NOTES

Introduction

1. Wesley C. Mitchell, “The Backward Art of Spending Money,” American Economic Review 2 (June 1912): 269–81.

2. Anna M. Harkness, Stephen V. Harkness’s widow, created the Fund in 1918; Harkness had been a close associate of Rockefeller in the founding of Standard Oil. On Mitchell’s appointment, see Guy Alchon, The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science, and the State in the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 53–59.

3. Andrew Carnegie, Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), 255.

4. Werner Sombart, Why Is There No Socialism in the United States? (1906; trans. Patricia M. Hocking and C. T. Husbands, with a foreword by Michael Harrington, White Plains, NY: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1976), 106.

5. Julius Rosenwald, “Principles of Public Giving,” Atlantic Monthly 143 (May 1929): 601.

6. According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, in 2009 the nonprofit sector accounted for 5.5 percent of GDP, or $779.1 billion (It was only 2.5 in 1955). In 2005 the nonprofit sector comprised 9.7 percent of the American workforce. In the same year, the sector was estimated to have total assets of $3.4 trillion.

Independent Sector estimates sources of nonprofit revenues for 2008 as follows: 50 percent from dues, fees, charges; 29.4 percent from government contributions; 12.3 percent from private charitable contributions; 8.3 percent from other sources (primarily interest on endowments).

Private charitable giving totaled $303.75 billion in 2009. This was a 3.6 percent decline from 2008, which Giving USA notes is “the steepest decline” since Giving USA began computing the figure in 1956. Giving broken down by category is as follows: Individual giving: $227.41 billion (75 percent); Charitable bequests: $23.8 billion (8 percent); Corporate gifts (including corporate foundations): $14.1 billion (4 percent); Foundation grants: $38.44 billion (13 percent) [$15.41 billion estimated from family foundations].

The largest recipients by category are as follows: Religion: $100.95 billion (33 percent); Education: $40.1 billion (13 percent); Gifts to “grantmaking, private, community and operating foundations”: $31 billion (10 percent); Unallocated giving: $28.59 billion (10 percent); Human services (includes emergency response charities): $27.08 billion (9 percent); Public-society benefit (United Way, Jewish federations, etc.): $22.77 (8 percent); Health: $22.46 billion (7 percent); Arts, culture, humanities: $12.34 billion (4 percent).

2009 and 1987 are the only two years in which giving has not increased in current dollars since 1969. Giving in 2009 totaled 2.1 percent of GDP. Despite the recession that begun in 2008 (at least so far), giving has remained above 2 percent since the mid-1990s.

In 2009 the U.S. spent approximately $667 billion on defense, including $146 billion for overseas operations. The Office of Management and Budget estimates 2009 defense spending at about 4.6 percent of GDP. Using the 2009 dollar figures, the nonprofit sector was nearly 17 percent larger than the Department of Defense budget (including the wars). Measured as a percentage of GDP, the nonprofit sector surpassed defense spending in 1993.

Chapter 1
“For the Improvement of Mankind”

1. But not quite the 31,000 denounced by the Farmer’s Alliance; see Merle Curti, Judith Green, and Roderick Nash, “Anatomy of Giving: Millionaires in the Late Nineteenth Century,” American Quarterly 15 (Autumn 1963): 416–35.

2. Cornell was also in part a government-funded land grant college.

3. John Ensor Harr and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America’s Greatest Family (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1988).

4. Outlook 86 (July 27, 1907): 648–57; see also George Iles, “The Art of Large Giving,” Century Illustrated Magazine (March 1897): 76–79.

5. Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, revised 1988), 122.

6. Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 3–23.

7. Peabody was originally from Massachusetts; the Peabody Museum at Harvard bears his name. In Baltimore, he influenced Johns Hopkins to found his new school; in London, J. P. Morgan apprenticed with him; see Franklin Parker, George Peabody: A Biography, with a foreword by Merle Curti (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1956); Daniel Coit Gilman, “Thirty Years of the Peabody Education Fund,” Atlantic Monthly 79 (February 1897): 161–66.

8. Howard S. Miller, The Legal Foundations of American Philanthropy, 1776–1844 (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1961); James J. Fishman, “The Development of Nonprofit Corporation Law and an Agenda For Reform,” Emory Law Journal 34 (Summer 1985): 61–83.

9. Gareth Jones, History of the Law of Charity, 1532–1827 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 23–26, and other sections for a brilliantly concise explanation of British precedents.

10. W. K. Jordan, Philanthropy in England 1480–1660 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1959), 141–42.

11. Saltonstall v. Sanders, 93 Mass. 446, 454 (1865).

12. See Irvin G. Wyllie, “The Search for an American Law of Charity, 1776–1844,” Journal of American History 46 (September 1959): 206–10.

13. Stanley N. Katz, Barry Sullivan, and C. Paul Beach, “Legal Change and Legal Autonomy: Charitable Trusts in New York, 1777–1893,” Law and History Review 3 (Spring 1985): 51–89.

14. McGraw’s Estate, 111 N.Y. 66; 19 N.E. 233 (1888).

15. James Barr Ames, “The Failure of the ‘Tilden Trust,’” Harvard Law Review 5 (1891–1892): 389–402; Austin W. Scott, “Charitable Trusts in New York,” New York University Law Review 26 (April 1951): 251–65; Andrew O’Malley, “The Origins and Failure of Samuel J. Tilden’s Charitable Bequest,” M.A. thesis, University of Virginia, 2003; Peter Dobkin Hall, Inventing the Nonprofit Sector and Other Essays on Philanthropy, Voluntarism, and Nonprofit Organizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 185–86.

16. Michael F. Holt, By One Vote: The Disputed Presidential Election of 1876 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008).

17. “Wealth,” North American Review 148 (June 1889): 660.

18. Limiting assets of “eleemosynary institutions,” as charities were technically called, from the Greek eleēmosynē and the Latin eleemosynarius, or “gift of compassion,” and defining bequests too narrowly.

19. Marion R. Fremont-Smith, Philanthropy and the Business Corporation (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972), 39–40.

20. Carnegie said of his trustees: “They shall best conform to my wishes by using their own judgment”; quoted in Alan Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition (New York: Foundation Center, 1984), 40.

21. Knight’s Estate, 159 PA 500 (1894).

22. People v. Dashaway Association, 84 Cal. 114 (1890); see also Elias Clark, “The Limitation on Political Activities: A Discordant Note in the Law of Charities,” Virginia Law Review 46 (April 1960): 448, n. 44.

23. Carl Zollmann, American Law of Charities (Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co., 1924), 20–46.

24. According to the English barrister the foundation consulted in April 1925, the General Education Board would have stood a better chance of receiving an exemption in Great Britain because it was specifically dedicated to education: “The General Education Board and the Rockefeller Foundation—Opinion,” Rockefeller Foundation; Administration—Program and Policy; Record Group 3.1, series 900, box 5, folder 52, Rockefeller Archive Center.

25. See for instance Amos Griswold Warner, American Charities: A Study in Philanthropy and Economics (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1894), 8, 20, 180.

26. William Rhinelander Stewart, ed., The Philanthropic Work of Josephine Shaw Lowell (New York: Macmillan, 1911).

27. Olivier Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 259–80.

28. Allan Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940) vol. 2, 291; Frederick Taylor Gates, Chapters in My Life (New York: Free Press, 1977), 161.

29. Mrs. Sage received 300 “begging letters” a day, wrote Ruth Crocker: Mrs. Russell Sage: Women’s Activism and Philanthropy in Gilded Age and Progressive Era America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 200; see also William H. Allen, Modern Philanthropy: A Study of Efficient Appealing and Giving (New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1912).

30. On Rockefeller, see Gates, Chapters, 163; on de Forest, Joan Waugh, Unsentimental Reformer: The Life of Josephine Shaw Lowell (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 154–55; James J. Hijiya, “Four Ways of Looking at a Philanthropist: A Study of Robert Weeks de Forest,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 124 (December 1980): 404–18.

31. Paul Krause, The Battle for Homestead, 1880–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992), 238.

32. Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (New York: Library of America, 2004 [1913]), 710.

33. See Stanley N. Katz and Barry D. Karl, “The American Private Philanthropic Foundation and the Public Sphere, 1890–1930.” Minerva 19 (Summer 1981): 249–50.

34. Judith Sealander, Private Wealth and Public Life: Foundation Philanthropy and the Reshaping of American Social Policy from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 224.

35. Thomas G. Andrews, Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).

36. See Frederick P. Keppel, The Foundation: Its Place in American Life (New York: Macmillan, 1930; reprint, with an introduction by Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1989), 27–29; Merle Curti and Vernon Carstensen, The University of Wisconsin: A History, 1848–1925 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1949), vol. 2, 223–32.

37. David Hammack, “American Debates on the Legitimacy of Foundations,” in The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations: United States and European Perspectives, ed. Kenneth Prewitt, Mattei Dogan, Steven Heydemann, and Stefan Toepler (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 55.

38. Keppel, The Foundation, xix, 108; Judith Sealander mentions Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, Sr., John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Edward Harkness, Olivia Sage, Julius Rosenwald, Elizabeth Milbank Anderson, and Edward Filene as having “very general goals for shaping society”; see her “Curing Evils at Their Source: The Arrival of Scientific Giving,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 223.

39. Merritt Madison Chambers, Charters of Philanthropies: A Study of Selected Trust Instruments, Charters, By-laws, and Court Decisions (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1948).

40. Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press), 828–84.

41. On the national university, see A. Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1957), 220.

42. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, Private Power for the Public Good: A History of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1983): 159–78; the plan also required that the college admit only students with a four-year high school education; see Abraham Flexner, Henry S. Pritchett (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 95.

43. As Institute Director Simon Flexner called Gates’s dream. See Albert F. Schenkel, The Rich Man and the Kingdom: John D. Rockefeller Jr., and the Protestant Establishment (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), 85.

44. A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, with an introduction by Henry S. Pritchett (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910).

45. Donald Fleming, William H. Welch and the Rise of Modern Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1954), 175–79.

46. Steven C. Wheatley, The Politics of Philanthropy: Abraham Flexner and Medical Education (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 82.

47. Keppel, The Foundation, 58.

48. Eduard C. Lindeman, Wealth and Culture: A Study of One Hundred Foundations and Community Trusts and Their Operations During the Decade 1921–1930 (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1936; reprint, with an introduction by Richard Magat, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1988), 9.

49. Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 98–140.

50. Gates, Chapters, 91–99.

51. Schenkel, The Rich Man, 41.

52. John D. Rockefeller, Sr., Random Reminiscences of Men and Events (Salem, NH: Ayer, 1885; reprint, New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1909), 148 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

53. Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York: Random House, 1998), 298–329.

54. Thomas Wakefield Goodspeed, A History of the University of Chicago: The First Quarter Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1916), 301, 310.

55. President’s Report of the University of Chicago, Administration, Decennial Publications, First Series, vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1903), 519.

56. As Schenkel notes in The Rich Man (70), Rockefeller held to a “basic modernist affirmation.”

57. See Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900–1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 41–70, on defining scientific policy.

58. Horace Mann Bond, Negro Education in Alabama: A Study in Cotton and Steel (Washington, DC: The Associated Publishers, 1939; reprint, with an introduction by Wayne J. Urban and an afterword by Martin Kilson, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1994), 142.

59. James D. Anderson, “Northern Foundations and the Shaping of Southern Black Rural Education,” History of Education Quarterly 18 (Winter 1978): 379.

60. W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1935; reprint with an introduction by David Levering Lewis (New York: Free Press, 1998), 219.

61. Bond, Negro Education in Alabama, 264.

62. Louis D. Rubin, Jr., Teach the Freeman: The Correspondence of Rutherford B. Hayes and the Slater Fund for Negro Education, 1881–1887, 2 vols. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959).

63. Louis R. Harlan, Separate and Unequal: Public School Campaigns and Racism in the Southern Seaboard States, 1901–1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1958; reprint, with a new preface by Hugh Hawkins, New York: Atheneum, 1968), 75–101 (page citations are to the reprint edition).

64. Charles William Dabney, The Public School Problem in the South. Paper presented at the 1901 Conference for Education in the South, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library.

65. Paul M. Gaston, The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1970; reprint, with a new afterword by the author and a new introduction by Robert J. Norrell, Montgomery: NewSouth Books, 2002), 118 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

66. Proceedings of the Second Capon Springs Conference for Christian Education in the South, 1899, 76.

67. Harlan, Separate and Unequal, 92–93.

68. Schenkel, The Rich Man, 75.

69. Charles William Dabney, Universal Education in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936), vol. 2, 534.

70. Dabney, The Public School Problem.

71. Anderson, “Northern Foundations,” 379. Robert J. Norrell, Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009), 222, 274.

72. John Graham Brooks, An American Citizen: The Life of William Henry Baldwin, Jr. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1910), 226.

73. Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss, Jr., Dangerous Donations: Northern Philanthropy and Southern Black Education, 1902–1930 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), 64, 75.

74. See Harlan, Separate and Unequal, 77–78; James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 91.

75. Peter M. Ascoli, Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the South (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 79.

76. Morris Robert Werner, Julius Rosenwald: The Life of a Practical Humanitarian (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1939), 136.

77. Horace Mann Bond, The Education of the Negro in the American Social Order (1934; reprint, with a new preface and an additional chapter by the author, New York: Octagon Books, 1966), 134.

78. Ibid., 112–13.

79. Harlan, Separate and Unequal, 42.

80. “Until the Southern Negro has a vote and representation on school boards, public control of his education will mean his spiritual and economic death,” commented W.E.B. Du Bois, as quoted in Anderson and Moss, Dangerous Donations, 205.

81. Anderson and Moss, Dangerous Donations, 220.

82. “Memoranda from the Old Man Buttrick,” Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, January 17, 1924, Jackson Davis Papers, Accession 3072, Box 2, 1924, GEB, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library.

83. Jackson Davis to Wycliffe Rose, September 2, 1910, Davis Papers, 3072, 6, 1939; see a photograph of Ms. Randolph in Dabney, Universal Education, vol. 2, opposite 446.

