranding at ICE Meant to Soften Immigration Enforcement Agency’s Image,” Washington Post, June 17, 2010.

30. CNBC, “Billions Behind Bars: Inside America’s Prison Industry,” 2011, http://www.cnbc.com/id/44762286/Billions_Behind_Bars_Inside_America039s_Prison_Industry; United States Bureau of Justice, “Direct Expenditures by Justice Function, 1982–2007 (Billions of Dollars),” http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/glance/tables/exptyptab.cfm. The $74 billion figure comes from 2007 and is the most recent data available.

31. Leo Ralph Chavez, The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation, 2nd ed. (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013), 24.

32. Ibid., 25.

33. American Civil Liberties Union, “Immigration Detention,” http://www.aclu.org/immigrants-rights/detention; Chris Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit From Immigration Crackdown, Federal And Local Law Enforcement Partnerships,” Huffington Post, June 7, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/07/private-prisons-immigration-federal-law-enforcement_n_1569219.html.

34. Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

35. Amnesty International, “USA: Jailed Without Justice,” March 25, 2009, 1, http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/JailedWithoutJustice.pdf.

36. Human Rights First, Jails and Jumpsuits: Transforming the US Immigration Detention System, a Two-Year Review, 2011, iv, http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/HRF-Jails-and-Jumpsuits-report.pdf.

37. See the long history of Rodriguez v. Robbins compiled by the ACLU at http://www.aclu-sc.org/rodriguez/.

38. Amnesty International, “USA: Jailed without Justice,” 6.

39. Alistair Graham Robertson, Rachel Beaty, Jane Atkinson, and Bob Libal, Operation Streamline: Costs and Consequences, Grassroots Leadership, September 2012, 2, http://grassrootsleadership.org/files/GRL_Sept2012_Report%20final.pdf.

40. Ibid., 5.

41. Ibid., 6.

42. Ibid., 7.

43. US Sentencing Commission, “Overview of Federal Criminal Cases: Fiscal Year 2011,” 1–2, 9; TRAC Immigration, “Illegal Reentry Becomes Top Criminal Charge,” http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/reports/251/.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid., 3.

46. Jacob Chin, Katherine Fennelly, Kathleen Moccio, Charles Miles, and José D. Pacas, “Attorneys’ Perspectives on the Rights of Detained Immigrants in Minnesota,” AILA InfoNet Doc. No. 09111064 (posted 11/10/09), emphasis in original, http://www.aila.org/Content/default.aspx?docid=30514.

47. James M. Chaparro to Field Office Directors, “Keep Up the Good Work on Criminal Alien Removals,” memo, Washington Post, February 22, 2010, http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/documents/ICEdocument032710.pdf?sid=ST2010032700037.

48. Ibid.

49. See John Morton to Field Office Directors, “National Fugitive Operations Program,” December 2009, http://www.ice.gov/doclib/detention-reform/pdf/nfop_priorities_goals_expectations.pdf.

50. US Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “Secure Communities: A Modernized Approach to Identifying and Removing Criminal Aliens,” January 2010, http://www.ice.gov/doclib/secure-communities/pdf/sc-brochure.pdf.

51. Aarti Kohli, Peter L. Markowitz, and Lisa Chavez, “Secure Communities by the Numbers: An Analysis of Demographics and Due Process,” Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy, University of California, Berkeley, School of Law, October 2011, http://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/Secure_Communities_by_the_Numbers.pdf.

52. Douglas C. McDonald, “Private Penal Institutions,” Crime and Justice 16 (1992): 382.

53. See Alfredo Blumstein and Allen J. Beck, “Population Growth in US Prisons, 1980–1996,” Crime and Justice 26 (1999). Incarceration rates for immigration offenses rose from 0.6 per 100,000 in 1980 to 2.7 per 100,000 in 1996, an increase of 350 percent (45–46). For federal commitment rates for convicted offenders, “the largest upward trend is for immigration offenses, which had a fairly steady growth in commitment rate from 46 percent to 82 percent” (48).

54. Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

55. Llewellyn Hinkes-Jones, “Privatized Prisons: A Human Marketplace,” Los Angeles Review of Books, January 10, 2013.

56. “Incarceration, Inc.,” Phoenix Magazine, March, 2012, http://www.phoenixmag.com/lifestyle/valley-news/201203/incarceration—inc-/1/.

57. Associated Press, “Private Prison Companies Making Big Bucks on Locking Up Undocumented Immigrants,” New York Daily News, August 2, 2012, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/private-prison-companies-making-big-bucks-locking-undocumented-immigrants-article-1.1127465#ixzz2PQbUHM9a.

58. The Geo Group, http://www.geogroup.com/; Management & Training Corporation, http://www.mtctrains.com/corrections/corrections-overview.

59.Corrections Corporation of America, http://www.cca.com/about/.

60. Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System: How the Political Strategies of Private Prison Companies Promote Ineffective Incarceration Policies,” June 2011, 12, http://www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/gaming_the_system.pdf.

61. “Incarceration, Inc.” In the last decade, the CCA spent $23 million in lobbying. See Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

62. US Securities and Exchange Commission, Corrections Corporation of America, Form 10K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2005, cited in Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010),218–19. The company’s 2010 Annual Report used virtually identical language. See excerpt from the report in Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System,” 3. The reports themselves are online at http://ir.correctionscorp.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=117983&p=irol-reportsannual.

63. Laura Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law,” National Public Radio, October 28, 2010, http://www.npr.org/2010/10/28/130833741/prison-economics-help-drive-ariz-immigration-law.

64. Justice Policy Institute, “Gaming the System,” 3.

65. Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law.”

66. Laura Sullivan, “Shaping State Laws with Little Scrutiny,” National Public Radio, October 29, 2010, http://www.npr.org/2010/10/29/130891396/shaping-state-laws-with-little-scrutiny.

