Introduction. We the Parents: A Worldwide Perspective
1. The Hausa number at least 20 million and live not only in northern Nigeria but also in Niger and other West African countries.
2. The Hausa we worked with in a small town of Katsina province in northwestern Nigeria call themselves Fulani, or Hausa-Fulani, to emphasize their descent from the Fulani who conquered their Hausa ancestors in the early nineteenth century under the Fulani leader Usman dan Fodio.
3. Margaret Mead, Growing Up in New Guinea (New York: William Morrow, 1930).
4. Joseph Henrich, Steven J. Heine, and Ara Norenzayan. “The Weirdest People in the World?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33 (2010): 1–23.
5. Robert A. LeVine, Suzanne Dixon, Sarah LeVine, Amy Richman, P. Herbert Leiderman, and T. Berry Brazelton, Child Care and Culture: Lessons from Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 47. See Alma Gottlieb, The Afterlife Is Where We Come From (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), for a fuller account of a West African community that resembles the Yoruba.
6. Shusuke Kobayashi, “Japanese Mother-Child Relationships: Skill Acquisition Before the Preschool Years,” in Japanese Frames of Mind: Cultural Perspectives on Human Development, edited by Hidetada Shimizu and Robert A. LeVine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 111–140; Heidi Fung, “Becoming a Moral Child: The Socialization of Shame Among Young Chinese Children,” Ethos 27 (1999): 180–209; Peggy J. Miller, Todd L. Sandel, Chung-Hui Liang, and Heidi Fung, “Narrating Transgressions in Longwood: The Discourses, Meanings, and Paradoxes of an American Socializing Practice,” Ethos 29, no. 2 (2001): 159–186.
7. Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism: The Family, Property and Social Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 174–175.
8. Annette Lareau, Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race and Family Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Jennifer Senior, All Joy and No Fun: The Paradox of Modern Parenthood (New York: Ecco, 2014).
Chapter 1. Parent-Blaming in America
1. Horace Mann, Report of an Educational Tour in Germany and Parts of Great Britain and Ireland (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1846).
2. L. Emmett Holt, The Care and Feeding of Children: A Catechism for the Use of Mothers and Children’s Nurses, 7th ed. (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1914).
3. Ibid., 163, 170, 174, and 176.
4. Specifically, Ladies’ Home Journal, Woman’s Home Companion, and Good Housekeeping, which are analyzed by Celia B. Stendler in “Sixty Years of Child Training Practices: Revolution in the Nursery,” Journal of Pediatrics 36 (1950): 122–134.
5. For example, the British pediatrician Winifred de Kok, in Guiding Your Child Through the Formative Years: From Birth to the Age of Five (New York: Emerson Books, 1935), 109.
6. Stendler, “Sixty Years of Child Training Practices,” 128.
7. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982).
8. Ibid.
9. Ann Hulbert, Raising America: Experts, Parents, and a Century of Advice About Children (New York: Random House, 2003), 11.
10. John B. Watson, Psychological Care of Infant and Child (New York: W. W. Norton, 1928).
11. Ibid., 80.
12. Stendler, “Sixty Years of Child Training Practices,” 122.
13. Urie Bronfenbrenner, “Socialization and Social Class Through Time and Space,” in Readings in Social Psychology, 3rd ed., edited by Eleanor E. Maccoby, Theodore M. Newcomb, and Eugene L. Hartley (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1958), 400–425.
14. Stendler, “Sixty Years of Child Training Practices,” 132.
15. Benjamin Spock, The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946), 3.
16. Ibid., 47.
17. Sigmund Freud, “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality” (1905), in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 7, edited by James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), 125–243.
18. Sigmund Freud, “The Ego and the Id” (1923), in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 19, edited by James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1961), 12–66.
19. Karen Horney, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1937); Karen Horney, New Ways in Psychoanalysis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1939).
20. Karen Horney, Neurosis and Human Growth (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950), 18.
21. An earlier version of the book had been published in 1951 as Maternal Care and Mental Health, a report commissioned by the World Health Organization.