84. Davis to Hon. J. D. Eggleston, Jr., Davis Papers, 3072-G, 1, 1911–1915.

85. Davis Papers, 3072, 8, n.d., “Writings on Education.”

86. “The Jeanes Visiting Teachers,” 19, Davis Papers, 3072-G, 1, 1936, 1954.

87. Davis can be compared to Nathan C. Newbold in North Carolina; see Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 161–62.

88. Jackson Davis, “Discussion of graduate and professional education for Negroes,” Southern University Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, October 31, 1939, Davis Papers, 3072, 6, 1929–46, speeches.

89. Edwin R. Embree, Julius Rosenwald Fund: Review of Two Decades, 1917–1935 (Chicago, 1936), 14; John H. Stanfield, Philanthropy and Jim Crow in American Social Science (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985), 99.

90. Bond, The Education of the Negro in the American Social Order, 141; Mary S. Hoffschwelle, The Rosenwald Schools of the American South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006), 37–38.

91. Hoffschwelle, Rosenwald Schools, 231–32, 236–37.

92. Horace Mann Bond and Julia W. Bond, The Star Creek Papers, ed. Adam Fairclough, with a foreword by Julian Bond (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 77.

93. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 27–68.

94. Joseph F. Kett, The Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America, 1750–1990 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 249–50; Judith Sealander notes that this did not prevent congressmen from denouncing Rockefeller, Private Wealth, 52.

95. John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 4.

96. William A. Link, A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 111.

97. Americans had been giving abroad in response to recurrent natural or political disasters, the chronology of which Merle Curti has given us in American Philanthropy Abroad (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963).

98. David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: The Penguin Press, 2006), 786–87.

99. John Farley, To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 34, 47, 61.

Chapter 2
The Coming of Mass Philanthropy

1. Mark Twain, Roughing It (New York: Library of America, 1984 [1872]), 761.

2. Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963), 82–98, 119–33.

3. Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (New York: Library of America, 2004 [1913]), 278.

4. Lilian Brandt, How Much Shall I Give? (New York: Frontier Press, 1921), 57.

5. John Ryan, A Living Wage: Its Ethical and Economic Aspects (New York: Macmillan, 1906), 140–41; see also Frank Hatch Streightoff, The Standard of Living Among the Industrial People of America (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1911).

6. Mary Wilcox Brown, The Development of Thrift (New York: Macmillan, 1899), 7.

7. Margaret F. Byington, Homestead: The Households of a Mill Town (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1910; reprint, with a new introduction by Samuel P. Hays, Pittsburgh, PA: University Center for International Studies, 1974), 97.

8. Ryan, A Living Wage, 145.

9. Michael E. Teller, The Tuberculosis Movement: A Public Health Campaign in the Progressive Era (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988), 3.

10. Richard Carter, The Gentle Legions: National Voluntary Health Organizations in America (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1961; reprint, New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions Publishers, 1992), 71 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

11. The National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis was renamed the National Tuberculosis Association (NTA) in 1918.

12. Scott M. Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States: Its Role in America’s Philanthropy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1965), 54–55.

13. Jacob Riis, “The Christmas Stamp,” Outlook, July 6, 1907, 511.

14. Emily Bissell, “The Story of the Christmas Seal,” undated clipping, Bill Frank Collection, box 11, folder 28, Historical Society of Delaware, Wilmington.

15. Scribner’s Dictionary of American History, “Postal Savings Banks” (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), vol. 4, 319.

16. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 55.

17. Ibid., 57–58.

18. Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 122; S. Adolphus Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, the Anti-Tuberculosis Movement in the United States (New York: NTA, 1922), 43.

19. Richard K. Means, A History of Health Education in the United States (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1962), 117–23.

20. From $4.72 billion in 1916, personal saving nearly doubled in 1917, then climbed to almost $13 billion in 1918, before falling back to $9.3 billion the following year. See series F 540–51, “National Saving, by Major Saver Groups, in Current Prices: 1897–1945,” in Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, U.S. Bureau of the Census (Washington, DC, 1975).

21. See my essay “Mass Philanthropy as Public Thrift for an Age of Consumption,” in Thrift and Thriving in America: Capitalism and Moral Order from the Puritans to the Present, ed. Joshua Yates and James Davison Hunter (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 335–49.

22. Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller; Medical Interests, Record Group III, Series 2, sub-series k, box 17, Folder 133, Rockefeller Archive Center.

23. C.E.A. Winslow, The Life of Hermann M. Biggs, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D.: Physician and Statesman of Public Health (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1929), 213.

24. Robert Taylor, Saranac: America’s Magic Mountain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 74.

25. Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 94–96.

26. David Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890–1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 162–64.

27. Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 128.

28. Teller, The Tuberculosis Movement, 33.

29. Knopf, History of the National Tuberculosis Association, 31.

30. The BCG vaccine (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin), from the French Institut Pasteur, was first used only in 1921.

31. Richard H. Shryock, National Tuberculosis Association, 1904–1954: A Study of the Voluntary Health Movement in the United States (New York: National Tuberculosis Association, 1957), 116.

32. Roderick D. McKenzie, The Metropolitan Community (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933).

33. John Melpolder, “Democratizing Social Welfare Efforts,” The Survey 37 (December 16, 1916), 304.

34. John R. Seeley et al., Community Chest: A Case Study in Philanthropy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957), 17; Eleanor Brilliant, The United Way: Dilemmas of Organized Charity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 19 and 320, notes 6 and 7.

35. Cutlip, History of Fundraising, 18, 66–67.

36. Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 186.

37. “Unique Attempt to Solve Philanthropy’s Big Problem,” New York Times, April 6, 1913.

38. Peter Dobkin Hall, Inventing the Nonprofit Sector and Other Essays on Philanthropy, Voluntarism, and Nonprofit Organizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 51.

39. John D. Rockefeller, Sr., Random Reminiscences of Men and Events (Salem, NH: Ayer, 1885; reprint, New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1909), 155 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

40. Clarke A. Chambers, Seedtime of Reform: American Social Service and Social Action, 1918–1933 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1963), 91–106; see Harry P. Wareheim, “The Campaign,” Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work at the Forty-Ninth Annual Session Held in Providence, Rhode Island, June 22–29, 1922 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 410–15.

41. Daniel J. Walkowitz, Working with Class: Social Workers and the Politics of Middle-Class Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 29.

42. Leonard P. Ayres, “Progress of the Community Trust Movement: A Beneficent Plan Which Has Acquired Nationwide Scope,” Trust Companies 48 (1929): 463–64.

43. Raymond Moley, Realities and Illusions, 1886–1931: The Autobiography of Raymond Moley, Edited with foreword and epilogue by Frank Freidel (New York: Garland, 1980), 111.

44. Industrial Relations. Final Report and Testimony Submitted to Congress by the Commission on Industrial Relations Created by the Act of August 23, 1912. 64th Cong., 1st sess., 1916, S. Doc. 415, IX, 811.

45. Irene Hazard Gerlinger, Money Raising: How To Do It (Los Angeles: Sutton-house, 1938), 3.

46. Ibid.

47. William E. Leuchtenburg, Herbert Hoover (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1999), 25–32.

48. On tax collection in 1913, before the income tax, see George T. Kurian, ed., A Historical Guide to the U.S. Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 324.

49. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 230–31.

50. Foster Rhea Dulles, The American Red Cross: A History (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), 104.

51. “How Manchester-by-the-Sea Raised Its Share of the Red Cross Endowment,” American Red Cross Bulletin 6 (October 1911): 29–33.

52. Mabel Boardman, “A Red Cross Message,” in America to Japan, ed. Lindsay Russell (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1915), 60–61.

53. Dulles, American Red Cross, 148.

54. Ibid., 151; Cutlip, Fund Raising, 117; see also American Red Cross, “World War I Accomplishments of the American Red Cross,” American Red Cross Museum; available at http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/ww1a.asp (accessed September 2, 2010).

55. C. Howard Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A Biography (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979), 535–44.

56. As quoted in Lubove, Professional Altruist, 189–90.

57. “1919 War Chest: give your share: 60 funds, local and war relief, in one, Dec. 2nd to 9th, 1918,” http://books.google.com/books; “Help Fill the War Chest: Humanity Calls You” (Philadelphia: Ketterlinus, ca. 1914–1918); available at http://docsouth.unc.edu/wwi/41913/menu.html (accessed December 29, 2010).

58. Frank A. Vanderlip, “Financing with War Savings Certificates,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 75, no. 164 (January 1918): 33, 36.

59. Charles Gilbert, American Financing of the War Effort (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1970), 139–40.

60. Daniel Holt, “Policing the Margins: Securities Law and the Legitimacy of American Corporate Finance, 1890–1934” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 2008), chapter 5.

61. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 245–47.

62. Ibid., 227.

63. Former University of Colorado and Cornell President and former head of National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis

64. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 309

65. Combining seven organizations: the YMCA (primarily) but also the YWCA, the National Catholic War Council, The Jewish Welfare Board, the War Camp Community Board, the American Library Association, and the Salvation Army.

66. Hopkins, Mott, 540.

67. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 88.

68. Arnaud Marts, Philanthropy’s Role in Civilization: Its Contribution to Human Freedom (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), p. 110.

69. Henry Merritt Wriston, Report on War Chest Practice (presented to the Connecticut State Council of Defense, 1918), 67–68.

70. http://www.joycetice.com/military/warchest.htm (accessed September 17, 2010).

71. David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1976): 92, 95.

72. Hopkins, Mott, 541.

73. Hopkins, Mott, 538.

74. Gerlinger, Money Raising, 8.

75. Earl S. Brown, A History of Switzerland County’s Part in the World War (Connersville, IN: Express Printing, 1919), available as transcribed by Ruth A. Hoggatt on http://myindianahome.net/gen/switz/records/military/WWI/warchest.html (accessed September 4, 2010).

76. Mary Wilcox Brown, The Development of Thrift (New York: Macmillan, 1899), 7.

77. Scribner’s Dictionary of American History, “Thrift Stamps” (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), vol. 5, 267.

78. Editorial, English Journal 7, (June 1918): 397.

79. May 23, 1918, poster of the local War Chest Fund, available at http://www.joycetice.com/military/libebond.htm (accessed on September 3, 1010).

80. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 141

81. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 254–57.

82. André Tardieu, Devant l’obstacle: L’Amérique et nous (Paris: Émile-Paul frères, 1927).

83. John Price Jones, The American Giver: A Review of American Generosity (New York: Inter-River Press, 1956), 12.

84. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 86–87.

85. In this position, he learned fund raising from Guy Emerson, another former journalist, whom Bishop William Lawrence of the Episcopal Church had trained in his successful effort to raise pensions for ministers; Cutlip, Fund Raising, 95.

86. Ibid., 43, 172–75; Richard L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 51.

87. Merle Curti and Roderick Nash, Philanthropy and the Shaping of American Higher Education (New Brunswick,, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1965), 205.

88. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 271–80.

89. Campaign Notes of the American Society for the Control of Cancer 10, 1927; Tamblyn and Brown, Inc., Raising Money: New Business to Meet a New Need (New York: Tamblyn & Brown, 1925).

90. The American City Bureau, Bureau News, vol. 1, 1919, American City Bureau files, Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis [IUPUI] Archives.

91. With the help of women’s organizations, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston opened its doors in January 1908 to Sunday docent service, Handbook of the MFA, 1915, 408. Not only did wealthy women donate large collections (such as suffragist Louisine Havemeyer’s gift to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1929), but they also helped open up the cultural institutions and made up a large part of their constituency; see Kathleen D. McCarthy, Women’s Culture: American Philanthropy and Art, 1830–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 111–12.

92. Cutlip, Fund Raising, 169.

93. In 1935 the American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel was created through the work of nine major fundraising firms: “Minutes of Meeting of the American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel Held at the Advertising Club, New York City, October 21, 1935,” IUPUI archives; Arnaud C. Marts, “Evolution of Marts and Lundy, Inc.,” typescript, Marts and Lundy Records, 1926–1992, Series I, IUPUI archives.

94. Charles Flint Kellogg, NAACP: A History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, vol. 1: 1909–1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967), 107.

95. Raymond Moley, “The Community Trust,” Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work at the Forty-Eighth Annual Session Held in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, June 22–29, 1921 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921), 428.

96. David C. Hammack, “Community Foundations: The Delicate Question of Purpose,” in An Agile Servant: Community Leadership by Community Foundations, ed. Richard Magat (New York: Foundation Center, 1989), 29.

97. C. M. Bookman, “The Community Chest Movement—An Interpretation,” The National Conference of Social Work Annual Proceedings, 51st Annual Session (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924), 22.

98. Lubove, Professional Altruist, 213.

99. Cecile Clare North, The Community and Social Welfare: A Study in Community Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1931), 298–99.

100. Chambers, Seedtime of Reform, 93.

101. David Sills, The Volunteers: Means and Ends in a National Organization (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1957), 42–43.

102. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 49.

103. Ibid., 68.

104. Nina Gilden Seavey, Jane S. Smith, and Paul Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear: The Triumph Over Polio in America (New York: TV Books, 1998), 90.

105. R. J. Prendergast, “Raising the Big Wind,” American Mercury 13 (April 1928): 464; cited in Lubove, Professional Altruist, 215.

106. Stanley Lebergott, The Americans: An Economic Record (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1984), 342; personal saving between 1922 and 1929 was higher than between 1900 and 1915. Statistics on giving before World War II are spotty, but the trend was upward. For example, in 1919, annual private gifts and grants to higher education totaled $7,584,000. By 1929, this figure stood at $26,172,000. Spending on fraternal organizations (a category that also includes recreation) stood at $140 million in 1914, but this figure had more than doubled to $302 million by 1929. John Price Jones estimated that charitable contributions rose from less than $650 million in 1923 to more than $803 million in 1929: The American Giver, table 1. On giving, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States (2006), vol. 2, 877, table Bg211 (“Higher Education Expenditures, Endowment Income, Receipts, and Voluntary Support, by Sources: 1919–1995; All Higher Education: Private Gifts and Grants”); vol. 2, 897, table Bg309 (“Voluntary Membership Organizations—Number, Indicators of Economic Significance, Employment, Employee Consumption, Expenditures, and Income, by Source: 1909–2000; Personal Consumption Expenditures for Recreation, Clubs, and Fraternal Organizations”); and vol. 2, 923, table Bg591 (“Philanthropic and Charitable Giving, and Philanthropic Revenue of Nonprofit Organizations: 1900–1997; Charitable Contributions”).

107. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004 [1835/1840]), 610–16.

108. Brandt, How Much Shall I Give?, 56.

109. Bookman, “Community Chest Movement,” 22–23.

110. T. N. Carver, “Thrift and the Standard of Living,” Journal of Political Economy 28 (November 1920): 784–86.

111. Carl Joslyn, “What Can a Man Afford?,” American Economic Review 11, supp. no. 2 (December 1921): 114.

112. Ellis Lore Kirkpatrick, The Farmer’s Standard of Living (New York: Century Company, 1929), 192.

113. Ibid., 183.

114. Emily H. Huntington and Mary Gorringe Luck, Living on a Moderate Income: The Incomes and Expenditures of Street-Car Men’s and Clerks’ Families in the San Francisco Bay Region (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1937), 128–31, 166.

115. Robert Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 133.

116. Willford Isbell King, Trends in Philanthropy: A Study in a Typical American City (New York: National Bureau for Economic Research, 1928), 75.

117. Bremner, American Philanthropy, 138.

118. Wesley C. Mitchell, ed., Recent Social Trends in The United States: Report of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933), 1168 and 1219.

119. John Price Jones, “Public Opinion, the Depression, and Fund-Raising,” Public Opinion Quarterly 1 (January 1937): 142–47.

Chapter 3
The Regulatory Compromise

1. Jackson v. Wendell Phillips, 96 Mass. 539, 555 (1867); Gray, in dialogue with British law, is quoting Sir Francis Moore.

2. Ellen Carol DuBois, “Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers: Equal Rights, Woman Suffrage, and the United States Constitution, 1820–1878,” Journal of American History 74 (December 1987): 846; see also Elizabeth Griffith, In Her Own Right: The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 92; the gift was to William Lloyd Harrison, Wendell Phillips, Edmund Quincy, Maria W. Chapman, L. Maria Child, Edmund Jackson, William L. Bowditch, Samuel May, Jr., and Charles K. Whipple; Among the feminists, Wendell Phillips, Lucy Stone (now the wife of Henry Blackwell), and Susan B. Anthony.

3. Jackson, 96 Mass. at 565.

4. Ibid. at 555.

5. George v. Braddock, 45 N.J. Eq. 757, 766 (1889).

6. Ibid.

7. Lewis’s Estate, 152 PA 477, 477–80, 25 A. 878 (1893).

8. Garrison v. Little, 75 Ill. App. 402, 405–411 (1897).

9. Collier v. Lindley, 203 Cal. 641, 266 P. 526, 529 (1928); see also Elias Clark, “The Limitation on Political Activities: A Discordant Note in the Law of Charities,” Virginia Law Review 46 (April 1960): 448, note 44.

10. John Witte, Jr., “Tax Exemption of Church Property: Historical Anomaly or Valid Constitutional Practice?” Southern California Law Review 64 (January 1991): 363–415.

11. Charles W Eliot, “The Exemption from Taxation of Church Property, and the Property of Educational, Literary, and Charitable Institutions.” To the Commissioners of the Commonwealth, appointed “to inquire into the expediency of revising and amending the laws of the State relating to taxation and the exemptions therefrom.” Cambridge, December 12, 1874. In American Contributions to Civilization and Other Essays and Addresses (New York: The Century Co., 1907), 302–303, 323, 335.

12. Clark, “Limitation on Political Activities,” 448.

13. Kenneth Liles and Cynthia Blum, “Development of the Federal Tax Treatment of Charities: A Prelude to the Tax Reform Act of 1969,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39 (Autumn 1975): 6–56; Marion R. Fremont Smith, Governing Nonprofit Organizations: Federal and State Law and Regulation (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 56–87.

14. William J. Shultz, The Taxation of Inheritance (Boston: Houghton Mifflin), 1926), 109.

15. 55 Cong. Rec. 6,741 (1917); Paul Arnsberger, Melissa Ludlum, Margaret Riley, and Mark Stanton, “A History of the Tax-Exempt Sector: An SOI Perspective,” Statistics of Income Bulletin (Winter 2008): 105-35.

16. Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, revised 1988), 127.

17. Edward Rabin, “Charitable Trusts and Charitable Deductions,” New York University Law Review 41 (1966): 916.

18. Treasury Decisions under Internal-Revenue Laws of the United States 21 (January-December 1919): 285. See also Oliver A. Houck, “On the Limits of Charity: Lobbying, Litigation, and Electoral Politics by Charitable Organizations Under the Internal Revenue Code and Related Laws,” Brooklyn Law Review 69, 1 (2003–2004): 9.

19. Appeal of Sophia G. Coxe, 5 BTA 261, 262–863 (1926).

20. See John J. Miller, The Unmaking of Americans: How Multiculturalism Has Undermined the Assimilation Ethic (New York: Free Press, 1998), 55; and Appeal of Herbert E. Fales, 9 BTA 828, 828–832 (1927).

21. “Deduction from Tax for Gift Clarified,” New York Times, March 6, 1928.

22. Appeal of Herbert E. Fales.

23. Revenue Act of 1934, Pub. L. No. 73–216, 48 Stat. 680 (1934).

24. See Wayne E. Fuller, Morality and the Mail in Nineteenth-Century America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 98–128.

25. Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), 54.

26. Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927).

27. For evidence on the practice of sterilization at the local level and support for it, see “Sterilization of Mental Defectives, 1923 Del. Laws, Vol. 33, Ch. 62, p. 152” in Directory Relating to and Concerning Welfare Institutions and Laws of the State of Delaware (Dover: Delaware State Board of Charities, 1932), 11–13.

28. “Anthony Comstock to Charles O. Heydt, December 11, 1899,” Office of Mssrs. Rockefeller, Medical Interests, Record Group III, Series 2, Subseries K, Box 17, Folder 131, Rockefeller Archive Center; on John D. Rockefeller, Jr.’s personal gifts, see Ellen Chesler, Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America (New York: Anchor Books, 1993), 277, and an important series of memoranda in Office of Messrs. Rockefeller, Medical Interests, Record Group III 2 K, Box 1, Folder 139, Rockefeller Archive Center.

29. Albert F. Schenkel, The Rich Man and the Kingdom: John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and the Protestant Establishment (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), 87.

30. Chesler, Woman of Valor, 72n.

31. Raymond B. Fosdick, John D. Rockefeller, Jr.: A Portrait (New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1956), 386.

32. James Reed, The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue. With a New Preface on the Relationship between Historical Scholarship and Feminist Issues (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 202.

33. Slee v. Commissioner,15 B.T.A. 710, 713 (1929).

34. Slee v. Commissioner, 42 F.2^d 184 (2^d Cir. 1930)].

35. David M. Kennedy, Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 225.

36. “Birth Control Unit Plans $100,000 Fund,” New York Times, January 11, 1930.

37. Chesler, Woman of Valor, 324.

38. Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 25–45.

39. National Economy League, Brief in Support of the Petition of May 4, 1932 to the President and the Congress for the Elimination of Expenditures of $450,000,000 Per Annum for Veterans of the Spanish-American and World Wars not in Fact Suffering from Disabilities Incurred in Service (New York, 1932); idem, Functional Organization Chart, Virginia Branch (n.p., 1932).

40. “Economy Lobby,” Time Magazine, January 2, 1933.

41. “Angels of Economy League To Be Bared,” Washington Post, January 10, 1933.

42. 78 Cong. Rec. 5861 (1934); Liles and Blum, “Development of the Federal Tax Treatment of Charities,” 9; Clark, “Limitation on Political Activities,” 447, notes 40 and 41.

43. 78 Cong. Rec. 5959 (1934).

44. George, 45 N.J. 757; Taylor v. Hoag, 273 Pa.194, 200, 116 A.826 (1922).

45. In 1955, the 6th Circuit Court in Seasongood v. Commissioner, 227 F.2d 907, declared “substantial” to be above 5 percent of time and effort; see “The Revenue Code and a Charity’s Politics,” Yale Law Journal 73, 4 (March 1964): 674.

46. 78 Cong. Rec. 5861 (1934).

47. Revenue Act of 1934, Pub. L. No. 73–216, 48 Stat. 680 (1934); Houck, “On The Limits of Charity,”12–23.

48. “Charitable,” New York Times, March 7, 1928.

Chapter 4
The Private Funding of Affairs of State

1. Barry D. Karl, The Uneasy State: The United States from 1915 to 1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 74.

2. Ellis Hawley, “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an ‘Associative State,’ 1921–1928,” Journal of American History 61 (June 1974): 116–40.

3. Gary Dean Best, The Politics of American Individualism: Herbert Hoover in Transition, 1918–1921 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975), 94.

4. David Burner, Herbert Hoover: A Public Life (New York: Knopf, 1979), 261.

5. Herbert Hoover, American Individualism (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1922), 56.

6. Best, Politics of American Individualism, 93.

7. James Allen Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991), 52–53.

8. “Harding Names 38 on Unemployment,” New York Times, September 20, 1921.

9. William E. Leuchtenburg, Herbert Hoover (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2009), 51–70; Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 42–45.

10. Norton had advised Jerome D. Greene of the Rockefeller Foundation to invite Robert Brookings as a founding trustee of the Institute for Governmental Research; see Smith, Idea Brokers, 53.

11. David A. Hounshell, “Industrial Research and Manufacturing Technology,” in Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century, ed. Stanley I. Kutler (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1996), vol. 2, 843.

12. Raymond B. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), 159–60, 163; Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900–1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 266.

13. Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 50–51.

14. Hawley, “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat,” 133–34.

15. Donald Critchlow, The Brookings Institution, 1916–1952: Expertise and the Public Interest in a Democratic Society (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1985), 74.

16. Burner, Hoover, 194.

17. Bruce A. Lohof, “Herbert Hoover, Spokesman of Humane Efficiency: The Mississippi Flood of 1927,” American Quarterly, 22 (Autumn 1970), 690–700.

18. John M. Barry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 370.

19. Burner, Hoover, 193.

20. Robyn Spencer, “Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor,” Journal of Negro History 79 (Spring 1994): 170–81.

21. Barry, Rising Tide, 390.

22. Lohof, “Herbert Hoover, Spokesman of Humane Efficiency,” 116.

23. Bruce Lohof, ed., “Herbert Hoover’s Mississippi Valley Land Reform Memorandum: A Document,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 29 (Summer 1970): 112–18.

24. Burner, Hoover, 195–96; Barry, Rising Tide, 392.

25. Morris Robert Werner, Julius Rosenwald: The Life of a Practical Humanitarian (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1939), 293.

26. Ibid., 253.

27. Ibid., 254.

28. Ibid., 352–53; Peter M. Ascoli, Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the American South (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 356–57.

29. “Inaugural Address of Herbert Hoover, March 24, 1929,” Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum, http://hoover.archives.gov/info/inauguralspeech.html (accessed September 27, 2010).

30. Barry D. Karl, “Foundations and Public Policy,” in Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century, ed. Kutler, vol. 1, 496b.

31. John M. Glenn, Lilian Brandt, and F. Emerson Andrews, Russell Sage Foundation, 1907–1946 (New York, 1947), 2: 514–15.

32. The Nader Study Group Report on Dupont in Delaware: The Company State (Washington, DC: Center for Study of Responsive Law, 1971).

33. Andrew J. F. Morris, The Limits of Voluntarism: Charity and Welfare from the New Deal through the Great Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 4.

34. Lammot du Pont to John Raskob, November 18, 1930, in Raskob papers, Acc. 473/678, Hagley Museum and Library [HML].

35. Work & Relief in Wilmington, Delaware in 1931–1932 (Wilmington: Mayor’s Employment and Relief Committee, n.d.) 21, Longwood Mss. Group 10, 1164, HML.

36. Barry John Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis: An Exploration of the Effects of the Great Depression in Delaware, 1929–38” (Ph.D. diss., University of Hull, 1996), 12–13.

37. Work & Relief, 1931–32, 21.

38. Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis,” 14.

39. “Animals: Doak’s Polly,” Time, December 15, 1930.

40. Work & Relief, 13–15.

41. A new fundraising drive called the Block-Aid Campaign was begun: Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis,” 24.

42. Nan Elizabeth Woodruff, As Rare As Rain: Federal Relief in the Great Southern Drought of 1930–31 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985), 8–9, 18–19, 22, 36, 41.

43. David Hamilton, “Herbert Hoover and the Great Drought of 1930,” Journal of American History (March 1982): 854.

44. Woodruff, As Rare As Rain, 11; “Hoover Names Body To Aid the States in Drought Relief,” New York Times, August 20, 1930.

45. Hamilton, “Hoover and the Great Drought,” 855.

46. Woodruff, As Rare As Rain, 29.

47. Ibid., 74–75, 82–85.

48. “Hoover Asks Nation To Give $10,000,000 for Red Cross Aid,” New York Times, January 14, 1931”; “$25,000,000 Drought Fund Is Declined By Red Cross,” New York Times, January 29, 1931; “Edison Gives His Birthday Cake for Sale to Aid Relief Fund,” New York Times, February 14, 1931.

49. Woodruff, As Rare as Rain, 84.

50. Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America (New York: Free Press, 1974), 273.

51. Woodruff, As Rare as Rain, 87–90.

52. Burner, Hoover, 266.

53. Fosdick, Rockefeller Foundation, 203, 209; “Rockefellers Add $750,000 for Idle,” New York Times, November 18, 1931.

54. Glenn, Brandt, and Andrews, Russell Sage Foundation 2: 489.

55. David Hammack and Stanton Wheeler, Social Science in the Making: Essays on the Russell Sage Foundation, 1907–1972 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), 47.

56. Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, revised 1988), 140.

57. Ibid., 139–142.

58. Woodruff, As Rare as Rain, 70.

59. William R. Brock, Welfare, Democracy, and the New Deal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 138–39.

60. Fearing such conflicts, the SSRC had not wanted to join the President’s Conference on Unemployment in 1923, see Barry D. Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 208–209.

61. Josephine Brown, Public Relief, 1929–1939 (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1940), 142.

62. Guy Alchon, The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science, and the State in the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 168.

63. “Message to the Legislature, Albany, August 28, 1931,” in The Roosevelt Reader: Selected Speeches, Messages, Press Conferences, and Letters of Franklin D. Roosevelt, ed. Basil Rauch (New York: Rinehart & Co., 1957), 62–64; W. A. Warn, “Roosevelt Asks $20,000,000 For Jobless, Raising Fund By A 50% Income Tax Rise,” New York Times, August 29, 1931.

64. June Hopkins, Harry Hopkins: Sudden Hero, Brash Reformer (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 67–70.

65. Ibid., 91–123.

66. Brock, Welfare, Democracy, 24.

67. Ibid., 127.

68. Brown, Public Relief, 415.

69. Ibid., 186.

70. Andrew J. F. Morris, “Charity, Therapy and Poverty: Private Social Service in the Era of Public Welfare” (Ph.D. Diss., University of Virginia, 2003), 85.

71. Brown, Public Relief, 186.

72. Hopkins, Hopkins, 158, 165.

73. Brock , Welfare, Democracy, 166.

74. Hopkins, Hopkins, 165; see also Brock, Welfare, Democracy, 168.

75. Brown, Public Relief, 301, quoting Harry Hopkins.

76. Brock, Welfare, Democracy, 280.

77. Jeff Singleton, The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996), 174.

78. Gene D. L. Jones, “The Chicago Catholic Charities, the Great Depression, and Public Monies,” Illinois Historical Journal 83 (Spring 1990): 25; see also Morris, Limits of Voluntarism, 219.

79. Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis,” 88–95.

80. Morris, “Charity, Therapy and Poverty,” 83.

81. Morris, The Limits of Voluntarism, 22.

82. “Review of CWA Activities in the State of Delaware for 1933,” 3; Crane Papers, 1416/98, HML.

83. Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis,” 43–44.

84. Ibid., 45.

85. Reports of the Special Commissions to Study the Need for Relief in New Castle, Kent, and Sussex Counties, 1934, Crane Papers, 1416/99, HML.

86. Plimmer, “Voluntarism in Crisis,” 173.

87. “Drought Relief Cash Ample, Says Hopkins,” New York Times, June 19, 1934; Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 113–14.

88. Worster, Dust Bowl, 18–20, 28.

89. H.R. 7054, 74^th Cong., 1^st sess.; Worster, Dust Bowl, 212–13.

Chapter 5
From Humanitarianism to Cold War

1. Arthur C. Ringland, “The Organization of Voluntary Foreign Aid: 1939–1953,” Department of State Bulletin (March 15, 1954): 383.

2. Except the Red Cross, because it already had its own regulations outlined in its congressional charter; Merle Curti, American Philanthropy Abroad (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963), 414; Allen W. Dulles, “Cash and Carry Neutrality,” Foreign Affairs 18 (January 1940): 179–95.

3. Ringland, “Organization of Voluntary Foreign Aid,” 384.

4. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 452–53.

5. Joseph E. Davies, Charles P. Taft, and Charles Warren, Voluntary War Relief During World War II: A Report to the President by the President’s War Relief Control Board (Washington, DC: GPO, 1946), 5.

6. “Cordell Hull to FDR,” March 3, 1941, in State Department Bulletin 4 (March 15, 1941), 282.

7. International lawyer Charles Warren replaced the deceased Keppel as board member, executive order 9205, July 25, 1942.

8. Davies et al., Voluntary War Relief, 10; Ringland, “Organization of Voluntary Foreign Aid,” 385; Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 456; Harold J. Seymour, Design for Giving: The Story of the National War Fund, Inc., 1943–1947, with a foreword by Winthrop W. Aldrich (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947), 1–21, 73.

9. Franklin Roosevelt, “Radio Address of the National War Fund Drive,” October 5, 1943, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16322&st=&st1= (accessed October 11, 2010).

10. Davies et al., Voluntary War Relief, 11.

11. Ibid., 8.

12. Landrum Bolling, with Craig Smith, Private Foreign Aid: U.S. Philanthropy for Relief and Development (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982), 16.

13. Ronald E. Stenning, Church World Service: Fifty Years of Help and Hope (New York: Friendship Press, 1996).

14. Davies et al., Voluntary War Relief, 11.

15. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 456

16. Ibid., 526.

17. Allan Nevins, Herbert H. Lehman and His Era (New York: Scribner, 1963), 227–33; William I. Hitchcock, The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe (New York: Free Press, 2008), 243–46.

18. George Woodbridge, UNRRA: The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1950), vol. 2, 20.

19. Nevins, Lehman, 243–44.

20. Ibid., 272.

21. Bolling, Private Foreign Aid, 155–56; Nevins, Lehman, 274.

22. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 459.

23. The member organizations, many church-sponsored, were American Baptist Relief; American Friends Service Committee; Brethren Service Committee; Church World Service; Committee on Christian Science Wartime Activities of the Mother Church; Congregational Christian Service Committee; International Migration Service; International Rescue and Relief Committee; Labor League for Human Rights, AFL; Lutheran World Relief; Mennonite Central Committee; National CIO Community Services Committee; Russian Children’s Welfare Society; Tolstoy Foundation; Unitarian Service Committee; War Relief Services-National Catholic Welfare Conference.

24. There was also ARK, American Relief for Korea, which had private philanthropies on the ground assisting with food and social services.

25. Wallace Campbell, The History of CARE: A Personal Account (New York: Praeger, 1990), 15.

26. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 498–99.

27. Campbell, History of CARE, 27.

28. Davies et al, Voluntary War Relief, 15.

29. Nevins, 277.

30. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 484–85.

31. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 42–43.

32. John Ensor Harr and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America’s Greatest Family (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1988): 431–33.

33. Volker R. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe: Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 143–47.

34. On McCloy, see Alan Brinkley, Liberalism and Its Discontents (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 177–209; Kai Bird, The Chairman—John J. McCloy: The Making of the American Establishment (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992).

35. On Stone, see Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe.

36. Paul G. Hoffman, “Memorandum to the Board of Trustees,” 29 January 1951, report 010619, Ford Foundation Archives [FF].

37. Paul G. Hoffman, “To the Trustees of the Ford Foundation,” July 13, 1951, report 010619, FF; Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 231 (1952) (statement of Paul G. Hoffman, President and Director, Ford Foundation).

38. Dyke Brown to Rowan Gaither and Joseph M. McDaniel, Jr., “Development of Program I,” April 26, 1951, report 010601, FF.

39. The Ford Foundation, Annual Report for 1951, December 31, 1951, 13.

40. Ibid.; and Report of the President to the Board of Trustees, April 10, 1951, report 010619, FF; Brown to Gaither and McDaniel, Jr., “Program I,” report 010601, FF; Milton Katz to Rowan Gaither and Dyke Brown, “A Reexamination of the Program Categories under Area I,” October 26, 1951, report 010619, FF.

41. Richard T. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2005), 179, 228.

42. Ibid., 117–18.

43. Ibid., 114.

44. Akira Iriye, “The Role of Philanthropy and Civil Society in U.S. Foreign Relations,” in Philanthropy and Reconciliation: Rebuilding Postwar U.S.-Japan Relations, ed. Tadashi Yamamoto, Akira Iriye, and Makoto Iokibe (Tokyo and New York: Japan Center for International Exchange, 2006), 51–52.

45. Francis X. Sutton “Draft Manuscript, Ford Foundation History Project, Overseas Development, Part II, August 1984, report 011765, FF.

46. Edwin R. Embree, “Timid Billions,” Harper’s Magazine 198 (March 1949), 33; Hearings before the Select Committee … 1952, 344, “Statement of Charles Dollard, President, Carnegie Corporation, New York”; see also Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America’s University (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 227.

47. Paul G. Hoffman, Peace Can Be Won (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1951), 151.

48. “Notes on Conference with Walter Bedell Smith, Allen Dulles and others, April 3, 1951,” Office of the President, H. Rowan Gaither, Area One, The Establishment of Peace, Group 21, Box 1, Series 1, Folder 1. This explains in part why, in early 1953, the foundation felt comfortable in declining yet another request from Senator Joseph McCarthy for information on its activities. When Hoffman received a request for information from the junior senator from Wisconsin in early 1953, Gaither, who had by then replaced him as president, politely declined the invitation. Office of the President, H. Rowan Gaither, Group 21, Series 6, Box 12, Folder 140, Ford archives.

49. Dyke Brown to Paul G. Hoffman, appendix to “Development of Area I Statement,” December 19, 1951, report 010619, FF.

50. Pierre Grémion, Intelligence de l’anticommunisme: Le Congrès pour la liberté de la culture à Paris, 1950–1975 (Paris: Fayard, 1995); Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 86.

51. Raymond Aron, Mémoires. Cinquante ans de réflexion politique (Paris: Julliard, 1983; reprint, Paris: Presses Pocket, 1990), 330–32 (page citation is to the reprint edition); Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, 239.

52. Robert L. Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, 1820–1960 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1970), 201.

53. Mary Coburn, “Near East Foundation Progress Report,” in Basic Project Reports (New York: Near East Foundation, 1933), 8.

54. Daniel, Philanthropy in the Near East, 262; Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 610.

55. Raymond B. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), 184. The phrase “green revolution” is usually thought to have been coined by United States Agency for International Development administrator William Gaud in 1968; see Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 5; Mark Dowie gives the credit to W. H. “Ping” Ferry, who was in charge of public relations for the Ford Foundation at the time of the creation of the International Rice Research Institute in 1960; see his American Foundations: An Investigative History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 112.

56. For a convenient summary, Joel L. Fleishman, The Foundation, A Great American Secret: How Private Wealth Is Changing the World (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 115–24; “Norman Borlaug, Plant Scientist Who Fought Famine, Dies at 95,” New York Times, September 14, 2009.

57. Ian Martin, “The Ford Foundation in India and Pakistan, 1952–1970,” October 8, 1971, 53, report 001970, FF.

58. Darlene Rivas, Missionary Capitalist: Nelson Rockefeller in Venezuela (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 38–44; Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 36–38, on why Rockefeller could not trust the State Department.

59. Kenneth R. Iverson, “The ‘Servicio’ in Theory and Practice,” Public Administration Review 11 (Autumn 1951): 223–28; Rivas, Missionary Capitalist, 52–54.

60. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 576; Bolling, Private Foreign Aid, 35–38.

61. The Stanford biologist Paul R. Ehrlich sparked the “zero population growth”movement with The Population Bomb (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968).

62. James Reed, The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue. With a New Preface on the Relationship between Historical Scholarship and Feminist Issues (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 203; Daniel M. Fox, “The Significance of the Milbank Fund for Policy: An Assessment at Its Centennial,” The Milbank Quarterly 84, 1 (2006): 1–32.

63. Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008).

64. Rivas, Missionary Capitalist, 216; when the war ended and Rockefeller left the State Department, he launched, along with a number of former CIAA and IIAA staffers, related nonprofit and for profit agricultural development ventures (in the end unsuccessful) in Latin America under the leadership of Kenneth J. Kadow, the former head of the Department of Horticulture at the University of Delaware. Had it been legal, Rockefeller would have merged the two under a single corporation in an early version of “philanthrocapitalism.”

65. Sergei Y. Shenin, The United States and the Third World: The Origins of Postwar Relations and the Point Four Program (Huntington, NY: NOVA Science Publishers, 2000), 10–11; Robert Donovan, Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1949–1953 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982), 28–29; David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 97–98.

66. On Rockefeller chairing Truman’s IDAB, see Rivas, Missionary Capitalist, 173, 185–201.

67. In Walter M. Daniels, ed., The Point Four Program (New York: H. Wilson Company, 1951), 12–17.

68. “H. G. Bennett Heads the Point 4 Program,” New York Times, November 15, 1950. On Ensminger, see Eugene S. Staples, Forty Years: A Learning Curve. The Ford Foundation Programs in India (New York: Ford Foundation, 1992), 50; see Sutton, “Draft Manuscript, Ford Foundation History Project,” part II.

69. For Hoffman, the prime minister was the one man “upon whom depends the entire question of whether India goes Communist or does not.” Hearings before the Select Committee … 1952, 232.

70. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Technical Assistance, S. Rep. No. 85–139, at 299 (1957).

71. Harry S. Taylor, “Oral History with Douglas Ensminger,” June 16 and 17, 1976, Truman Presidential Museum and Library, Columbia, Missouri; see also Gary R. Hess, “Waging the Cold War in the Third World: The Foundations and the Challenges of Development,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 319–39.

72. Shenin, The United States and the Third World, 92.

73. “Government Utilization of Private Agencies in Technical Assistance,” in Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Technical Assistance: Final Report of Subcommittee on Technical Assistance Programs, 85^th Congress, 1^st Sess. (1957), 306.

74. Edward Kissi, “Famine and the Politics of Food Relief in United States Relations with Ethiopia, 1950–1991” (Ph.D. Diss., Concordia University, 1997).

75. Curti, Philanthropy Abroad, 615.

76. Ibid., 612.

77. Morris Robert Werner, Julius Rosenwald: The Life of a Practical Humanitarian (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1939), 98–99.

78. Samuel Halperin, “Ideology or Philanthropy? The Politics of Zionist Fund-Raising,” Western Political Quarterly 13 (December 1960): 969–70.

79. Yaacov Bar-Siman-Tov, “The Limits of Economic Sanctions: The American-Israeli Case of 1953,” Journal of Contemporary History 23 (July 1988): 430–31.

80. Michael Beschloss, Presidential Courage: Brave Leaders and How They Changed America, 1789–1989 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), 210, 214–22.