67. Ibid.

68. Sullivan, “Prison Economics Help Drive Ariz. Immigration Law.”

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. Kirkham, “Private Prisons Profit.”

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid.

74. Hannah Rappleye and Lisa Riordan Seville, “How One Georgia Town Gambled Its Future on Immigration Detention,” Nation, April 10, 2012.

CHAPTER 5: WORKING (PART 1)

1. WGP/TRO-© Copyright 1961 (Renewed), 1963 (Renewed) Woody Guthrie Publications, Inc. & Ludlow Music, Inc., New York, NY. Administered by Ludlow Music, Inc. Used by Permission.

2. Jeffrey Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the US, Pew Research Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006, part IV, “Unauthorized Migrants: The Workforce,” http://www.pewhispanic.org/2006/03/07/iv-unauthorized-migrants-the-workforce/.

3. Robert Pear, “Judge’s Hiring of Illegal Alien in 1980s Did Not Violate Immigration Law,” New York Times, February 6, 1993.

4. William R. Tamayo, “Immigration and the Civil Rights Movement,” in Double Exposure: Poverty and Race in America, ed. Chester W. Hartman (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 115.

5. Charles B. Johnson, president of the Pasadena branch, quoted in Hector Tobar, “NAACP Calls for End to Employer Sanctions,” Los Angeles Times, July 12, 1990.

6. See Edward R. Roybal, “If You Look ‘Foreign,’ It’s ‘No Help Wanted,’” Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1990; Tobar, “NAACP Calls for End to Employer Sanctions.”

7. Nicholas De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 235–36.

8. “Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: The American Promise,” Democratic Convention, Denver, Huffington Post, August 8, 2008, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/08/28/barack-obama-democratic-c_n_122224.html.

9. Miriam Jordan, “Fresh Raids Target Illegal Hiring,” Wall Street Journal, May 2, 2012. See also Julia Preston, “Obama Administration Cracks Down on Illegal Immigrants’ Employers,” New York Times, May 29, 2011.

10. US Department of Labor, Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2001–2002: A Demographic and Employment Profile of United States Farm Workers, Research Report 9, March 2005, 11, http://www.doleta.gov/agworker/report9/naws_rpt9.pdf.

11. Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population, estimates 24 percent, based on the 2005 Current Population Survey. Other estimates are much higher.

12. In 2001–2002, the National Agricultural Worker Survey estimated that 53 percent lacked authorization to work in the United States. See US Department of Labor, “Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey,” 11. Although this is the most recent report that is fully available to the public, Daniel Carroll of the Department of Labor has summarized the results through 2009 and shows the percentage of farm workers who are undocumented falling only slightly, to around 50 percent, in subsequent years. See Daniel Carroll, “Changing Characteristics of US Farmworkers: 21 Years of Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey,” May 12, 2011, http://migration.ucdavis.edu/cf/files/2011-may/carroll-changing-characteristics.pdf.

13. “Migrant Farm Workers: Fields of Tears,” Economist, December 16, 2010, http://www.economist.com/node/17722932.

14. Carroll, “Changing Characteristics of US Farmworkers.”

15. See Helen B. Marrow, New Destination Dreaming: Immigration, Race, and Legal Status in the Rural American South (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), for a discussion of this phenomenon in North Carolina.

16. Passel, Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population.

17. Philip Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness in US Construction and Meatpacking,” April 2012, http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rs/files/2012/9/ciip/martin-us-construction-and-meatpacking.pdf.

18. Steve Striffler, Chicken: The Dangerous Transformation of America’s Favorite Food (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 5.

19. Philip L. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry: IRCA and US Agriculture,” Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science 534 (July 1994): 45. He is quoting Varden Fuller in The Supply of Agricultural Labor as a Factor in the Evolution of Farm Organization in California, Congressional Committee on Education and Labor (LaFollette Committee), 1940, pt. 54, p. 19809.

20. Don Mitchell, They Saved the Crops: Labor, Landscape, and the Struggle over Industrial Farming in Bracero-Era California (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012), 11.

21. Ibid.

22. Truman Library, “The Migratory Worker in the American Agricultural Labor Force,” ca. November 1950, Subject File, Record Group 220: President’s Commission on Migratory Labor, 1, http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/migratorylabor/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1950–11–00&documentid=16–2.

23. Ibid., 3.

24. Quoted in Daniel Kanstroom, Deportation Nation: Outsiders in American History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 223.

25. Truman Library, “The Migratory Worker,” 15.

26. Mitchell, They Saved the Crops, 6.

27. Ibid., 13.

28. Ibid., 242.

29. Ibid, 419.

30. Ibid., 420.

31. Ibid., 422.

32. Richard A. Walker, The Conquest of Bread: 150 Years of Agribusiness in California (New York: New Press, 2004), 74–75.

33. Douglas S. Massey and Karen A. Pren, “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America,” Population and Development Review 38, no.1 (March 2012): 3, http://wws.princeton.edu/coverstories/Massey_LatinAmericaImmigrationSurge/Unintended-Consequences.pdf.

34. Mark Overmyer-Velázquez, ed., “Introduction,” Beyond La Frontera: The History of Mexico-US Migration (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), xxxvii.

35. Massey and Pren, “Unintended Consequences,” 5.

36. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Duran, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 45.

37. Martin, “Good Intentions Gone Awry,” 53.

38. Ibid., 55.

39. Ibid., 53, 54, 57.

40. Ibid., 56. David Stoll cites a study of twenty-four labor contractors in the 1990s, all of whom were former migrant farm workers who had obtained legal status through the IRCA. “The ultimate in profitability is to turn one’s co-ethnics or co-nationals into a captive labor force,” he writes in El Norte or Bust! How Migration Fever and Microcredit Produced a Financial Crash in a Latin American Town (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013), 197.