22. See the recent cross-cultural critiques: Hiltrud Otto and Heidi Keller, eds., Different Faces of Attachment: Cultural Variations on a Universal Human Need (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Naomi Quinn and Jeanette Mageo, eds., Attachment Reconsidered: Cultural Perspectives on a Western Theory (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
23. Mary D. Salter Ainsworth, Mary C. Blehar, Everett Waters, and Sally N. Wall, Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978).
24. Harry Stack Sullivan, Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry (New York: W. W. Norton, 1940). See also Helen Swick Perry, Psychiatrist of America: The Life of Harry Stack Sullivan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).
25. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, “Notes on the Development of Treatment of Schizophrenics by Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy,” Psychiatry 11 (1948): 263–273.
26. Gregory Bateson, Don D. Jackson, Jay Haley, and John Weakland. “Toward a Theory of Schizophrenia,” Behavioral Science 1 (1956): 251–264.
27. David Lipset, Gregory Bateson: The Legacy of a Scientist (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980), 206.
28. Anne Harrington, “The Fall of the Schizophrenogenic Mother,” The Lancet 379 (April 7, 2012): 1292–1293.
29. See, for example, R. D. Laing, The Politics of the Family, and Other Essays (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976).
30. Harrington, “The Fall of the Schizophrenogenic Mother,” 1293.
31. Ibid.
32. Bruno Bettelheim, The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self (New York: Free Press, 1967), 125.
33. Bruno Bettelheim, Love Is Not Enough (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1950).
34. Ibid., 16–17.
35. Ibid., 7.
36. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, “The Effects of Infant Child Care on Infant-Mother Attachment Security: Results of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care,” Child Development 68, no. 5 (1997): 860–879.
37. Robert J. Trotter, “Human Behavior: Do Animals Have the Answer?” Science News 105 (1974): 279.
38. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, “The Effects of Infant Child Care on Infant-Mother Attachment Security,” 875.
39. Marga Vicedo, The Nature and Nurture of Love: From Imprinting to Attachment in Cold War America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
40. Jerome Kagan, The Human Spark: The Science of Human Development (New York: Basic Books, 2013), 129, 156.
Chapter 2. Expecting: Pregnancy and Birth
1. Sarah LeVine, Mothers and Wives: Gusii Women of East Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
2. Gusii women did not imbibe alcoholic beverages in the 1950s, even while they served millet-beer to men, who became drunk. The one exception was a woman who was stigmatized in the community; people talked behind her back. But when Bob returned seventeen years later, in 1974, many women were brewing beer (or even distilling spirits) to add to the family income, and women were no longer stigmatized for drinking.
3. Gananath Obeyesekere, “Pregnancy Cravings (Dola-Duka) in Relation to Social Structure and Personality in a Sinhalese Village,” American Anthropologist 65 (1963): 323–342.
4. Ruth Freed and Stanley Freed, “Rites of Passage in Shanti Nagar,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 56 (1980): 351–353.
5. Kim Gutschow, Being a Buddhist Nun: The Struggle for Enlightenment in the Himalayas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 209–210.
6. Kim Gutschow, “From Home to Hospital: The Extension of Obstetrics in Ladakh,” in Medicine Between Science and Religion: Explorations on Tibetan Grounds, edited by Vincanne Adams, Mona Schrempf, and Sienna Craig (London: Berghahn Press, 2011), 204.
7. Lynn Bennett, Dangerous Wives and Sacred Sisters: Social and Symbolic Roles of High-Caste Women in Nepal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983).
8. Barbara Rogoff, Developing Destinies: A Mayan Wife and Town (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).
9. Marjorie Shostak, Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Megan Biesele, “An Ideal of Unassisted Birth: Hunting, Healing, and Transformation Among the Kalahari Ju/’hoansi,” in Childbirth and Authoritative Knowledge: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, edited by Robbie Davis-Floyd and Carolyn Sargent (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
10. Melvin J. Konner, “Aspects of the Developmental Ethology of a Foraging People,” in Ethological Studies of Child Behavior, edited by Nicholas Blurton-Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 288.