81. Truman extended de jure recognition in January 1949; see Michael J. Cohen, Truman and Israel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 199–222, 274.

82. Isaac Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993), 16.

83. Merrill D. Peterson, “Starving Armenians”: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004), 1.

84. “Morgenthau Says U.S. Backs Israel,” New York Times, October 21, 1948, 8; “Morgenthau Sees Israel Soviet Foe,” New York Times, November 2, 1948, 15.

85. “Israel Aid Asked by Mrs. Roosevelt; We Must Help All Who Desire Freedom, She Adds—Donates $3,500 to Appeal Fund,” New York Times, March 2, 1950, 24; Display ads, New York Times, April 29 and June 11, 1952.

86. Display ads, New York Times, February 15, 1954 and April 16, 1956.

87. “Lehman Asks Help for Jewish Appeal,” New York Times, April 17, 1950, 20.

88. Samuel Halperin, “Ideology or Philanthropy? The Politics of Zionist Fund-Raising,” Western Political Quarterly 13 (December 1960): 960; Halperin, The Political World of American Zionism (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1961), 201.

89. Halperin, The Political World, 380.

90. Deborah Dash Moore, To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L.A. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 238–39; Marc Lee Raphael, A History of the United Jewish Appeal, 1939–1982 (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1982), 45.

91. Moore, Golden Cities, 83–84.

92. Ibid., 237.

93. Edward S. Shapiro, A Time for Healing: American Jewry Since World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 204–205.

94. Raphael, United Jewish Appeal, 39–45.

95. Abraham Ben-Zvi, Decade of Transition: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Origins of the American-Israeli Alliance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 56–57.

96. Irving Spiegel, “U.S. Jews Start $100,000,000 Fund,” New York Times, December 2, 1956.

97. Spiegel, “$35,100,000 Given to Jewish Appeal,” New York Times, March 4, 1957.

98. Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel, 265; Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1984), vol. 2, 386–87.

99. Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel, 271.

100. William S. White, “Johnson Warns President Against ‘Coercing’ Israel,” New York Times, February 19, 1957; Thomas J. Hamilton, “U.N. Debate Today on Mid-east Issue Is Still Uncertain,” New York Times, February 22, 1957.

101. American Jews formed political institutions to press home their concerns. Created in 1954, the Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations was an umbrella group of sixteen national groups eager to speak to the White House and State Department with one voice. They included the American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs, B’nai B’rith, Hadassah, Jewish War Veterans, the American Zionist Federation, and the American Jewish Congress. The year 1954 also saw the creation of the American Zionist Committee for Public Affairs (its full title was later changed to the American Israel Public Affairs Committee, AIPAC). This group, a formal lobby dedicated to supporting Israel, dealt mainly with Congress.

102. Alteras, Eisenhower and Israel, 295–98, 300.

103. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, Khrushchev’s Cold War: The Inside Story of an American Adversary (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006), 58, 62–65.

Chapter 6
Philanthropy at Midcentury: “Timid Billions”?

1. These figures understate the reality as all surveys until 1960 remained woefully incomplete. See David C. Hammack, “American Debates on the Legitimacy of Foundations,” in The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations: United States and European Perspectives, ed. Kenneth Prewitt, Mattei Dogan, Steven Heydemann, and Stefan Toepler (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 55.

2. Frank G. Dickinson, The Changing Position of Philanthropy in the American Economy, with an introduction by Solomon Fabricant (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1970), 4–19.

3. David Cannadine, Mellon: An American Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 547, 598.

4. Ibid., Mellon, 345.

5. Paul Mellon, with John Baskett, Reflections in a Silver Spoon: A Memoir (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1992), 300; on Mellon and the National Gallery, see Cannadine, Mellon, 505–82.

6. John Morton Blum, Roosevelt and Morgenthau: A Revision and Condensation of “From The Morgenthau Diaries” (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 168–70.

7. Ibid., 170.

8. Ibid., 149.

9. Roy G. Blakey and Gladys C. Blakey, “The Revenue Act of 1935,” American Economic Review 25 (December 1935): 673–90; William Greenleaf, From These Beginnings: The Early Philanthropies of Henry and Edsel Ford, 1911–1936 (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1964), 181.

10. Greenleaf, From These Beginnings, 185–86.

11. Ibid., 187–88.

12. Allan Nevins, Ford, vol. 3: Decline and Rebirth, 1933–1962 (New York: Scribner, 1963), 411.

13. Ibid., 413.

14. Frederick P. Keppel, The Foundation: Its Place in American Life (New York: Macmillan, 1930; reprint, with an introduction by Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, New Brunswick, NJ: Transactions Publishers, 1989), xix.

15. Joseph C. Kiger, Philanthropic Foundations in the Twentieth Century (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), 43; F. Emerson Andrews, Philanthropic Giving (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1950), 92; on Ford and universities, Francis X. Sutton, “The Ford Foundation and Columbia: A Paper for the University Seminar on Columbia University, 16 November 1999,” unpublished.

16. F. Emerson Andrews, Corporation Giving (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1952; reprint, with a new introduction by Michael Useem, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1993).

17. Morrell Heald, The Social Responsibilities of Business, Company, and Community, 1900–1960 (Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1970), 155–73.

18. Andrews, Corporation Giving, 229–35; Heald, Social Responsibilities, 265.

19. Heald, Social Responsibilities, 218; Merle Curti and Roderick Nash, Philanthropy and the Shaping of American Higher Education (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1965), 242–43.

20. Arthur W. Page even got involved in the curriculum by encouraging Harvard historians to study individual liberty rather than state functions. His was an unexpected call for a social history from the bottom up in the name of investment in philanthropy, long before the history profession, spurred by 1960s populism, adopted such a program; see Page Papers, 1908–1960, U.S. Mss 51 AF, box 56, Wisconsin Historical Society.

21. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 234; Dickinson, Changing Position of Philanthropy, 22–23.

22. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 105–10.

23. For example J. K. Lasser, How Tax Laws Make Giving to Charity Easy (New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1948); J. K. Lasser Tax Institute and Ralph Wallace, How to Save Estate and Gift Taxes (New York: American Research Council, 1955); Beardsley Ruml and Theodore Geiger, eds., The Manual of Corporate Giving (Washington, DC: National Planning Association, 1952).

24. Kenneth Liles and Cynthia Blum, “Development of the Federal Tax Treatment of Charities: A Prelude to the Tax Reform Act of 1969,” Law and Contemporary Problems 39 (Autumn 1975): 31.

25. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 91.

26. Dickinson, Changing Position of Philanthropy, 22–23.

27. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 50–60.

28. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 117.

29. John R. Seeley et al., Community Chest: A Case Study in Philanthropy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957; reprint, with a new introduction by Carl Milofsky, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989), 195, 159 (page citations are to the reprint edition).

30. Eleanor Brilliant, The United Way: Dilemmas of Organized Charity (New York: Columbia University Press), 32; Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 139; Seeley, Community Chest, 27.

31. Seeley, Community Chest, 257, 391–92.

32. Brilliant, United Way, 30.

33. And about 75 percent by 1954, ibid., 26–27, 323 n. 4.

34. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 144.

35. Bulletin of the American Association of Fund Raising Counsel 93 (November 1957), 1.

36. Edwin R. Embree, “Timid Billions—Are the Foundations Doing Their Job?” Harper’s Magazine 198 (March 1949), 30, 31, 33.

37. Raymond B. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), 100.

38. Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 219.

39. Embree, “Timid Billions,” 35.

40. Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America’s University (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 182.

41. Robert Bremner, American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960, revised 1988), 160.

42. Seeley, Community Chest, 95.

43. Andrew J. F. Morris, The Limits of Voluntarism: Charity and Welfare from the New Deal through the Great Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 68–69.

44. Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 15–17, 43 (1952) (statement of Ernest V. Hollis, Chief of College Administration in the U.S. Office of Education).

45. David Hammack and Stanton Wheeler, Social Science in the Making: Essays on the Russell Sage Foundation, 1907–1972 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1994), 81–82. The Carnegie Corporation of New York reported that 73 percent of its grants in 1947–48 involved the social sciences as opposed to only 28 percent in 1945–46, Andrews, Philanthropic Giving, 226.

46. Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 107–18.

47. Dwight Macdonald, The Ford Foundation: The Men and the Millions (New York: Reynal & Company, 1956; reprint, with a new introduction by Francis X. Sutton, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1989), 3 (page citation is to the reprint edition).

48. “Report of the Trustees of the Ford Foundation, September 27, 1950,” in Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Comm. to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 206 (1952).

49. Francis X. Sutton, “The Ford Foundation: The Early Years,” Daedalus 116 (Winter 1987): 41–91; Macdonald, Ford Foundation, 10–11.

50. Charles Dollard of the Carnegie Corporation, “Informational Bulletin no. 2, 25 January 1949,” Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 1, folder 2, Ford Foundation Archives [FF].

51. The Study Committee (H. Rowan Gaither, Jr., chairman), Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program (Detroit: The Ford Foundation, November 1949), 52.

52. “Background on Personnel, December 20, 1948,” “Organizational Chart,” Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 3, folder 24; “Release 7.p.m.,” December 20, 1948, Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 1, folder 6, FF.

53. Sutton, “The Early Years,” 47.

54. “General Statement (tentative),” Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program, box 3, folder 25, FF.

55. Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation, 47.

56. Dollard, “Informational Bulletin no. 2.”

57. Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation, 19–20; see also Alan R. Raucher, Paul G. Hoffman: Architect of Foreign Aid (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), 82.

58. Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation, 91.

59. Olivier Zunz, Why the American Century? (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 36–39.

60. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 141–46, 176–77.

61. Morton Keller and Phyllis Keller, Making Harvard Modern: The Rise of America’s University (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 187.

62. Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation, 43–46.

63. Ibid., 20.

64. Macdonald, Ford Foundation, 102.

65. Dyke Brown to Ford File, February 9, 1949, Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 3, folder 25, FF.

66. Peter H. Odegard, “Tentative Report Submitted, 3/5/49,” Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 3, folder 33, FF.

67. The feeling was that “the results of natural sciences always produce new social problems, the solution of which is never provided by the natural sciences” wrote Bill McPeak to Roman Gaither on May 20, 1949, Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 3, folder 25, FF.

68. T. Duckett Jones, “Preliminary Form of a Proposed Statement for the Health Division,” Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Programs, box 3, folder 30, FF; W. G. Beadle, “Statement as Related to the Field of Biology,” March 1949, box 3, folder 32.

69. Harry S. Ashmore, Unseasonable Truths: The Life of Robert Maynard Hutchins (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989), 314–22.

70. Ralph Engelman, Public Radio and Television in America: A Political History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996), 136–39.

71. See Alice O’Connor, “The Politics of Rich and Rich: Postwar Investigations of Foundations and the Rise of the Philanthropic Right,” in American Capitalism: Social Thought and Political Economy in the Twentieth Century, ed. Nelson Lichtenstein (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 228–48; Thomas C. Reeves, Freedom and the Foundation: The Fund for the Republic in the Era of McCarthyism (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969), 21–39.

72. Raucher, Paul G. Hoffman, 98; Sutton, “The Early Years,” 73, reports the firing at an earlier date.

73. Sutton, “The Early Years,” 83.

74. Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program, vol. 2 (Report on Education): 33, 41.

75. Nielsen, Big Foundations, 90; Nancy J. Weiss, Whitney M. Young, Jr., and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 91.

76. Captain William H. Stayton to J. Howard Pew, Esq., December 16, 1936, Acc. 1634, box 1, American Liberty League, 1936–37, Hagley Museum and Library [HML].

77. Robert F. Burk, The Corporate State and the Broker State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 278–98.

78. Hayek had thought of calling his group the Acton-Tocqueville society, Acc. 1634, box 4, 1944, HML.

79. Trust Agreement, J. Howard Pew Freedom Trust, October 24, 1957, Acc. 2020, Series II, box 1, HML.

80. Norman Vincent Peale to J. Howard Pew, May 2, 1945, Acc. 1634, box 7, G1945, HML.

81. James W. Fifield, Jr., to Howard J. Pew, January 4, 1944, Acc. 1634, box 4, HML.

82. Jasper E. Crane to John Foster Dulles, July 2, 1946, Acc. 1416, box 138, HML.

83. On the community chest and community foundation, Acc. 1416, box 111, and on the United Fund, see the 1946 annual report, 3, Acc. 1416, box 100, HML.

84. Jasper E. Crane to Eugene DuPont, October 25, 1946, Acc. 1416, box 100, HML.

85. A. Dorothy Arthur to Harold Brayman, “Speech by Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois at YWCA Public Affairs Meeting on November 19, 1947,” November 21, 1947, Acc. 1416, box 100, HML.

86. Joel R. Gardner, A History of the Pew Charitable Trusts (Philadelphia: The Trusts, c. 1991).

87. O’Connor, “Politics of Rich and Rich”; Harry D. Gideonse, “A Congressional Committee’s Investigation of the Foundations,” The Journal of Higher Education 25 (December, 1954): 457–63.

88. Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 569–572 (1952) (statement of John W. Davis, Honorary Trustee of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace); in 1954 Davis would also side with Oppenheimer when the physicist lost his security clearance.

89. Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 344 (1952) (statement of Charles Dollard, President of the Carnegie Corporation of New York).

90. “Robert M. Hutchins, Long a Leader in Educational Change, Dies at 78,” New York Times, May 16, 1977.

91. Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 561, Before the Select Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 82^nd Cong. 297 (1952) (statement of Robert M. Hutchins, Associate Director of the Ford Foundation).

92. Gideonse, “A Congressional Committee.”

93. Tax-Exempt Foundations: Hearings on H. Res. 217, Before the Special Committee to Investigate Tax-Exempt Foundations and Comparable Organizations, 83^rd Cong. 25 (1954).

94. J. Howard Pew to Honorable B. Carroll Reece, April 14, 1953, Acc. 1634, box 96, Foundations 1953–1954, HML.

95. Alfred Dudley Ward, ed., Goals of Economic Life (Harper & Brothers, 1953), viii, acknowledgement to the Foundation on ix.