41. “Migrant Farm Workers: Fields of Tears,” Economist.

42. United Farm Workers’ Take Our Jobs Update, September 24, 2010, http://www.ufw.org/_board.php?mode=view&b_code=news_press&b_no=7812&page=7&field=&key=&n=680.

43. Linda Calvin and Philip Martin, The US Produce Industry and Labor: Facing the Future in a Global Economy, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Economic Research Report 106, November 2010, 1, http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/135123/err106.pdf.

44. Ibid., iii–iv.

45. Ibid., 1.

46. Ibid., 1.

47. Linda Calvin and Philip Martin, “Labor-Intensive US Fruits and Vegetables Industry Competes in a Global Market, Amber Waves, December 2010, http://webarchives.cdlib.org/sw1vh5dg3r/http://ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/December10/Features/LaborIntensive.htm.

48. “Kansas Seeks Waiver for Undocumented Workers to Solve Farm Crisis,” Fox News Latino, January 30, 2012, http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/politics/2012/01/30/kansas-seeks-waiver-for-undocumented-workers-to-solve-farm-crisis/.

49. Georgia Department of Agriculture, “Report on Agricultural Labor, as Required by House Bill 87,” January 2012, 2, http://agr.georgia.gov/Data/Sites/1/media/ag_administration/legislation/AgLaborReport.pdf.

50. Ibid., 21.

51. Ibid., 41–43.

52. Ibid., 46.

53. Ibid., 50.

54. Ibid., 63.

55. Ibid., 100.

56. “Georgia Immigration Law Forces State to Replace Migrant Farm Workers with Criminals,” Huffington Post, June 22, 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/22/georgia-immigration-law-f_n_882050.html.

57. Philip Martin, Importing Poverty? The Changing Face of Rural America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), xiii.

58. Ray Marshall, “Foreword,” in ibid., ix.

59. Wright argues that the creation of rural poverty in Mexico’s south is a result of the same economic and agricultural policies that created the export plantations of the North. Angus Wright, The Death of Ramón González: The Modern Agricultural Dilemma (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990; rev. ed., 2005).

60. Ibid., xvi.

61. See, for example, Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001/2012).

CHAPTER 6: WORKING (PART 2)

1. The decline in employment was due to increased efficiency and increased imports as well as outsourcing. See Philip Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness in US Construction and Meatpacking,” conference paper, April 24, 2012, http://migration.ucdavis.edu/rs/files/2012/9/ciip/martin-us-construction-and-meatpacking.pdf.1.

2. Ibid., 1.

3. Ibid., 5–6, 7.

4. Ibid., 16.

5. Ibid., 8.

6. Joan W. Moore, In the Barrios: Latinos and the Underclass Debate (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993), 116.

7. Patrick Jankowski, “Potential Tax Revenues from Unauthorized Workers in Houston’s Economy,” Greater Houston Partnership, January 2012, http://www.houston.org/pdf/research/whitepapers/taxrevenuesundocumentedworkers.pdf. His estimate was based on Pew Hispanic Foundation estimates for the national level.

8. Workers Defense Project, Build a Better Texas: Construction Working Conditions in the Lone Star State, January 2013, http://www.workersdefense.org/Build%20a%20Better%20Texas_FINAL.pdf; Wade Goodwyn, “Construction Booming in Texas, But Many Workers Pay Dearly,” National Public Radio, April 10, 2013, http://www.npr.org/2013/04/10/176677299/construction-booming-in-texas-but-many-workers-pay-dearly.

9. Laurel E. Fletcher, Phuong Pham, Eric Stover, and Patrick Vinck, “Rebuilding After Katrina: A Population-Based Study of Labor and Human Rights in New Orleans,” International Human Rights Law Clinic, Boalt Hall School of Law, University of California Berkeley; Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley; and Payson Center for International Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University, June 2006, 5, http://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/rebuilding_after_katrina.pdf.

10. Associated Press, “Study: Immigrant Workers Endure Hazardous Conditions, Abuse Post-Katrina,” USA Today, June 7, 2006.

11. Fletcher et al., “Rebuilding After Katrina,” 12.

12. Ibid., 14.

13. Susan Carroll, “Undocumented Workers Will Be Linchpin of Ike Cleanup,” Houston Chronicle, September 25, 2008, http://www.chron.com/news/hurricanes/article/Undocumented-workers-will-be-linchpin-in-Ike-1766107.php.

14. Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness,” 8–9.

15. Lance A. Compa, Blood, Sweat, and Fear: Workers’ Rights in US Meat and Poultry Plants (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2004), 7.

16. Jerry Kammer, “The 2006 Swift Raids: Assessing the Impact of Immigration Enforcement Actions at Six Facilities,” Center for Immigration Studies, March 2009, 5, http://www.cis.org/articles/2009/back309.pdf.

17. Martin, “Migration and Competitiveness,” 3.

18. See Sherry L. Edwards, director of Legislative and Regulatory Affairs, American Meat Institute, “Operation Vanguard,” prepared for the USDA Agricultural Outlook Forum, February, 2000, 1, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/33429/1/fo00ed01.pdf.

19. Ibid., 1.

20. Kammer, “2006 Swift Raids,” 3.

21. United Food and Commercial Workers, “Raids on Workers: Destroying Our Rights,” n.d., 18, http://www.icemisconduct.org/.

22. Kammer, “2006 Swift Raids,” 3.

23. Nathanial Popper, “How the Rubashkins Changed the Way Jews Eat in America,” Jewish Daily Forward, December 11, 2008, http://forward.com/articles/14716/how-the-rubashkins-changed-the-way-jews-eat-in-ame-/.