11. The leaves on the placenta are called emesabakwa and are also used in initiation ceremonies. The word for “placenta” in the Gusii language is omogoye, and it also denotes the bark strips that held together Gusii house frames before the advent of nails. Thus, the placenta with the leaves metaphorically represents a house that continues to protect the womb.
12. Rogoff, Developing Destinies; Brigitte Jordan, Birth in Four Cultures: A Crosscultural Investigation of Childbirth in Yucatan, Holland, Sweden, and the United States, 4th ed. (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 1993).
13. Sarah Hrdy, Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection (New York: Pantheon, 1999), 297–317; David Kertzer, Sacrificed for Honor: Italian Infant Abandonment and the Politics of Reproductive Control (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993).
14. Francesco Cardini and Huang Weixin, “Moxibustion for Correction of Breech Presentation: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of the American Medical Association 280 (1998): 1580–1584.
Chapter 3. Infant Care: A World of Questions . . . and Some Answers
1. John Bowlby, Child Care and the Growth of Love (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1953), 50, 66.
2. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision: Volume 1, Highlights and Advance Tables.
3. United Nations Secretary-General’s Office, The Millennium Goals Report 2015, http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf.
4. Adam Fifield, A Mighty Purpose: How Jim Grant Sold the World on Saving Its Children (New York: Other Press, 2015).
5. John Whiting, “Environmental Constraints on Infant Care Practices,” in Culture and Human Development: The Selected Papers of John Whiting, edited by Eleanor C. Chasdi (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 134.
6. Wayne Dennis, The Hopi Child (New York: Wiley, 1940).
7. James S. Chisholm, Navajo Infancy: An Ethological Study of Child Development (Hawthorne, NY: Aldine, 1983).
8. Robert S. Marvin, Thomas L. VanDevender, Margaret I. Iwanaga, Sarah LeVine, and Robert A. LeVine, “Infant-Caregiver Attachment Among the Hausa of Nigeria,” in Ecological Factors in Human Development, edited by Harry McGurk (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, 1977).
9. Robert R. Sears, Eleanor E. Maccoby, and Harry Levin, Patterns of Child Rearing (New York: Harper & Row, 1957), 73.
10. John Newson and Elizabeth Newson, Patterns of Infant Care in an Urban Community (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1963), 32.
11. Jill Lepore, “Baby Food,” The New Yorker, January 19, 2009.
12. Harvey Levenstein, “‘Best for Babies’ or ‘Preventable Infanticide’? The Controversy over Artificial Feeding of Infants in America, 1880–1920,” Journal of American History 70 (1983): 75–94.
13. US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “Breastfeeding Report Card—United States, 2011,” http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/pdf/2011breastfeedingreportcard.pdf.
14. Lepore’s article “Baby Food,” on breast pumps, details the lengths to which contemporary American working mothers go to provide their own breast milk to their children even when they cannot nurse them.
15. In Nigeria and other parts of Africa, it had become customary by the 1950s to feed children after weaning a diet made up almost entirely of cassava, a South American root crop low in protein; this practice led to a high prevalence of protein-calorie malnutrition among two- to four-year-old children.
16. William Caudill and David Plath, “Who Sleeps by Whom? Parent-Child Involvement in Urban Japanese Families,” Psychiatry 29 (1966): 344–366; Christine Gross-Loh, Parenting Without Borders: Surprising Lessons Parents Around the World Can Teach Us (New York: Avery, 2013), 26.
17. University of Notre Dame, Mother-Baby Behavioral Sleep Laboratory, cosleeping.nd.edu.
18. Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, “SIDS and Other Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Expansion of Recommendations for a Safe Infant Sleeping Environment,” Pediatrics 128 (2011): e1341–e1367.
19. Ibid., e1350.
20. Sigmund Freud, “From the History of an Infantile Neurosis” (1918), in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 17, edited by James Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1955), 3–122. This is the case account of a patient known as the “Wolf-man” in which Freud first attributed a patient’s neurosis to the memory of witnessing parental intercourse.