96. J. Howard Pew to James C. Ingebretsen, April 17, 1953, Acc. 1634, box 96, Foundations 1953–1954, HML.

97. Macdonald, Ford Foundation, 69–80.

98. “Report of the Director,” Annual Report Covering the Period from 1 January through 31 December 1957 (New York: The Foundation Library Center, 1958), 5–6.

99. For a detailed account of this episode, see Patrick L. O’Daniel, “More Honored in the Breach: A Historical Perspective of the Permeable IRS Prohibition on Campaigning by Churches,” Boston College Law Review 42 (July 2001): 733–69.

100. Gardner, A History of the Pew Charitable Trusts; The Pew Memorial Trust, Annual Report 1979 (Philadelphia: The Glenmede Trust Company).

101. Trust Agreement, J. Howard Pew Freedom Trust, October 24, 1957, Acc. 2020, Series II, box 1, HML.

102. J. Howard Pew, “Faith and Freedom: An Address,” n.d. Acc. 2020, Series IV, box 1, HML.

103. Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 3: Under God, Indivisible, 1941–1960 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 153.

104. Billy Graham, Just as I Am: The Autobiography of Billy Graham (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 288.

105. On Israel, J. Howard Pew to Roger Hull (Chairman, executive committee, Billy Graham New York Crusade, Inc.), June 18, 1957, Acc 1634, box 54, HML.

106. Billy Graham to J. Howard Pew, March 28, 1957, Acc. 1634, box 54, HML.

107. Jerry Beavan, Executive Secretary to Billy Graham to J. Howard Pew, May 18, 1957, Acc. 1634, box 54, HML.

108. On Niebuhr against Peale and Graham, see Marty, Under God, Indivisible, 346–47, and Richard Wightman Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), 266; on Niebuhr turning Graham down for a meeting, see Graham, Just as I Am, 301.

109. Michael C. Jensen, “The Pews of Philadelphia: The Shy Super Rich Behind Sun Oil,” New York Times, October 10, 1971.

110. Pew to Hull, June 18, 1957.

111. Billy Graham to J. Howard Pew, March 28, 1957, Acc. 1634, box 54, HML.

112. “A Report to the Public,” Billy Graham New York Crusade, Inc., December 16, 1957, Acc 1634, box 54, HML.

113. Billy Graham to Sid Richardson, April 27, 1957, Acc. 1634, box 54, HML. On Richardson, Graham, and Eisenhower, see Marty, Under God, Indivisible, 305.

Chapter 7
Investing in Civil Rights

1. McGeorge Bundy to The Honorable John W. Gardner, Common Cause, February 19, 1977, Office Files of McGeorge Bundy, Series II, box 15, folder 192, Ford Foundation Archives [FF].

2. David Cannadine, Mellon: An American Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), xiii.

3. Ibid., 569.

4. 107 Cong. Rec. 14, 791 (1961) (statement of Rep. Patman).

5. Nancy Beck Young, Wright Patman: Populism, Liberalism, and the American Dream (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 2000), 208.

6. Ibid., 209.

7. Waldemar Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 17.

8. In “A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, etc.,” Ramparts (March 1967), 29–38, Sol Stern, with the special assistance of Lee Webb, Michael Ansara, and Michael Wood, confirmed that the fake foundations distributing CIA money Patman had identified in his investigation had funded the National Student Organization’s activities abroad; see Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 239.

9. F. Emerson Andrews, Patman and Foundations: Review and Assessment (New York: Foundation Center, 1968), 14, 46.

10. Young, Patman, 17.

11. Thomas A. Troyer, The 1969 Foundation Law: Historical Perspective on Its Origins and Underpinnings (Washington, DC: Council on Foundations, 2000).

12. House Committee on Ways and Means, Written Statements by Interested Individuals and Organizations on Treasury Department Report on Private Foundations, vol. 1, 89^th Cong. 14–18 (1965).

13. Ibid., at 46.

14. Ibid.

15. Elias Clark, “The Limitation on Political Activities: A Discordant Note in the Law of Charities,” VA Law Review 46 (April 1960): 449–50.

16. Jeffrey M. Berry, with David F. Arons, A Voice for Non Profits (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 75–77.

17. Tom Wolfe, Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers (1971; reprint, New York: Picador, 2009), 41.

18. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy and His Times (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), vol. 1, 300; Hugh Davis Graham, Civil Rights and the Presidency: Race and Gender in American Politics, 1960–1972 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 37.

19. Boynton v. Virginia, 364 U.S. 454 (1960).

20. Leslie W. Dunbar (interviewee), Jacquelyn Hall, Helen Bresler, Bob Hall, Peggy Dunbar (interviewers), “Interview with Leslie W. Dunbar, December 18, 1978,” Interview G-0075, Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007), University of North Carolina.

21. John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 19–40.

22. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy, 329.

23. Uncle Paul Mellon, whose Reflections in a Silver Spoon: A Memoir, with John Bassett (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1992), are in part a lament on the psychological trauma brought about by immense wealth, never thought the estrangement even worthy of mention.

24. See Dorothy Height, Open Wide the Freedom Gates: A Memoir, with a foreword by Maya Angelou (New York: Public Affairs, 2003), 138–39.

25. “Interview with Leslie W. Dunbar.”

26. Gerda Weissmann Klein, A Passion for Sharing: The Life of Edith Rosenwald Stern (Chappaqua, NY: Rossell Books), 164–65.

27. “Interview with Leslie W. Dunbar”; Pat Watters and Reece Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Arrival of Negroes in Southern Politics, with an introduction by Leslie W. Dunbar (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1967), 49.

28. Leslie W. Dunbar, “The Southern Regional Council,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 357 (January 1965): 108–12.

29. Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy, 315.

30. Watters and Cleghorn, Climbing Jacob’s Ladder, 48; Paul M. Gaston, Coming of Age in Utopia: The Odyssey of an Idea (Montgomery: NewSouth Books, 2010), 297–98.

31. “Interview with Leslie W. Dunbar”; Kathleen Teltsch, “Field Foundation, Civil Rights Pioneer, to Die at 49; Survivors Will Be Legion,” New York Times, February 19, 1989.

32. “Interview with Leslie W. Dunbar.”

33. August Meier and Elliot Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), 174–81.

34. “Stephen Curriers Missing on Flight,” New York Times, January 19, 1967.

35. “The Foundations as Pioneers,” Time, January 19, 1968.

36. Daniel P. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty, with a foreword by Seldon M. Kruger (New York: Free Press, 1969), 42; Kruger uses the phrase “creative federalism” on v.

37. Virginia M. Esposito, ed., Conscience & Community: The Legacy of Paul Ylvisaker (New York: Peter Lang, 1999); Charles T. Morrissey, “Interview with Paul Ylvisaker,” Ford Foundation Oral History Project, September–October 1973, FF.

38. Gregory K. Raynor, “The Ford Foundation’s War on Poverty: Private Philanthropy and Race Relations in New York City, 1948–1968,” in Philanthropic Foundations: New Scholarship, New Possibilities, ed. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 206–207, 210, 216; Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 43.

39. Raynor, “The Ford Foundation’s War on Poverty,” 212.

40. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 132.

41. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 59.

42. Richard Magat, The Ford Foundation at Work: Philanthropic Choices, Methods, and Styles (New York: Plenum Press, 1979), 121.

43. Alice O’Connor, “Community Action, Urban Reform, and the Fight Against Poverty: The Ford Foundation’s Gray Areas Program,” Journal of Urban History 22 (1996): 609–15.

44. Alice O’Connor, “The Ford Foundation and Philanthropic Activism in the 1960s,” in Philanthropic Foundations: New Scholarship, ed. Lagemann, 183.

45. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 128.

46. Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 220–21, note 26.

47. Berry, A Voice for Nonprofits, 11–12; Martha Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending for Social Services Grants (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1975), 8.

48. Alan Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition: The Essays of Alan Pifer (New York: Foundation Center, 1984), 203; Ellen C. Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 220.

49. Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending, 7–14.

50. Steven Rathgeb Smith and Deborah A. Stone, “The Unexpected Consequences of Privatization,” in Remaking the Welfare State, ed. Michael K. Brown, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 236.

51. Steven Rathgeb Smith and Michael Lipsky, Nonprofits for Hire: The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 54.

52. Bruce Jacobs, The Political Economy of Organizational Change: Urban Institutional Response to the War on Poverty (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 88–89.

53. Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending, 2; Smith and Stone, “Unexpected Consequences,” 237.

54. Charles T. Morrissey, “Interview with McGeorge Bundy,” Ford Foundation Oral History Project, February 1972 and March 1974, FF.

55. Robert Tolles, Program Related Investments: A Broader Use of Philanthropy (first draft), Report 006211, 1975, FF; “Interview with McGeorge Bundy.”

56. “Statement Attached to Form 4653 Claiming Status as an Operating Foundation,” in Grant 700–0231, to Edward C. Sylvester, Jr., President, Cooperative Assistant Fund, FF.

57. Matt Schudel, “Labor, Hill Official Edward Sylvester Dies,” Washington Post, February 18, 2005.

58. John G. Simon, President, Taconic Foundation, Inc. to Louis Winnick, Deputy Vice President, The Ford Foundation, February 4, 1970, in Grant 700–0231, FF.

59. Tolles, Program Related Investments.

60. Ibid.; Schlesinger, Jr., Robert Kennedy, 823.

61. Fred C. Shapiro, “McKissick’s Message on Black Power Never Changes; The Successor to Floyd McKissick May Not Be So Reasonable,” New York Times, October 1, 1967; Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), 340.

62. Internal 1969 Ford Foundation memo, cited in Randall Brentson Cebul, “ ‘From the Ground Up’: Community Organizing, White Backlash, the Ford Foundation, and CORE in the 1967 Election of Carl B. Stokes” (M.A. Thesis, University of Virginia, 2008); see also Karen Ferguson, “Organizing the Ghetto: The Ford Foundation, CORE, and White Power in the Black Power Era, 1967–1969,” Journal of Urban History 34 (2007): 67–100.

63. Cebul, “ ‘From the Ground Up.’ ”

64. Ibid.; Jennifer de Forest, “The Closing of the Philanthropic Frontier: The Field and Ford Foundations’ Funding of the Metropolitan Applied Research Corporation,” 2007, unpublished.

65. Estelle Zannes, with assistance by Mary Jean Thomas, Checkmate in Cleveland: The Rhetoric of Confrontation during the Stokes Years (Cleveland, OH: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1972), 57.

66. Bundy claimed that Seth Taft himself, although defeated, counseled the Ford Foundation a year later to renew the grant to CORE, Tax Reform, 1969: Hearings on the Subject of Tax Reform, Before the House Comm. on Ways and Means, 91^st Cong. 411, pt. 1 (1969).

67. “Head of Foundation Replies to Accuser,” New York Times, February 21, 1969; on Rooney’s politics, see Hendrik Hertzberg, “The Talk of the Town, ‘Hurrah,’ ” New Yorker, (September 30, 1972): 34–35.

68. Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 387.

69. Ibid., 386.

70. Richard D. Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal: Albert Shanker and the Battles over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 67–124.

71. As quoted in Jerald E. Podair, The Strike that Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 125.

72. John Ensor Harr and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Conscience (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991), 293.

73. “Statement by McGeorge Bundy, President of the Ford Foundation to the Committee on Ways and Means, U.S. House of Representatives, on Proposals in Treasury Department Report on Private Foundations, February 20, 1969,” File 010880, FF.

74. 115 Cong. Rec. 37,200 (1969).

75. Tax Reform Act of 1969: Hearings on H.R. 13270, Before the Senate Committee on Finance, 91^st Cong. 676, pt. 1 (1969).

76. Tax Reform Act of 1969: Hearings on H.R. 13270, Before the Senate Committee on Finance, 91^st Cong. 5354, pt. 6 (1969).

77. de Forest, “The Closing of the Philanthropic Frontier.”

78. Harr and Johnson, The Rockefeller Conscience, 295.

79. Memorandum, in Office of the President, Office Files of McGeorge Bundy, Series II, box 19, folder 242, FF; for similar reasoning, see Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition, 50–51.

80. John P. Frank, “Conflict of Interest and U.S. Supreme Court Justices,” The American Journal of Comparative Law 18 (Autumn 1970): 744–61; Lucas A. Powe, Jr., The Warren Court and American Politics (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000), 477–81.

81. Laura Kalman, Abe Fortas: A Biography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 366.

82. Troyer, The 1969 Foundation Law.

Chapter 8
In Search of a Nonprofit Sector

1. A controversy emerged early on over the strategic meaning of the term “non-profit sector”; see Barry Karl’s review of Walter W. Powell, The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987) in Science, May 22, 1987, 984–85, and Peter Dobkin Hall, Inventing the Nonprofit Sector and Other Essays on Philanthropy, Voluntarism, and Nonprofit Organizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 244.

2. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004), 606.

3. This is the question that Robert D. Putnam is asking in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

4. Alan Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition (New York: Foundation Center, 1984), 12.

5. John H. Filer, Chairman, Giving in America: Toward a Stronger Voluntary Sector, Report of the Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs (n.p., 1975), 35.

6. Martha Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending for Social Services Grants (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1975), 2; Steven Rathgeb Smith and Deborah A. Stone, “The Unexpected Consequences of Privatization,” in Remaking the Welfare State, ed. Michael K. Brown (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 237.

7. Steven Rathgeb Smith and Michael Lipsky, Nonprofits for Hire: The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 56.

8. Ibid., 59.

9. Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition, 24.

10. Peter J. Petkas, “The New Federalism: Government Accountability and Private Philanthropy,” in Research Papers Sponsored by The Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs (n.p.: Department of the Treasury, 1977) vol. 2, 1305–15.

11. Joan Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 70; Timothy Conlan, New Federalism: Intergovernmental Reform From Nixon to Reagan (Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 1988), 31.

12. Richard P. Nathan, Paul R. Dommel, Sarah F. Liebschutz, Milton D. Morris, “Monitoring the Block Grant Program for Community Development,” Political Science Quarterly 92 (Summer 1977), 222.