24. Ibid.

25. Maggie Jones, “Postville, Iowa Is Up for Grabs,” New York Times Magazine, July 11, 2012.

26. Ibid.

27. Nathanial Popper, “In Iowa Meat Plant, Kosher ‘Jungle’ Breeds Fear, Injury, Short Pay,” Jewish Daily Forward, May 26, 2006, http://forward.com/articles/1006/in-iowa-meat-plant-kosher-ejunglee-breeds-fea/.

28. Jones, “Postville Iowa Is Up for Grabs.”

29. Times Wire Reports, “Guilty Plea in Postville Raid,” Los Angeles Times, August 21, 2008, http://articles.latimes.com/2008/aug/21/nation/na-briefs21.S2.

30. US House of Representatives, “Statement of Dr. Erik Camayd-Freixas, Federally Certified Interpreter at the US District Court for the Northern District of Iowa, Regarding a Hearing on ‘The Arrest, Prosecution, and Conviction of 297 Undocumented Workers in Postville, Iowa, from May 12 to 22, 2008,’” before the Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, July 24, 2008, http://judiciary.house.gov/hearings/pdf/Camayd-Freixas080724.pdf.

31. Ibid., 10–11.

32. Jones, “Postville, Iowa Is Up for Grabs.”

33. Liz Goodwin, “Years after Immigration Raid, Iowa Town Feels Poorer and Less Stable,” Yahoo News/The Lookout, December 7, 2011, http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/years-immigration-raid-iowa-town-feels-poorer-less-133035414.html.

34. Helen O’Neill, “Parents Deported, What Happens to US-Born Kids?” Associated Press, August 25, 2012, http://m.yahoo.com/.

35. Richard M. Stana, “Employment Verification: Federal Agencies Have Taken Steps to Improve E-Verify, But Significant Challenges Remain,” United States Government Accountability Office (GAO), December 2010, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11146.pdf.

36. California and Illinois prohibited states and localities from requiring employers to use the program. Illinois also tried to prohibit the use of E-Verify in the state, but that law was overturned in court. See National Conference of State Legislatures, “E-Verify,” http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/immig/e-verify-faq.aspx.

37. Stana, “Employment Verification”; GAO, Immigration Enforcement: Weaknesses Hinder Employment Verification and Worksite Enforcement Efforts, GAO-05–813 (Washington, DC: August 31, 2005); GAO, Employment Verification: Challenges Exist in Implementing a Mandatory Electronic Employment Verification System, GAO-08–895T (Washington, DC: June 10, 2008).

38. See Frank Sharry, “The Truth about E-Verify,” Huffington Post, May 25, 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/frank-sharry/the-truth-about-everify_b_865649.html.

39. John J. Haydu, Alan W. Hodges, and Charles R. Hall, “Economic Impacts of the Turfgrass and Lawncare Industry in the United States,” University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, FE 632 (2006), 5, http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/economic-impact-analysis/pdf/FE63200.pdf.

40. Krissah Williams, “Lawn Care Entrepreneur Faces a Changing Racial Landscape,” Washington Post, February 5, 2007, http://www.fred.ifas.ufl.edu/economic-impact-analysis/pdf/FE63200.pdf.

41. California Landscape Contractors Association, Immigration Reform Center, updated July 2010, http://www.clca.us/immigration/view.html#pt8.

42. In the case of Kimba Wood, the employment took place before the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act made it illegal to hire an undocumented person. See Robert Pear, “Judge’s Hiring of Illegal Alien in 1980s Did Not Violate Immigration Law,” New York Times, February 6, 1993.

43. Maria Cramer and Maria Sacchetti, “More Immigrant Woes for Romney,” Boston Globe, December 5, 2007.

44. Michael Falcone, “Housekeeper Nicky Diaz: Meg Whitman Treated Me Like a Piece of Garbage,” ABC News, September 29, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/meg-whitmans-housekeeper-treated-piece-garbage/story?id=11758365#.UX65GKJ9uCg.

45. Mike Allen and Jim VandeHei, “Homeland Security Nominee Kerik Pulls Out,” Washington Post, December 11, 2004.

46. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, Doméstica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadows of Affluence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 3.

47. Ibid., 7.

48. Ibid., 3.

49. Ibid., 6.

50. Ibid., 9.

51. Ibid., 3–4.

52. For a general discussion of the “new destinations” for Latino immigration, see Douglas Massey, ed., New Faces in New Places: The Changing Geography of American Immigration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008). One new destination that stands out is North Carolina, where the Hispanic population rose by 111 percent between 2000 and 2010, reaching 8.4 percent of the state’s population. Sixty-one percent of these were Mexicans. North Carolina had the eleventh largest Latino population in the country. See North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, “The Hispanic or Latino Population, 2011,” http://www.ncdhhs.gov/aging/cprofile/Hispanic_Latino2010.pdf. Washington State’s Hispanic population also grew, by 71 percent, to 755,790. See Sharon R. Ennis, Merarys Ríos-Vargas, and Nora G. Albert, “The Hispanic Population: 2010,” 2010 Census Brief, May 2011, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf.

53. Michael De Masi, “Nannies a Growth Industry in Slow Economy,” Business Review, July 15, 2011, http://www.bizjournals.com/albany/print-edition/2011/07/15/nannies-a-growth-industry-in-slow.html?page=all.

54. “More Parents Opting for Nannies over Day Care,” Arizona Republic, September 10, 2007, http://tucsoncitizen.com/morgue/2007/09/10/62548-more-parents-opting-for-nannies-over-day-care/.

55. Barbara Presley Noble, “At Work: Solving the Zoe Baird Problem, New York Times, July 3, 1994.

56. For the 81 percent figure, see Associated Press, “While You Were Sleeping, the Paper Boy Grew Up,” April 25, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12485231/#.UA7VVvXF-So.

57. See John Moran, “Newspaper Carriers as Independent Contractors,” Connecticut Office of Legislative Research, April 13, 2006, http://www.cga.ct.gov/2006/rpt/2006-R-0288.htm.