21. Paul Okami, “Childhood Exposure to Parental Nudity, Parent-Child Co-sleeping, and ‘Primal Scenes’: A Review of Clinical Opinion and Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Sex Research 32 (1995): 51–64.
22. Paul Okami, “Early Childhood Exposure to Parental Nudity and Scenes of Parental Sexuality (‘Primal Scenes’): An 18-Year Longitudinal Study of Outcome,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 27 (1998): 361–384.
23. See Chapter 9 for a fuller account. See also Margaret Mahler, Fred Pine, and Anni Bergmann, The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
24. Caudill and Plath, “Who Sleeps by Whom?”
25. Gross-Loh, Parenting Without Borders, 26–27.
26. James McKenna and Lee Gettler, “There Is No Such Thing as Infant Sleep, There Is No Such Thing as Breast-feeding, There Is Only Breast-sleeping,” Acta Paediatrica 105 (2016): 17–21.
27. Richard A. Shweder, Lene Jensen, and William Goldstein, “Who Sleeps by Whom Revisited: A Method for Extracting the Moral ‘Goods’ Implicit in Praxis,” in Cultural Practices as Context for Development, vol. 67, New Directions for Child Development, edited by Jacqueline Goodnow, Peggy Miller, and Frank Kessel (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
Chapter 4. Mother and Infant: Face-to-Face or Skin-to-Skin?
1. Walter Goldschmidt, “Absent Eyes and Idle Hands: Socialization for Low Affect Among the Sebei,” in Socialization as Cultural Communication: Development of a Theme in the Work of Margaret Mead, edited by Theodore Schwartz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Relindis Yovsi, Joscha Kartner, Heidi Keller, and A. Lohaus, “Maternal Interactional Quality in Two Cultural Environments,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 40 (2009): 701–707.
2. Heidi Keller, Cultures of Infancy (Mahwah, NJ: LEA, 2007), 96.
3. Joscha Kartner, Heidi Keller, and Relindis Yovsi, “Mother-Infant Interaction During the First 3 Months: The Emergence of Culture-Specific Contingency Patterns,” Child Development 81 (2010): 540–554.
4. Robert A. LeVine, Suzanne Dixon, Sarah LeVine, Amy Richman, P. Herbert Leiderman, and T. Berry Brazelton, Child Care and Culture: Lessons from Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
5. Robert A. LeVine and Barbara B. Lloyd, Nyansongo: A Gusii Community in Kenya (New York: Wiley, 1966), 124.
6. Amy Richman, Patrice M. Miller, and Robert A. LeVine, “Cultural and Educational Variations in Maternal Responsiveness,” Developmental Psychology 28 (1992): 614–621.
7. D. W. Winnicott, The Child and the Family: First Relationships (London: Tavistock, 1957).
8. Melvin Konner, “Aspects of the Developmental Ethology of a Foraging People,” in Ethological Studies of Child Behavior, edited by Nicholas Blurton-Jones (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 292, 294.
9. Marjorie Shostak, Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 41.
10. Barry Hewlett, Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991), 32.
11. Ibid., 94.
12. Alma Gottlieb, The Afterlife Is Where We Come From: The Culture of Infancy in West Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 102.
13. Robert A. LeVine, Sarah LeVine, Beatrice Schnell-Anzola, Meredith Rowe, and Emily Dexter, Literacy and Mothering: How Women’s Schooling Changes the Lives of the World’s Children (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 14.
14. Robert A. LeVine, “Challenging Expert Knowledge: Findings from an African Study of Infant Care and Development,” in Childhood and Adolescence: Cross-Cultural Perspectives and Applications, edited by Uwe Gielen and Jaipaul Roopnarine (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 149–165.
15. See, for example, Jerome Kagan, The Human Spark: The Science of Human Development (New York: Basic Books, 2013), 125–156.