13. Pifer, Philanthropy in an Age of Transition, 13.

14. John Ensor Harr and Peter J. Johnson, The Rockefeller Conscience (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991), 375–76.

15. Eleanor Brilliant, Private Charity and Public Inquiry: A History of the Filer and Peterson Commissions (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 56–63, 87–98.

16. Ibid., 110.

17. Daniel P. Moynihan, draft speech, Coalition of National Voluntary Organizations, October 4, 1978, MSS46, Convo, Board Packet, Independent Sector records, 1971–1976, Ruth Lilly Special Collections and Archives, University Library, Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis [IS].

18. Brilliant, Private Charity and Public Inquiry, 114.

19. Filer, Giving in America, 93.

20. Ibid., 42–48.

21. Ibid., 20, 35.

22. Ibid., 70–72; Putnam, Bowling Alone, 125, fig. 32.

23. Filer, Giving in America, 71–73, Putnam, Bowling Alone, 65–79.

24. Filer, Giving in America, 82.

25. Ibid., 80–85.

26. Colin B. Burke, “Voluntary and nonprofit associations per capita, by region and type of association, and in selected cities: 1840–1990,” Table Bg4, and idem, “Foundations, community trusts, and nonprofit organizations—number, endowment income, and grant expenditures, by sector: 1921–1997,” Table Bg36 in Historical Statistics of the United States, Earliest Times to the Present: Millennial Edition, ed. Susan B. Carter, Scott S. Gartner, Michael R. Haines, et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ISBN-9780511132971.Bg1-250.

27. Filer, Giving in America, 79.

28. Harr and Johnson, The Rockefeller Conscience, 376, 387.

29. Brilliant, Private Charity and Public Inquiry, 130; on the British Charity Commission, see David Owen, English Philanthropy, 1660–1960 (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1964), 572–97.

30. Harr and Johnson, The Rockefeller Conscience, 387–88.

31. Brilliant, Private Charity and Public Inquiry, 131–32.

32. National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, Thirty Years: A History from 1976 to 2006 (Washington, DC: NCRP, n.d.).

33. Jon Van Til, Growing Civil Society: From Nonprofit Sector to Third Space (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 102; Eleanor Brilliant, “Federated Fundraising,” in Philanthropy in America: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia, ed. Dwight F. Burlingame (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2004), 152; National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, The Workplace Giving Revolution: A Special Report (Washington, DC, 1987); Emily Barman, Contesting Communities: The Transformation of Workplace Charity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 2006), 66–68.

34. “United Way Backs Plan to Relax Hold on Drives,” New York Times, October 12, 1979.

35. Donald P. Baker, “Federal Campaign is Criticized for Shutting Out New Agencies,” Washington Post, October 12, 1979; “House Panel Asks Major Changes in Charity Campaign,” Washington Post, December 25, 1979.

36. “The Collaboration of Coalition of National Voluntary Organizations and National Council on Philanthropy, Background Information and Initial Statements by John W. Gardner and Brian O’ Connell,” MSS 46, Convo, Board Packet, October 4, 1978, IS.

37. John W. Gardner, “Remarks,” Charter meeting, Independent Sector, Wednesday, March 5, 1980, MSS 46, Memos to Members, March–June 1980, IS.

38. Ibid.

39. Daniel P. Moynihan, “On Pluralism and the Independent Sector, a Talk at the Charter Meeting of Independent Sector, March 5, 1980,” MSS 46, Memos to Members, March-June 1980, IS.

40. Paul F. Bourke, “The Pluralist Reading of James Madison’s Tenth Federalist,” Perspectives in American History 9 (1975): 271–95.

41. Moynihan, draft speech, October 4, 1978.

42. Joel R. Gardner, A History of the Pew Charitable Trusts (Philadelphia: The Trusts, c. 1991); there had been a public mention in 1967 of a gift J. N. Pew, Jr., had made to Stanford.

43. Draft of “Philanthropy of Organized Religion: A Nationwide Survey of the Council on Foundations, November 1984, A Special Project of the Council of Foundations.” The council successfully applied to the Pew Charitable Trust for funding, Pew Archives, Accession 2020, series XIII, box 5, Hagley Museum and Library [HML].

44. Ibid.

45. Sarah C. Carey, “An Overview of the Philanthropy of Organized Religion and Possible Areas of Collaboration with Foundations,” Council on Foundations, October 15, 1982. Pew Archives, Accession 2020, series VI, box 2, HML.

46. The Gallup Organization, “American Volunteer, 1981,” Conducted for Independent Sector, MSS46, Surveys, IS.

47. “Patterns of Charitable Giving by Individuals: An Independent Sector Research Report Based on the 1979 Gallup Survey Commissioned by the Coalition of National Voluntary Organizations,” MSS 46, Memos to Members, July–December 1980, IS.

48. Brian O’Connell, “Deduction for Nonitemizers Rises to 50%,” MSS 46 Brian O’Connell Originals, 1985, IS.

49. Sandford F. Brandt, “Anatomy of a Bill that Couldn’t Pass—But Did: The Charitable Contributions Legislation, 1975–1981,” MSS 46, CCL History, 1984, IS.

50. Ibid.

51. The program began with a 1975 Yale study entitled “Proposal for a Study of Independent Institutions,” by university president Kingman Brewster, law school professor and Taconic Foundation president (see chapter 7) John G. Simon, and political scientist Charles E. Lindblom. Brewster had been working with John D. Rockefeller III on establishing the Filer commission; he was concerned with the strings attached to federal funding on private universities. Nonprofit Sector, edited by Powell, is a major outcome of the Yale program marking the boundaries of the new field.

52. Adam Yarmolinsky, “Regulation of Charitable Fund-Raising: The Schaumburg Decision, A Summary Report from Independent Sector,” 1980, MSS 46, Memos to Members, March–June 1980, IS.

53. The two most controversial proposals were the Family Assistance Plan and the Child Development Act, both of which were defeated in Congress. Nixon adviser Pat Buchanan was particularly aggravated that federal bureaucracies were so dependent on liberal think tanks. H. R. Halderman ordered White House staff not to use Brookings; see James Allen Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: Free Press, 1991), 196–99.

54. Irving Kristol, “On Corporate Philanthropy,” Wall Street Journal, March 21, 1977.

55. Lewis F. Powell, Jr., to Eugene B. Sydnor, Jr., Chairman, Education Committee, U.S. Chamber of Commerce, “Confidential Memorandum: Attack of American Free Enterprise System,” August 23, 1971; see John B. Judis, The Paradox of American Democracy: Elites, Special Interests, and the Betrayal of Public Trust (New York: Routledge, 2001), 116–17; William E. Simon, A Time for Truth (New York: Reader’s Digest Press, 1978), 299.

56. Quoted in Alice O’Connor, Social Science for What? Philanthropy and the Social Question in a World Turned Rightside Up (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 131.

57. Kristol, “On Corporate Philanthropy”; Alice O’Connor, “Financing the Counter Revolution,” in Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s, ed. Bruce J. Schulman and Julian E. Zelizer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 162.

58. Donald T. Critchlow, The Conservative Ascendancy: How the GOP Right Made Political History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 117.

59. Jeffrey M. Berry, with David F. Arons, A Voice for Non Profits (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 81.

60. Kim Phillips-Fein, “‘If Business and the Country Will Be Run Right’: The Business Challenge to the Liberal Consensus, 1945–1964,” International Labor and Working-Class History 72 (2007): 192–215; Smith, Idea Brokers, 175.

61. Judis, Paradox, 123–24.

62. Kathleen Teltsch “Conservative Unit Gains from Legacy: Olin Foundation Tells of Plan for Education Activity with Founder’s 50 Million,” New York Times, October 2, 1983; on Olin’s law and economics program, see Daniel T. Rodgers, Age of Fracture (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011): 56-59.

63. Idem, “Fund Selects Head for Study of Public Policy,” New York Times, September 26, 1985.

64. Karen Rothmyer, “The Mystery Angel of the New Right: How Richard Mellon Scaife Shelled Out a $100 Million To Bring Us the Many Voices of His Conservative Chorus,” Washington Post, July 12, 1981; Bernard Weinraub, “Foundations Assist Conservative Cause: Institutions Finance Publications, Political Research Groups and Scholars to Spread Ideas,” New York Times, January 20, 1981.

65. Frederick C. Klein, “MacArthur’s Millions: New Foundation Shapes Up as a Big One and One That Will Be Far from Typical,” Wall Street Journal, April 26, 1979.

66. Jeff Krehely, Meaghan House, and Emily Kernan, “Axis of Ideology: Conservative Foundations and Public Policy (n.p.: National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, March 2004), 10.

67. Andrew Rich, Think Tanks, Public Policy, and the Politics of Expertise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 53–55

68. Lee Edwards, The Power of Ideas: The Heritage Foundation at 25 Years (Ottawa, IL: Jameson Books, 1997), 9; Critchlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 128.

69. Smith, Idea Brokers, 200; Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up: A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 177–80.

70. Judis, Paradox, 124.

71. Ibid., 144–45; Critchlow, Conservative Ascendancy, 130.

72. Smith, Idea Brokers, 200

73. See especially Steven M. Teles, The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement: The Battle for the Control of the Law (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).

74. Minutes of the Columbia University Seminar on Philanthropy, 19 March 1984.

75. Hodgson, World Turned Right Side Up, 176–77; Joseph Crespino, “Civil Rights and the Religious Right,” in Rightward Bound, 94.

76. Charles L. Heatherly, ed., foreword by Edwin J. Feulner, Jr. (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 1981)

77. Gilbert A. Lewthwaite, “U.S. Withdraws Rules on Lobby Financing,” Baltimore Sun, March 10, 1983.

78. O’Connor, “Financing the Counter Revolution,” 164.

79. Lester M. Salamon, “The Changing Partnership Between the Voluntary Sector and the Welfare State,” in The Future of the Nonprofit Sector: Challenges, Changes, and Policy Considerations, ed. Virginia A. Hodgkinson and Richard W. Lyman (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1989), 45–46.

80. Anne S. Morrison, “The Reagan Economic Program: A Working Paper for Grantmakers,” Council on Foundations, Inc., September 1981, MSS 46, Government Relations, Council on Foundations, 1981–1983, IS.

81. Salamon, “Changing Partnership,” 49

82. Brian O’Connell, “What Voluntary Activity Can and Can’t Do for America,” discussion draft, 1989, MSS 46, Publications, IS.

83. “Points of Light Initiative: Community Service as National Policy, June 22, 1989, The White House, MSS 46, Points of Light, 1989–1991, IS.

84. Brian O’Connell, “Sector Chairperson’s observations, Independent Sector Membership Meeting, New York City, May 9, 1984, MSS 46, Annual meeting Packet, April 1984, IS.

85. Idem, “What Voluntary Activity Can and Can’t Do for America.”

86. Marvin Olasky, The Tragedy of American Compassion (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1992), 209.

87. Amy E. Black, Douglas L. Koopman, and David K. Ryden, Of Little Faith: The Politics of George W. Bush’s Faith-Based Initiative (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), 44–45.

88. Mark Chaves, “Religious Congregations,” in The State of Nonprofit America, ed. Lester M. Salomon, 288; see also Andrew Walsh, ed., Can Charitable Choice Work? Covering Religion’s Impact on Urban Affairs and Social Services (Hartford, CT: Pew Program on Religion and News Media and the Greenberg Center for the Study of Religion in Public Life, 2001).

89. Ceci Connolly, “Gore Urges Role for ‘Faith-Based’ Groups,” Washington Post, May 25, 1999.

90. Adam Clymer, “Filter Aid to Poor Through Churches, Bush Urges.” New York Times, July 23, 1999.

91. Ibid.

92. Laura Brown Chisolm, “Sinking the Think-Tanks Upstream: The Use and Misuse of Tax Exemption Law to Address the Use and Misuse of Tax Exempt Organizations by Politicians,” University of Pittsburgh Law Review 51 (1989), 577–640.

93. Berry and Arons, Voice for Nonprofits, 82; Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc., “A-122 Lobbying Rules,” May 16, 1984, MSS 46, OMB, Organizational Response, 1983–1984, IS.

94. Oliver A. Houck, “On the Limits of Charity: Lobbying, Litigation, and Electoral Politics by Charitable Organizations Under the Internal Revenue Code and Related Laws,” Brooklyn Law Review 69, 1 (2003–2004): 67.

95. Berry and Arons, Voice for Nonprofits, 55.

96. Ibid., 65.

97. See Sheldon D. Pollack, The Failure of U.S. Tax Policy: Revenue and Politics (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1999), 174–75; Regan v. Taxation With Representation, 461 U.S. 540 (1983).

98. Houck, “On the Limits of Charity,” 45–46, 66.

99. Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 130 S. Ct. 876 (2010).

100. Philip Rucker, “The Film That Cracked the Case,” Washington Post, January 22, 2010.

Chapter 9
American Philanthropy and the World’s Communities

1. A “global associational revolution” said Lester M. Salamon in “The Rise of the Nonprofit Sector,” Foreign Affairs 73 (July–August 1994): 109.

2. See Zi Zhongyun, The Destiny of Wealth: An Analysis of American Philanthropic Foundations from a Chinese Perspective (Dayton, OH: Kettering Foundation Press, 2007); the first Chinese edition of this book was published in 2002 under the title A Good Way to Distribute Wealth (That Is To Spend Money). Openness towards civil society institutions remains threatened throughout the world, as Douglas Rutzen and Catherine Shea report in “The Associational Counter-Revolution,” Alliance 11, 3 (September 2006): 27–28.

3. Edmund J. Keller, “Drought, War, and the Politics of Famine in Ethiopia and Eritrea,” Journal of Modern African Studies 30 (December 1992): 609–24.

4. Angela Ravens-Roberts, “Famine, Fieldwork, and Performance: Issues and Implications of the Practice of Relief Intervention—A Case Study from Ethiopia, 1984–1988,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 2000), 34–37.

5. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 1.