58. “S. D. California Certifies 23(b)(3) Class of Newspaper Home Delivery Carriers,” August 4, 2010, California Wage and Hour Law, Archive for the “Employee/Independent Contractor” Category, http://calwages.com/category/employeeindependent-contractor/.

59. Flyer in author’s possession, from January 2011.

60. See George J. Borjas, Jeffrey Grogger, and Gordon H. Hanson, “Immigration and the Economic Status of African-American Men,” Economica 77 (2010): 255–82, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/gborjas/publications/journal/Economica2010.pdf.

61. See, for example, Julie L. Hotchkiss, Myriam Quispe-Agnoli, and Fernando Rios-Avila, “The Wage Impact of Undocumented Workers,” Federal Reserve Bank of Georgia, Working Paper 2012–4, March 2012; Giovanni Peri, “Immigrants, Skills, and Wages: Measuring the Economic Gains from Immigration,” Immigration Policy Center, March 2006; David Card, “Is the New Immigration Really So Bad?,” University of California, Berkeley, January 2005.

62. Raúl Hinojosa-Ojeda and Marshall Fitz, “A Rising Tide or a Shrinking Pie: The Economic Impact of Legalization Versus Deportation in Arizona,” Center for American Progress, March 24, 2011, http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/03/rising_tide.html.

63. Eric Clark, introduction, The Real Toy Story: The Ruthless Battle for Today’s Youngest Consumers (New York: Simon & Schuster/Free Press, 2007).

CHAPTER 7: CHILDREN AND FAMILIES

1. Pew Hispanic Center, “Between Two Worlds: How Young Latinos Come of Age in America,” December 2009, 7, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/117.pdf.

2. Cecilia Menjívar, “Liminal Legality: Salvadoran and Guatemalan Immigrants’ Lives in the United States,” American Journal of Sociology 111, no. 4 (January 2006).

3. John Santucci, Chris Good, and Shushannah Walshe, “Everything Romney Said to Explain Away Loss,” ABC News, November 15, 2012, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/OTUS/obamas-gifts-small-campaign-bill-clintons-thoughtsromneys-parting/story?id=17727179#.ULPLkYZ62So.

4. Human Rights Watch, “Slipping Through the Cracks: Unaccompanied Children Detained by the US Immigration and Naturalization Service” (Human Rights Watch Children’s Project, 1997), 2 and note 3, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/04/01/slipping-through-cracks.

5. US Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, “Unaccompanied Juveniles in INS Custody,” September 28, 2001, chap. 1, http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/INS/e0109/chapter1.htm.

6. Jacqueline Bhabha and Susan Schmidt, “Seeking Asylum Alone: Unaccompanied and Separated Children and Refugee Protection in the US,” Harvard University Committee on Human Rights Studies, 2006, 6; Women’s Refugee Commission and Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, “Halfway Home: Unaccompanied Children in Immigration Custody,” February 2009, 4, http://womensrefugeecommission.org/press-room/716-unaccompanied?q=halfway+home; Amy Thompson, “A Child Alone and Without Papers: A Report on the Return and Repatriation of Unaccompanied Undocumented Children by the United States,” Center for Public Policy Priorities, September 2008, 7, http://www.aecf.org/; Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Inspector General, “Division of Unaccompanied Children’s Services: Efforts to Serve Children,” March 2008, https://oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-07–06–00290.pdf.

7. Olga Byrne and Elise Miller, “The Flow of Unaccompanied Children through the Immigration System,” Vera Institute of Justice, Center for Immigration and Justice, March 2012, 6, https://oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-07–06–00290.pdf.

8. Women’s Refugee Commission et al., “Halfway Home,” 4.

9. Byrne and Miller, “The Flow of Unaccompanied Children,” 14.

10. Julia Preston, “Young and Alone, Facing Court and Deportation,” New York Times, August 25, 2012.

11. Bhabha and Schmidt, “Seeking Asylum Alone,” 7.

12. Byrne and Miller, “The Flow of Unaccompanied Children,” 5.

13. Betsy Cavendish and Maru Cortazar, “Children at the Border: The Screening, Protection, and Repatriation of Unaccompanied Mexican Minors,” Appleseed, 2001, 1, http://appleseednetwork.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Children-At-The-Border1.pdf.

14. Byrne and Miller, “The Flow of Unaccompanied Children,” 31.

15. Preston, “Young and Alone.”

16. Terry Greene Sterling, “Undocumented Kids Crossing the US Border Alone in Increasing Numbers,” Daily Beast, March 23, 2013, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/23/undocumented-kids-crossing-the-u-s-border-alone-in-increasing-numbers.html.

17. Jessica Jones and Jennifer Podkul, “Forced from Home: The Lost Boys and Girls of Central America,” Women’s Refugee Commission, October 2012, 1–2, http://wrc.ms/WuG8lM.

18. Ibid., 8.

19. Ibid., 7.

20. Ibid., 1.

21. Ibid., 13.

22. Seth Freed Wessler, “Shattered Families: The Perilous Intersection of Immigration Enforcement and the Child Welfare System,” Applied Research Center, November, 2011, 5, http://arc.org/shatteredfamilies; Seth Freed Wessler, “US Deports 46K Parents with Citizen Kids in Just Six Months,” Colorlines, November 3, 2011, http://colorlines.com/archives/2011/11/shocking_data_on_parents_deported_with_citizen_children.html.

23. Nina Rabin, “Disappearing Parents: A Report on Immigration Enforcement and the Child Welfare System,” University of Arizona, Southwest Institute for Research on Women, College of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Bacon Immigration Law and Policy Program, James E. Rogers College of Law, May 2011, 31, http://www.law.arizona.edu/depts/bacon_program/pdf/disappearing_parents_report_final.pdf.