16. Heidi Keller, personal communication with the authors, 2005.
17. Heinz Kohut, The Analysis of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1971), 123–124.
18. Heidi Keller, Cultures of Infancy (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007).
19. Suzanne Dixon, Robert A. LeVine, Amy Richman, and T. Berry Brazelton, “Mother-Child Interaction Around a Teaching Task,” Child Development 55 (1984): 1252–1264.
20. LeVine et al., Child Care and Culture, 216.
21. Keller, Cultures of Infancy.
22. Tiffany Field, “Touch for Socio-emotional and Physical Well-being: A Review,” Developmental Review 30 (2010): 367–383.
Chapter 5. Sharing Child Care: Mom Is Not Enough
1. The Gusii have a proverb: “Someone else’s child is like cold mucus” (i.e., disgusting); see Robert A. LeVine and Barbara Lloyd, Nyansongo: A Gusii Community in Kenya (New York: Wiley, 1966), 120.
2. Edward Z. Tronick, Gilda Morelli, and Steve Winn, “Multiple Caretaking of Efe (Pygmy) Infants,” American Anthropologist 89 (1987): 96–106.
3. Alma Gottlieb, The Afterlife Is Where We Come From: The Culture of Infancy in West Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 202–204.
4. Dinesh Sharma and Robert A. LeVine, “Child Care in India: A Comparative Developmental View of Infant Social Environments,” in Socioemotional Development Across Cultures, edited by Dinesh Sharma and Kurt Fischer, New Directions for Child Development 81 (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1998), 55.
5. Ruth S. Freed and Stanley A. Freed, “Enculturation and Education in Shanti Nagar” (monograph), Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 57, part 2 (1981): 66, 71, 73.
6. Susan C. Seymour, Women, Family, and Child Care in India: A World in Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 81.
7. Ibid., 74.
8. Birgitt Röttger-Rössler, “Bonding and Belonging Beyond WEIRD Worlds: Re-thinking Attachment Theory on the Basis of Cross-cultural Anthropological Data,” in Different Faces of Attachment: Cultural Variations on a Universal Human Need, edited by Hiltrud Otto and Heidi Keller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 141–168.
9. Melvin J. Konner, “Relations Among Infants and Juveniles in Comparative Perspective,” in Friendship and Peer Relations, edited by Michael Lewis and Leonard A. Rosenblum (New York: Wiley, 1975), 99–129.
10. Barry Hewlett, Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).
11. Bronislaw Malinowski, The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1929), 14–15.
12. The childless women suffered from secondary infertility due to gonorrhea. See Ulla Larsen, “A Comparative Study of the Levels and the Differentials of Sterility in Cameroon, Kenya, and Sudan,” in Reproduction and Social Organization in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Ron J. Lesthaeghe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
13. Caroline Bledsoe and Uche Isiugo-Abanihe, “Strategies of Child-Fosterage Among Mende Grannies in Sierra Leone,” in Lesthaeghe, Reproduction and Social Organization in Sub-Saharan Africa.
14. Vern Carroll, ed., Adoption in Eastern Oceania (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1970); Mary Martini and John Kirkpatrick, “Parenting in Polynesia: A View from the Marquesas,” in Parent-Child Socialization in Diverse Cultures, edited by Jaipaul L. Roopnarine and Bruce Carter, vol. 5 of Annual Advances in Applied Developmental Psychology (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1992).
Chapter 6. Training Toddlers: Talking, Toileting, Tantrums, and Tasks
1. Jean Briggs, Inuit Morality Play: The Emotional Education of a Three-Year-Old (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 5.
2. Ibid., 6.
3. Barbara Rogoff, Jayanthi Mistry, Artin Göncü, Christine Mosier, Pablo Chavajay, and Shirley Brice Health, “Guided Participation in Cultural Activity by Toddlers and Caregivers,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 58, serial no. 236 (1993).
4. Inge Bolin, Growing Up in a Culture of Respect (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006), 73.
5. These are the upper-caste Brahmin-Chetris (or Parbatiyas) of Nepal. They speak Nepali as their native language, are more than 40 percent of the national population, and resemble the Hindus of northern India in their culture.