6. Steven Varnis, Reluctant Aid or Aiding the Reluctant?: U.S. Food Aid Policy and Ethiopian Famine Relief (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990), 41.

7. Hailu Lemma, “Politics of Famine in Ethiopia,” Review of African Political Economy 12 (August 1985): 44–58; Joseph Berger, “Eritreans Ask Separate Aid, Saying Rebel Areas Get Little,” New York Times, November 25, 1984.

8. Opening remarks by Kenneth Hackett of Catholic Relief Services, “The Ethiopian Crisis: Philanthropy in Action,” Minutes of the Columbia University Seminar on Philanthropy, May 13, 1985.

9. Varnis, Reluctant Aid, 35

10. Ravens-Roberts, “Famine, Fieldwork, and Performance,” 37–40; Clifford D. May, “Relations Sour Between Ethiopia and Western Food Donors,” New York Times, February 18, 1985.

11. Jay Ross, “Famine, War Threaten Thousands in Ethiopia. U.S. Slow to Aid Ethiopia, a Soviet Ally, in Famine,” Washington Post, June 26, 1983.

12. Stephen Ryan, The United Nations and International Politics (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 91–95; Stanley Meisler, The United Nations: The First Fifty Years (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1995), 228–38.

13. Edward Kissi, “Beneath International Famine Relief in Ethiopia: The United States, Ethiopia, and the Debate over Relief Aid, Development Assistance, and Human Rights,” African Studies Review 48 (September 2005), 123.

14. Kurt Jansson, Michael Harris, Angela Penrose, The Ethiopian Famine: The Story of the Emergency Relief Operation (London: Zed Books, 1987), 27.

15. Hackett, “The Ethiopian Crisis.”

16. Joseph Berger, “Offers of Aid for Stricken Ethiopia Are Pouring in to Relief Agencies. Thousands Offer Aid to Ethiopia Famine Victims,” New York Times, October 28, 1984.

17. Philip M. Boffey, “Disputes Erupt over Ethiopian Relief Efforts,” New York Times, November 1, 1984.

18. Peter Davies, president, InterAction, “The Role of U.S. PVOs in the Ethiopian Crisis,” Minutes of the Columbia University Seminar on Philanthropy, October 14, 1985.

19. Philip M. Boffey, “US Will Provide $45 Million for Famine Relief in Ethiopia,” New York Times, October 26, 1984; David E. Sanger, “Agencies Step Up Relief for Ethiopia,” New York Times, November 3, 1984.

20. Jansson et al., The Ethiopian Famine, 23.

21. Varnis, Reluctant Aid, 106.

22. Hackett, “The Ethiopian Crisis.”

23. Mohammed Amin, “Relief Workers Struggle to Feed Thousands in North Ethiopia,” Washington Post, October 24, 1984.

24. Marc Lindenberg, Going Global: Transforming Relief and Development NGOs (Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian, 2001), 5.

25. Robert P. Beschel, Jr., “The Role of U.S. Foundations in East/Central Europe: Conference Report,” and idem, “Foundation Grantmaking Relating to Central Europe and the Soviet Union,” The Ford Foundation, The Pew Charitable Trusts and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, January 11, 1991, Reports 012072 and 012052, Ford Foundation Archives [FF].

26. James M. Goldgeier and Michael McFaul, Power and Purpose: U.S. Policy Toward Russia after the Cold War (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 67, 72–73, 84–85.

27. Joanna Regulska, “Self-Governance or Central Control? Rewriting Constitutions in Central and Eastern Europe,” in Constitution Making in Eastern Europe, ed. A. E. Dick Howard (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1993), 138–39.

28. Marschall Miklós and Kuti Éva, “Hungary,” in Governance and Civil Society in a Global Age, ed. Tadashi Yamamoto and Kim Gould Ashizawa (Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001), 179.

29. Vassil Penev, “La notoriété de Tocqueville en Bulgarie,” La Revue Tocqueville/The Tocqueville Review 18, 1 (1997), 95–96 ; Henryk Wozniakowski, “Anomie polonaise: Entre droit et symbole, entre civisme et patriotisme,” La Revue Tocqueville/The Tocqueville Review 18, 1 (1997), 127.

30. Alexandru Zub, “Sur les traces de Tocqueville en Roumanie,” La Revue Tocqueville/The Tocqueville Review 18, 1 (1997), 90.

31. “Soviet and East European Study Group Interim Report for Discussion at the Board Meeting on December 8, 1998,” Ford Foundation, Report 016394, FF.

32. Ford Foundation grant to International Commission of Jurists, 1977–1979, Grant Number 07700120, FF; see also Shepard Forman and Kojo Bentsi-Enchill, “International Human Rights Efforts: Human Rights and Governance Program, The Ford Foundation,” and Francis X. Sutton, “Poland,” prepared for Human Rights, Governance and International Affairs Committee of the Board of Trustees, June 23, 1982, Reports 006622, FF.

33. Other foundations joined the effort, especially the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation; see Joan E. Spero, The Global Role of U.S. Foundations (New York: Foundation Center, 2010), 6.

34. Maurice Aymard, “Europe from Division to Reunification: The Eastern European Middle Classes During and After Socialism” in Social Contracts under Stress: The Middle Classes of America, Europe, and Japan at the Turn of the Century, ed. Olivier Zunz, Leonard Schoppa, and Nobuhiro Hiwatari (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 372, 376.

35. See Michael T. Kaufman, Soros: The Life of a Messianic Billionaire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002).

36. Kevin F. F. Quigley, For Democracy’s Sake: Foundations and Democracy Assistance in Central Europe (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1997), 87–102.

37. Douglas Rutzen and Catherine Shea report on their monitoring at the International Center for Not-for-Profit Law (ICNL) in “The Associational Counter-Revolution,” Alliance 11, 3 (September 2006): 27–28.

38. Ibid., 24, 40, 66; Beschel, “The Role of U.S. Foundations in East/Central Europe.”

39. Aymard, “Europe from Division to Reunification,” 363.

40. Burton Bollag, “Community Foundations Across Eastern Europe Advance ‘Step by Step’,” Chronicle of Philanthropy, October 18, 2001.

41. Ford Foundation grant to Autonómia Foundation, Budapest, 1990, Grant Number PA900–1516, FF.

42. Carol C. Adelman, “The Privatization of Foreign Aid: Reassessing National Largesse,” Foreign Affairs 82 (November–December 2003): 9–14.

43. See for example three pamphlets that the New Delhi office of the Ford Foundation published to mark “50 Years of Partnership with India”: Manoshi Mitra, Women, Poverty, and Livelihoods, 21–23; B. G. Verghese, Human Resources, Development, and Capacity Building, 24; Pachampet Sundaram, From Public Administration to Governance, 13–26 (New Delhi: The Ford Foundation, 2002).

44. Muhammad Yunus, Banker to the Poor: Micro-Lending and the Battle Against World Poverty (New York: Public Affairs, 1999), 112–13, 176, 183–84.

45. “Muhammad Yunus and The Grameen Bank Win the Nobel Peace Prize for 2006,” Ford Foundation Press Release, New York, October 17, 2006.

46. Yunus, Banker to the Poor, 176–77.

47. Ibid., 71–83.

48. “Muhammad Yunus and The Grameen Bank Win the Nobel Peace Prize for 2006.”

49. Muhammad Yunus, Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2007), 31. See also David Bornstein and Susan Davis, Social Entrepreneurship: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

50. “Leave Well Alone; Microfinance,” Economist, November 20, 2010; Lydia Polgreen and Vikas Bajaj, “Microcredit Is Imperiled in India by Defaults,” New York Times, November 18, 2010; Muhammad Yunus, “Sacrificing Microcredit for Mega-profits,” New York Times, January 14, 2011.

51. Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 2000), 6.

52. Ibid., 201.

53. Ibid., 33.

54. Lindenberg, Going Global, 3; Shepard Forman and Abby Stoddard, “International Assistance,” in The State of Nonprofit America, ed. Lester M. Salamon (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 243.

55. Jude Howell and Jenny Pearce, Civil Society and Development: A Critical Exploration (Boulder, CO: Lynn Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001), 96.

56. Lindenberg, Going Global, 11.

57. Gerard Clarke, Politics of NGO’s in Southeast Asia: Participation and Protest in the Philippines (Florence, KY: Routledge, 1998), 7–8; Human Development Report (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the United Nations Development Programme, 1993), 92.

58. William Easterly, The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good (London: Penguin Books, 2006).

59. “Ted Turner’s Gift”; “Thanks a Billion, Ted,” New York Times, September 21, 1997.

60. Kofi A. Annan, We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century (New York: United Nations, 2000), 74; see also Jeffrey D. Sachs, with a foreword by Bono, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time (London: Penguin Books, 2005), 210–11.

61. Bill Gates founded the William H. Gates Foundation in 1994 and the Gates Library Foundation in 1997; the two organizations merged in 2000 into the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; Warren Buffett made his pledge in 2006.

62. Louis Uchitelle, “Age of Riches: The Richest of the Rich, Proud of a New Gilded Age,” New York Times, July 15, 2007.

63. Christine W. Letts, William Ryan, and Allen Grossman, “Virtuous Capital: What Foundations Can Learn from Venture Capitalists,” Harvard Business Review 75 (March-April 1997): 36-44; Brock Brower, The New Philanthropists and the Emergence of Venture Philanthropy (Washington, DC: The CSIS Press, 2001); Matthew Bishop and Michael Green, Philanthrocapitalism: How the Rich Can Save the World (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008), 88–97.

64. International Grantmaking IV: An Update on U.S. Foundation Trends (New York: Foundation Center, 2008).

65. Time Magazine named Bill and Melinda Gates and Bono “Persons of the Year” in December 2005.

66. “Foundations to Invest $150 Million On Africa’s Seed Systems,” Africa News, September 14, 2006.

67. “‘Green’ Alliance Appoints Kofi Annan as Chair,” Africa News, June 14, 2007.

68. See http://www.agra-alliance.org.

69. Philanthropy News Digest, June 16, 2008; on the Millenium Challenge Corporation, see Carol Lancaster, George Bush’s Foreign Aid: Transformation or Chaos? (Washington, DC: Center for Global Development, 2008).

70. The new trust fund is administered by the World Bank; see U.S. Treasury Department, Fact Sheet, Thursday, April 22, 2010, Global Agriculture and Food Security Program.

71. “AGRA Takes Certified Seeds to Farmers in War On Hunger,” Africa News, October 2, 2007.

72. Ann C. Hudock, NGOs and Civil Society: Democracy by Proxy? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995).

73. Spero, The Global Role of U.S. Foundations, 11–16.

74. Stefanie Meredith and Elizabeth Ziemba, “The New Landscape of Product Development Partnerships (PDPs),” in Health Partnerships Review (Global Forum for Health Research, Geneva, 2008), 11–16.

75. Bethany McLean and Joan Levinstein, “The Power of Philanthropy,” Fortune 154 (September 18, 2006); Cecilia Dugger, “Clinton Helps Broker Deal for Medicine to Treat AIDS,” New York Times, December 1, 2006.

76. Amy Waldman, “Gates Offers India $100 million to Fight AIDS: Plans to Finance 10-Year Program,” New York Times, November 12, 2002.

77. Gowri Parameswaran, “Stemming the Tide: Successes, Failures, and Lessons Learned in Tamil Nadu, India,” Dialectical Anthropology 28 (2004): 397–414.

78. Amartya Sen, “Foreword,” AIDS Sutra: Untold Stories from India ed. Negar Akhavi (New York: Anchor Books, 2008), 14.

79. Siddharth Dhanvant Shanghvi, “Hello, Darling,” AIDS Sutra, 69.

80. Bill and Melinda Gates, “Introduction,” AIDS Sutra, ix–x.

81. Priya Shetty, “Ashok Alexander: Taking On the Challenge of AIDS in India,” The Lancet 366 (November 26, 2005): 1843.

82. This account is based on four 2008 internal reports from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s Avahan India AIDS Initiative, “The Power to Tackle Violence: Avahan’s Experience with Community Led Crisis Response in India”; “Avahan—The India AIDS Initiative: The Business of HIV Prevention at Scale”; “Use it or Lose it: How Avahan Used Data to Shape Its HIV Prevention Efforts in India”; “Managing HIV Prevention From The Ground Up: Peer Led Outreach at Scale in India.”

83. The Reagan administration instituted the Mexico City Policy, also known as the Gag Rule, in 1984; the Clinton administration ended it in January 1993; the Bush administration re-instituted it in January 2001; the Obama administration rescinded it again in January 2009.

84. Interview with Dr. Rebecca Dillingham, Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia School of Medicine, April 2010.

85. Nicole Wallace, “Red Cross Sees Jump in Internet Donations,” Chronicle of Philanthropy, September 9, 1999.

Conclusion

1. Its initial phase is described in Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977); Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); and Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895–1904 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

2. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (London, 1759; reprint: Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1982), 9.

3. Marcel Mauss, “Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques,” L’année sociologique, 1923–1924; Sociologie et anthropologie, with an introduction by Claude Lévi-Strauss (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1950), 239.

4. Economists Matthew Bishop and Michael Green have emphasized this theme in a recent book they have titled Philanthrocapitalism: How the Rich Can Save the World (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008).

5. Olivier Zunz, ed. Alexis de Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont in America: Their Friendship and Their Travels, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 38.

6. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004), 611.

7. Oscar Harkavy, Curbing Population Growth: An Insider’s Perspective on the Population Movement (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), 12.

8. John J. Havens and Paul G. Schervish, “Why the $41 Trillion Wealth Transfer Estimate is Still Valid: A Review of Challenges and Questions,” Journal of Gift Planning 7 (January 2003): 11-15, 47-50; Susan U. Raymond and Mary Beth Martin, Mapping the New World of American Philanthropy: Causes and Consequences of the Transfer of Wealth (New York: Wiley, 2007).

9. Announcement at http://www.givingpledge.org; see also Stephanie Strom, “Pledge to Give Away Half Gains Billionaire Adherents,” New York Times, August 4, 2010.