24. John Morton, “Memorandum,” June 17, 2011, http://www.ice.gov/doclib/secure-communities/pdf/prosecutorial-discretion-memo.pdf.

25. Helen O’Neill, “Parents Deported,” Associated Press, August 25, 2012. See also Rabin, “Disappearing Parents.”

26. Helen O’Neill, “U.S.-Born Kids of Deported Parents Struggle as Family Life is ‘Destroyed,’” Huffington Post, August 25, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/25/us-born-kids-deported-parents_n_1830496.html?utm_hp_ref=immigrants.

27. Women’s Refugee Commission et al., “Halfway Home,” 9.

28. Rabin, “Disappearing Parents,” 10.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid., 28.

31. O’Neill, “US-Born Kids of Deported Parents.”

32. Julia Preston and John H. Cushman Jr., “Obama Permits Young Migrants to Remain in US,” New York Times, June 15, 2012.

33. Nidia Tapia, “A Take on the Internal US-Mexico Border by an Undocumented Student,” unpublished undergraduate seminar paper, Pomona College, May 2013.

34. The Court’s decision and other relevant documents are available through the Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0457_0202_ZS.html.

35. Jose Antonio Vargas, “My Life as an Undocumented Immigrant,” New York Times Magazine, June 22, 2011.

36. Roberto G. Gonzalez, “Learning to Be Illegal: Undocumented Youth and Shifting Legal Contexts in the Transition to Adulthood,” American Sociological Review 76, no. 4 (2011): 603.

37. Ibid., 605.

38. Tapia, “A Take on the Internal US-Mexico Border.”

39. Carola Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco, and Irina Todorova, Learning a New Land: Immigrant Students in American Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 31. See also Angela Valenzuela, Subtractive Schooling: US-Mexican Youth and the Politics of Caring (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999). “The record of achievement among . . . immigrant youth is significantly higher than that of their US-born, second- and third+-generation counterparts,” 8.

40. William Pérez, We Are Americans: Undocumented Students Pursuing the American Dream (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2009), vii–viii.

41. Michael A. Olivas, No Undocumented Child Left Behind: Plyler v. Doe and the Education of Undocumented Schoolchildren (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 66; National Conference of State Legislatures, “Undocumented Student Tuition: Federal Action,” May 2011, http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/educ/undocumented-student-tuition-federal-action.aspx; William Pérez, Americans By Heart: Undocumented Latino Students and the Promise of Higher Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 2011), 6.

42. National Immigration Law Center, “Basic Facts about In-State Tuition,” May 2013, http://www.nilc.org/basic-facts-instate.html.

43. Pérez, We Are Americans, xxvi.

44. Massachusetts Taxpayers Foundation, “Revenues from Undocumented Immigrants Paying In-State Rates,” July 18, 2011, http://www.masstaxpayers.org/sites/masstaxpayers.org/files/In-state%20tuition.pdf.

45. The various versions of the act are posted online at http://www.dreamactivist.org/text-of-dream-act-legislation/.

46. See Vamos Unidos Youth, “Latino Youth Defines Dream Act as De Facto Military Draft,” WESPAC Foundation, http://wespac.org/2010/09/21/dream-act-as-military-draft/.

47. Jean Batalova and Margie McHugh, “DREAM vs. Reality: An Analysis of Potential DREAM Act Beneficiaries,” Migration Policy Institute, July 2010, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/DREAM-Insight-July2010.pdf.

48. Claudia Anguiano, “Undocumented, Unapologetic, and Unafraid: Discursive Strategies of the Immigrant Youth DREAM Social Movement,” PhD diss., University of New Mexico, 2011, xi.

49. Julia Preston, “Young Immigrants Say It’s Obama’s Time to Act,” New York Times, November 30, 2012.

50. Jose Antonio Vargas, “Not Legal, Not Leaving,” Time, June 25, 2012, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2117243–7,00.html.

51. Daniel Altschuler, “DREAMing of Citizenship: An Interview with Gaby Pacheco,” Huffington Post, December 15, 2010, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-altschuler/dreaming-of-citizenship-a_b_797391.html.

52. Julia Preston, “Advocates of Immigration Overhaul Alter Tactics in New Push,” New York Times, January 1, 2010.

53. Vargas, “Not Legal, Not Leaving,” 2.

54. Ibid., 9.

55. Preston, “Young Immigrants Say It’s Obama’s Time to Act.”

56. Alexander Bolton, “Republicans Seeking Out Hispanics,” Hill, March 27, 2012, http://thehill.com/homenews/senate/218307-republicans-seeking-out-hispanics.

57. Preston, “Young Immigrants Say It’s Obama’s Time to Act.”

58. Peter Wallsten, “Marco Rubio’s Dream Act Alternative a Challenge for Obama on Immigration,” Washington Post, April 25, 2012.

59. “Full Transcript of Obama’s Speech on His New Immigration Policy,” Washington Post, June 15, 2012.

60. Pew Hispanic Center, “Up to 1.4 Million Unauthorized Immigrants Could Benefit from New Deportation Policy,” June 15, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/06/15/up-to-1–4-million-unauthorized-immigrants-could-benefit-from-new-deportation-policy/.

61. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals Process,” August 16–September 13, 2012, http://www.uscis.gov.

62. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals Process,” August 16–October 10, 2012, http://www.uscis.gov.

63. US Citizenship and Immigration Service, “Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals Process,” August 15, 2012 to March 31, 2013, http://www.uscis.gov.

64. Grace Meng, “Immigration Waivers Leave Migrant Children Behind,” USA Today, August 28, 2012.

65. Robert Menendez Press Office, “Menendez, Durbin, Reid, 30 Others Introduce the DREAM Act,” May 11, 2011, http://www.menendez.senate.gov/newsroom/press/release/?id=6e1282d4–4ec2–468b-8004–3370ba94a438.