6. Bambi Schieffelin and Elinor Ochs, eds., Language Socialization Across Cultures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
7. Sara Harkness and Charles M. Super, “Why African Children Are So Hard to Test,” in Issues in Cross-Cultural Research, edited by Leonard Loeb Adler (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1977), 326–331.
8. Judith R. Johnston and M.-Y. Anita Wong, “Cultural Difference in Beliefs and Practices Concerning Talk to Children,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 45 (2002): 916–926.
9. Joseph Tobin, Yeh Hsueh, and Mayumi Karasawa, Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited: China, Japan, and the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
10. Ibid., 65.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 65, note 90.
13. Miller et al., “Narrating Transgressions in Longwood.”
14. Bambi Schieffelin, The Give and Take of Everyday Life: Language Socialization of Kaluli Children (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 112–135.
15. Patricia M. Clancy, “The Socialization of Affect in Japanese Mother-Child Conversation,” Journal of Pragmatics 31 (1999): 1397–1421.
16. John A. Martin, David R. King, Eleanor E. Maccoby, and Carol Nagy Jacklin, “Secular Trends and Individual Differences in Toilet-Training Progress,” Journal of Pediatric Psychology 9 (1984): 457–467.
17. Newson and Newson, Patterns of Infant Care in an Urban Community, 118.
18. Marian R. Yarrow, John D. Campbell, and Roger V. Burton, Child Rearing: An Inquiry into Research and Methods (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1968).
19. T. Berry Brazelton, “A Child-Oriented Approach to Toilet Training,” Pediatrics 29 (1962): 579–588.
20. Mei-Ling Hopgood, How Eskimos Keep Their Babies Warm and Other Adventures in Parenting (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2012); Freed and Freed, “Enculturation and Education in Shanti Nagar,” 57.
21. Freed and Freed, 63.
22. Seymour, Women, Family and Child Care in India, 83.
23. Michael Potegal, Michael R. Kosorok, and Richard J. Davidson, “Temper Tantrums in Young Children: 2. Tantrum Duration and Temporal Organization,” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 24 (2003): 148. See also Michael Potegal, Michael R. Kosorok, and Richard J. Davidson, “Temper Tantrums in Young Children: 1. Behavioral Composition,” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 24 (2003): 140–147.
24. Jean Walker MacFarlane, Lucile Allen, and Marjorie P. Honzik, A Developmental Study of the Behavior Problems of Normal Children Between 21 Months and 14 Years (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954). See also Florence L. Goodenough, Anger in Young Children (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1931).
25. John Newson and Elizabeth Newson, Four Years Old in an Urban Community (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1968), 448.
26. Ibid., 448, 450.
27. Allen Johnson, Families of the Forest: Matsigenka Indians of the Peruvian Amazon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 106–108.
28. Ibid., 108–109.
29. Elinor Ochs and Carolina Izquierdo, “Responsibility in Childhood: Three Developmental Trajectories,” Ethos 37 (2009): 394.
30. Ibid., 395–396.
31. Homer G. Barnett, Being a Palauan (New York: Henry Holt, 1960), 4–5.
32. Ibid., 6.
33. Ibid., 7.
34. Harald Broch, Growing Up Agreeably: Bonerate Childhood Observed (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990); Douglas Hollan and Jane Wellenkamp, The Thread of Life: Toraja Reflections on the Life Cycle (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996).
35. Martini and Kirkpatrick, “Parenting in Polynesia”; Raymond Firth, We the Tikopia (1936; reprint edition, Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), 137–138.
36. Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa (New York: William Morrow, 1928).
37. Jeanette M. Mageo, “Toward a Cultural Psychodynamics of Attachment: Samoa and US Comparisons,” in Attachment Reconsidered: Cultural Perspectives on a Western Theory, edited by Naomi Quinn and Jeanette M. Mageo (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 199.
38. Malinowski, The Sexual Life of Savages, 19.
39. Mead, Growing Up in New Guinea, 38, 82.
40. Karen Watson-Gegeo, “Fantasy and Reality: The Dialectic of Work and Play in Kwara’ae Children’s Lives,” Ethos 29 (2001): 138–158.
Chapter 7. Childhood: School, Responsibility, and Control
1. Arnold Sameroff and Marshall Haith, eds., The Five to Seven Year Shift: The Age of Reason and Responsibility (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
2. Barbara Rogoff, Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
3. Suzanne Gaskins, “Children’s Daily Activities in a Mayan Village: A Culturally Grounded Description,” Cross-Cultural Research 34 (2000): 375–389.
4. On Guatemala, see Rogoff, Apprenticeship in Thinking, 128. The psychologist-anthropologist Ashley Maynard was taught to make tortillas by Mayan women in Chiapas, Mexico (Zinacantán, the village of Nabenchauk); see Ashley Maynard, “Cultural Teaching: The Development of Teaching Skills in Maya Sibling Interactions,” Child Development 73 (2002): 969–982. On the lowlands of Yucatán, see Suzanne Gaskins and Ruth Paradise, “Learning Through Observation in Daily Life,” in The Anthropology of Learning in Childhood, edited by David Lancy, John Bock, and Suzanne Gaskins (Lanham, MD: Alta Mira Press, 2010), 85–118.
5. Ruth Paradise and Barbara Rogoff, “Side by Side: Learning by Observing and Pitching In,” Ethos 37 (2009): 102–138.
6. David Lancy, The Anthropology of Childhood: Cherubs, Chattel, Changelings (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 234–236.
7. David Lancy, Playing on the Mother-Ground: Cultural Routines for Children’s Development (New York: Guilford Press, 1996), 145–146.
8. Children’s learning in everyday contexts in agrarian societies has been intensively observed and instructively analyzed by Patricia Marks Greenfield, Weaving Generations Together: Evolving Creativity in the Maya of Chiapas (Santa Fe, NM: School of America Press, 2004), as well as by Barbara Rogoff, Ashley Maynard, and the contributors to Lancy et al., The Anthropology of Learning in Childhood.
9. Seymour, Women, Family, and Child Care in India.
10. Susan Seymour, “Expressions of Responsibility Among Indian Children: Some Precursors of Adult Status and Sex Roles,” Ethos 16 (1988): 355–370.
11. Myron Weiner, The Child and the State in India: Child Labor and Education Policy in Comparative Perspective (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 33.
12. Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism, 195–196.
13. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 76.
14. Ralph A. Houlbrooke, The English Family, 1450–1700 (London: Longman Group Ltd., 1984), 153–154.
15. Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 150.
16. Lancy, Playing on the Mother-Ground, 95–143.
17. Charles Stafford, The Roads of Chinese Childhood: Learning and Identification in Angang (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 56–57.
18. Jin Li, Cultural Foundations of Learning: East and West (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
19. Ibid., 50.
20. Murray A. Straus, “Corporal Punishment,” in The Child: An Encyclopedic Companion, edited by Richard A. Shweder (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 214.
21. “British End School Caning,” New York Times, July 24, 1986.
22. Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya (1938; reprint, New York: Vintage Books, 1962).
Chapter 8. Precocious Children: Cultural Priming by Parents and Others
1. Pamela Druckerman, Bringing Up Bébé (New York: Penguin Press, 2012); Karen LeBillon, French Kids Eat Everything (New York: Harper Collins, 2012).
2. Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment.
3. Karin Grossmann, Klaus E. Grossmann, Gottfried Spangler, Gerhard Suess, and Lothar Unzner, “Maternal Sensitivity and Newborns’ Orientation Responses as Related to Quality of Attachment in Northern Germany,” in Growing Points of Attachment: Theory and Research, edited by Inge Bretherton and Everett Waters, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) 50, nos. 1–2 (1985), 253, 255.