66. Julianne Hing, “Michelle Rhee Joins Parent Blame Game in DREAM Act Support,” Colorlines, July 7, 2011, http://colorlines.com/archives/2011/07/michelle_rhee_supports_the_dream_act.html.

67. Tapia, “A Take on the Internal US-Mexico Border.”

68. Seth Freed Wessler, “Dust Off Those Old Immigration Reform Deals? Not So Fast,” Colorlines, November 13, 2012, http://colorlines.com/archives/2012/11/republicans_back_immigration_reform_but_advocates_keep_pressure_on_white_house.html.

69. Julia Preston, “Young Leaders Cast a Wider Net for Immigration Reform,” New York Times, December 2, 2012.

70. Kirk Semple, “Undocumented Life Is a Hurdle as Immigrants Seek a Reprieve,” New York Times, October 3, 2012.

71. Susan Carroll, “Hope Turns to Despair for Many Trying To Stay in US,” Houston Chronicle, November 26, 2012.

72. Robert Pear, “Limits Placed on Immigrants in Health Care,” New York Times, September 17, 2012.

73. Serena Maria Daniels, “Michigan’s Immigrant Youths Put in Legal Limbo,” Detroit News, December 3, 2012, http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20121203/METRO/212030340#ixzz2E38J3Bv5.

74. Jorge Rivas, “Did Obama’s Victory Speech Include Nod to Dreamers?” Colorlines, November 7, 2012, http://colorlines.com/archives/2012/11/did_obamas_victory_speech_ include_nod_to_dreamers.html.

CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS

1. Katherine Benton-Cohen, Borderline Americans: Racial Division and Labor War in the Arizona Borderlands (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 7.

2. Ibid., 8–9.

3. Nicholas De Genova, Working the Boundaries: Race, Space, and “Illegality” in Mexican Chicago (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 91–92.

4. Ibid., 92, quoting Kitty Calavita, Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the I.N.S. (New York: Routledge, 1992), 180.

5. De Genova, Working the Boundaries, 93.

6. Ibid., 224.

7. Marc Georges Pufong, “Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965,” in The Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties, vol. 1, ed. Paul Finkelman (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2006), 796–97.

8. De Genova, Working the Boundaries, 230.

9. Douglas S. Massey and Karen A. Pren, “Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Policy: Explaining the Post-1965 Surge from Latin America,” Population and Development Review 38, no. 1 (March 2012): 4, http://www.princeton.edu/coverstories/Massey_LatinAmericaImmigrationSurge/Unintended=Consequences.pdf.

10. Ibid., 2.

11. Ibid., 17–18.

12. Ibid., 19–20.

13. Ibid., 20.

14. See David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008), and David Bacon, The Right to Stay Home (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013), for further discussion of how US policies foster out-migration. For US policy in Latin America more generally, see Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Henry Holt, 2006).

15. Jacqueline Stevens, States without Nations: Citizenship for Mortals (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 45.

16. I would like to thank Oscar Chacón of NALAAC for sharing his thoughts on the history of these various immigration reform agendas and allowing me to incorporate his ideas in this section.

17. Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the US–Mexico Boundary, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 140.

18. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

19. Alma Martínez, “Pancho Villa’s Head: The Mexican Revolution and the Chicano Dramatic Imagination,” Pomona College Oldenborg Lunch Series, April 25, 2013.

20. Karen Woodrow and Jeffrey Passel, “Post-IRCA Undocumented Immigration to the United States: An Assessment Based on the June, 1988 CPS,” in Undocumented Migration to the United States: IRCA and the Experience of the 1980s, ed. Frank D. Bean, Barry Edmonston, and Jeffrey S. Passel (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1990), 51. They point out that because of inconsistencies in how Seasonal Agricultural Workers are counted in the Census and the Community Population Survey, the numbers don’t correspond perfectly. Some 1.3 million were legalized under the SAW provisions.

21. Woodrow and Passel, “Post-IRCA Undocumented Immigration,” 66. Emphasis in original.

22. Jeff Stansbury, “L.A. Labor and the New Immigrants,” Labor Research Review 1, no. 13 (1989): 22.

23. See Nancy Cleeland, “AFL-CIO Calls for Amnesty for Illegal US Workers,” Los Angeles Times, February 17, 2000.

24. “AFL-CIO: End Sanctions,” Migration News 7, no. 3 (March 2000), http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=2037_0_2_0.

25. Wayne A. Cornelius, “Impacts of the 1986 US Immigration Law on Emigration from Rural Mexican Sending Communities,” in Bean, Edmonston, and Passel, Undocumented Migration, 243.

26. See Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond, 105.

27. Proposition 187: Text of proposed law, http://www.americanpatrol.com/REFERENCE/prop187text.html.

28. Ruben J. Garcia, “Critical Race Theory and Proposition 187: The Racial Politics of Immigration Law,” Chicano-Latino Law Review 17, no. 118 (1995): 130.

29. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond, 108.

30. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: New Press, 2010), 47.

31. Ibid., 42.

32. Ibid., 54.

33. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond, 110.

34. Ibid., 4, quoting US Border Patrol, “Border Patrol Strategic Plan: 1994 and Beyond,” 1994, 114.

35. Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond, 12.

36. Wade Goodwyn, “Texas Republicans Take Harder Line on Immigration,” National Public Radio, March 29, 2011, http://www.npr.org/2011/03/29/134956690/texas-republicans-take-harder-line-on-immigration.

37. “Statement by Gov. Rick Perry on Immigration and Border Security,” press release, April 29, 2010, http://governor.state.tx.us/news/press-release/14574/.

38. “Statement by Gov. Perry Regarding SCOTUS Decision on Arizona Law,” press release, June 25, 2012, http://governor.state.tx.us/news/press-release/17373/.