4. Ibid., 236.
5. Karin Grossmann and Klaus Grossmann, “Newborn Behavior, the Quality of Early Parenting, and Later Toddler-Parent Relationships in a Group of German Infants,” in The Cultural Context of Infancy, vol. 2, edited by J. Kevin Nugent, Barry M. Lester, and T. Berry Brazelton (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1991), 30.
6. Grossmann et al., “Maternal Sensitivity and Newborns’ Orientation Responses,” 246, table 1.
7. Karin Grossmann, Klaus E. Grossmann, Heinz Kindler, and Peter Zimmermann, “A Wider View of Attachment and Exploration: The Influence of Mothers and Fathers on the Development of Psychological Security from Infancy to Young Adulthood,” in Handbook of Attachment, edited by Jude Cassidy and Philip R. Shaver (New York: Guilford Press, 2008), 857–879; Thomas S. Weisner, “Attachment as a Cultural and Ecological Problem with Pluralistic Solutions,” Human Development 48 (2005): 89–94.
8. Ochs and Izquierdo, “Responsibility in Childhood.”
9. Ibid.
10. Evan Allen, “Weymouth Girl Honored for Aiding Ill Mother,” Boston Globe, March 12, 2014.
11. Twyla Tardif, “Nouns Are Not Always Learned Before Verbs: Evidence from Mandarin Speakers’ Early Vocabularies,” Developmental Psychology 32 (1996): 492–504.
12. Hiroshi Azuma, “Cross-National Research on Child Development: The Hess-Azuma Collaboration in Retrospect,” in Japanese Childrearing: Two Generations of Scholarship, edited by David W. Schwalb and Barbara J. Schwalb (New York: Guilford Press, 1996), 234–235.
13. Misako Tsutsui Steveron, “The Mother’s Role in Japanese Dinnertime Narratives” (master’s thesis, University of Hawaii, Manoa, 1995), 38, cited in Takie Sugiyama Lebra, The Japanese Self in Cultural Logic (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004), 76.
14. Tobin et al., Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited, 137.
15. George A. DeVos, “Psychocultural Continuities in Japanese Social Motivation,” in Schwalb and Schwalb, Japanese Childrearing, 61.
16. George G. Bear, Maureen A. Manning, and Kunio Shiomi, “Children’s Reasoning About Aggression: Differences Between Japan and the United States and Implications for School Discipline,” School Psychology Review 35 (2006): 62–77, 67.
Chapter 9. Conclusions
1. Frank Furedi, Paranoid Parenting: Abandon Your Anxieties and Be a Good Parent (London: Allen Lane, 2001). Furedi is Emeritus Professor of Sociology at the University of Kent and a pioneer in British studies of parenting parallel to the American works cited here. Other sources from the University of Kent are Charlotte Faircloth, Diane M. Hoffman, and Linda Layne, eds., Parenting in Global Perspective: Negotiating Ideologies of Kinship, Self, and Politics (London: Routledge, 2013); and Ellie Lee, Jennie Bristow, Charlotte Faircloth, and Jan Macvarish, Parenting Culture Studies (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).
2. Sharon Hays, The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996); Lareau, Unequal Childhoods; Suzanne B. Bianchi, John P. Robinson, and Melissa A. Milkie, Changing Rhythms of American Family Life (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006); Elinor Ochs and Tamar Kremer-Sadlik, eds., Fast-Forward Family: Home, Work, and Relationships in Middle-Class America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Marie-Anne Suizzo, “Mother-Child Relationships in France: Balancing Autonomy and Affiliation in Everyday Interactions,” Ethos 32 (2004): 293–323.
3. Polly Young-Eisendrath, The Self-esteem Trap: Raising Confident and Compassionate Kids in an Age of Self-importance (New York: Little, Brown, 2008); Leonard Sax, The Collapse of Parenting: How We Hurt Our Kids When We Treat Them Like Grown-ups (New York: Basic Books, 2015).
4. Senior, All Joy and No Fun; Druckerman, Bringing Up Bébé.
5. Laura Pappano, “Is Your First Grader College Ready?” New York Times, February 4, 2015.
6. Druckerman, Bringing Up Bébé, 2–3.