39. Tim Eaton, “Perry Blasts Arizona Ruling But Ready to Push Sanctuary City Bill Again,” Austin Statesman, June 25, 2012.

40. Text of Bush immigration speech, January 7, 2004, available on a number of websites, including PBS, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/jan-june04/workers_bg_01–07.html.ye.

41. Irene Bloemraad, Kim Voss, and Taeku Lee, “The Protests of 2006: What They Were, How Do We Understand Them, Where Do They Go?,” in Rallying for Immigrant Rights: The Fight for Inclusion in 21st Century America, ed. Kim Voss and Irene Bloemraad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 3–4.

42. Beth Baker-Cristales, “Mediated Resistance: The Construction of Neoliberal Citizenship in the Immigrant Rights Movement,” Latino Studies 7, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 61.

43. Bloemraad, Voss, and Lee, “The Protests of 2006,” 23.

44. See Sarah Anne Wright, “‘Freedom Ride’ Focuses Attention on Immigrants’ Rights,” Seattle Times, September 21, 2003. See also Randy Shaw, “Building the Labor-Clergy-Immigrant Alliance,” in Rallying for Immigrant Rights, ed. Voss and Bloemraad, 82–100.

45. Shaw, “Building the Labor-Clergy-Immigrant Alliance.”

46. John F. Harris, “Bush’s Hispanic Vote Dissected,” Washington Post, December 26, 2004.

47. Mark Hugo Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote in the 2008 Election,” Pew Hispanic Center, November 8, 2008, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2008/11/05/the-hispanic-vote-in-the-2008-election/; Donna St. George and Brady Dennis, “Growing Share of Hispanic Voters Helped Push Obama to Victory,” Washington Post, November 7, 2012.

48. Rinku Sen, “Immigrants Are Losing the Policy Fight. But That’s Beside the Point,” Colorlines, September 17, 2012, http://colorlines.com/archives/2012/09/immigrants_are_losing_the_political_fight_but_thats_beside_the_point.html.

49. Drew Westen, “Immigrating from Facts to Values: Political Rhetoric in the US Immigration Debate,” Migration Policy Institute, 2009, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/TCM-politicalrhetoric-Westen.pdf.

50. Stan Greenberg, James Carville, Mark Feierstein, and Al Quinlan, “Winning the Immigration Issue: A Report on New National Survey on Immigration,” December 18, 2007, Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research, http://www.gqrr.com/articles/2120/4038_Democracy_Corps_December_18_2007_Immigration_Memo.pdf.

51. Jorge Ramos interview with then-candidate Barack Obama, May 28, 2008, This Week, ABC, July 4, 2010, Politifact.com, http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/525/introduce-comprehensive-immigration-bill-first-yea/.

52. “Obama’s Remarks to NALEO,” June 28, 2008, Real Clear Politics, http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/06/obamas_remarks_to_naleo.html.

53. Carrie Budoff Brown, “Dems’ Tough New Immigration Pitch,” Politico, June 10, 2010, http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0610/38342.html.

54. “Transcript of President Obama’s Press Conference,” New York Times, November 14, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/14/us/politics/running-transcript-of-president-obamas-press-conference.html.

55. Gabriel Thompson, “How the Right Made Racism Sound Fair—and Changed Immigration Politics,” Colorlines, September 13, 2011, http://colorlines.com/archives/2011/09/how_the_right_made_racist_rhetoric_sound_neutral—and_shaped_immigration_politics.html.

56. Spencer S. Hsu, “Obama Revives Bush Idea of Using E-Verify to Catch Illegal Contract Workers,” Washington Post, July 9, 2009.

57. John Morton, “Civil Immigration Enforcement: Priorities for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens,” June 30, 2010, http://www.ice.gov/doclib/detention-reform/pdf/civil_enforcement_priorities.pdf; John Morton, “Memorandum,” June 17, 2011, http://www.ice.gov/doclib/secure-communities/pdf/prosecutorial-discretion-memo.pdf.

58. John Simanski and Lesley M. Sapp, “Immigration Enforcement Actions: 2011,” US Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, September 2012, http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/enforcement_ar_2011.pdf.

59. US Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, “FY 2012: ICE announces year-end removal numbers,” December 21, 2012, http://www.ice.gov/news/releases/1212/121221washingtondc2.htm.

60. Ben Winograd, “ICE Numbers on Prosecutorial Discretion Keep Sliding Downward,” Immigration Impact, July 30, 2012, http://immigrationimpact.com/2012/07/30/ice-numbers-on-prosecutorial-discretion-sliding-downward/; “ICE Prosecutorial Discretion Program: Latest Details as of June 28, 2012,” Syracuse University Transactional Records Access Clearinghouse (TRAC) Immigration, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/reports/287/.

61. Sen, “Immigrants Are Losing the Policy Fight.”

62. The campaign is described on the Colorlines website, http://colorlines.com/droptheiword/.

63. Craig Kopp, “Associated Press Recommends Media Stop Using ‘Illegal Immigrant,’” WUSF News, April 12, 2013, http://wusfnews.wusf.usf.edu/post/associated-press-recommends-media-stop-using-illegal-immigrant.

64. Adam Clark Estes, “L.A. Times Ban on ‘Illegal Immigrant’ Puts Everybody Else on the Spot,” Atlantic Wire, May 1, 2013, http://www.theatlanticwire.com/politics/2013/05/new-la-times-ban-illegal-immigrant-puts-everybody-else-spot/64795/.

65. Ruben Navarrette, “DREAMers Are Pushing Their Luck,” CNN Opinion, December 19, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/19/opinion/navarette-dreamers/index.html.

66. Frederick Douglass, “West India Emancipation,” August 3, 1857. Reproduced at http://www.blackpast.org/?q=1857-frederick-douglass-if-there-no-struggle-there-no-progress.