Notes

1. The Bombing

1. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., George Mimba testimony, trial transcript, day 14, March 7, 2001.

2. Vandenbroucke, “Eyewitness to Terror: Nairobi’s Day of Infamy,” 32.

2. The Past as Prologue

1. Operations Vittles, 21.

2. Bodansky, Bin Laden, xiii–xiv.

3. Bruno, Foreign Circus, 4.

3. The Response

1. USAID, “Up from the Ashes.”

2. Patrick F. Kennedy, “Transcript: Foley, Kennedy Brief on Bombings in East Africa,” August 14, 1998, USIS Washington File.

3. Thomas Pickering interview, PBS NewsHour, August 12, 1998.

4. The Impact

1. H. S. Onyango, “Relocate Embassy,” East African Standard, August 22, 1998.

2. Radmacher-Hershey, “Courage,” 1995.

3. Charity Ngilu, “Adding Fuel to the Fire,” Nation Weekly Review, August 21, 1998.

4. Bonnie R. Cohen, statement before the Senate Task Force on Function 150.

5. USAID, “Up from the Ashes.”

6. Baranowsky, “Psychological Response Stages of Post-Trauma/Disaster.”

7. Edward W. Gnehm Jr. to Bushnell, May 8, 1998.

8. Bonnie Cohen to Bushnell, June 1, 1998.

9. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., “U.S. Grand Jury Indictment against Usama bin Laden and Others,” USIS Washington File, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html.

5. The Turning Point

1. Ross, “Voice: We Are Asked to Do Anything and Everything Except Be Victims,” 242.

2. James Risen and Benjamin Weiser, “Before Bombings, Omens and Fears,” New York Times, January 9, 1999.

3. Accountability Review Board, Bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, on August 7, 1998.

4. Vandenbrouke, “Nairobi: Remembering the Sacrifice.”

6. The Consequences

1. Andrea Koppel, “Some Argue U.S. Must Spend More to Protect Its Embassies,” New York Times, July 13, 1999.

2. Independent Task Force on State Department Reform, State Department Reform.

7. The Proxy War

1. Independent Task Force on State Department Reform, State Department Reform, 23.

2. Sick, All Fall Down, 92.

3. Interview with Elizabeth Ann Swift, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, December 1992. Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Arlington, www.adst.org.

4. Brzezinski, “How Jimmy Carter and I Started the Mujahideen.”

5. Trento, Prelude to Terror, 167–68.

6. Brzezinski, “How Jimmy Carter and I Started the Mujahideen.”

7. Coll, Ghost Wars, 129.

8. Armstrong, Islam, xi.

9. Dreyfuss, Devil’s Game, 20.

10. Cooley, Unholy Wars, 110–11.

11. The 9/11 Commission Report, 94.

12. Coll, Ghost Wars, 155–56.

13. Miller, “Greetings, America: My Name Is Osama Bin Laden.”

14. Wright, Looming Tower, 142, 169.

15. Lance, Triple Cross, 35.

16. Lance, 1,000 Years for Revenge, 42.

8. The Blowback

1. Lance, 1,000 Years for Revenge, 42.

2. Lance. 1,000 Years for Revenge, 29–32.

3. Friedman, “The CIA’s Jihad.”

4. Lance, Triple Cross, 61–62.

5. Lance, 1,000 Years for Revenge, 34–37.

6. Soufan, The Black Banners, 45–46.

7. Lance, Triple Cross, 95–96.

8. 9/11 Commission Report, 74–78.

9. 9/11 Commission Report, 57.

10. Waugh, Hunting the Jackal, 121–23.

11. Waugh, Hunting the Jackal, 133.

12. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 148–49.

13. Lance, Triple Cross, 77–78.

14. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 2, February 6, 2001, 265–68.

15. Benjamin Weiser and James Risen, “The Making of a Militant: A Soldier’s Shadowy Trail in U.S. and in the Mideast,” New York Times, December 1, 1998.

16. Scheuer, Through Our Enemies’ Eyes, 139.

17. Casper, Falcon Brigade, 10.

18. Scheuer, Through Our Enemies’ Eyes, 147

19. Conwill, Dream a World Anew, 18.

9. The Plots

1. Weiser and Risen, “The Making of a Militant.”

2. 9/11 Commission Report, 109.

3. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 144–46.

4. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 78–79.

5. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 87–88.

6. Lance, Triple Cross, 142.

7. Scheuer, Through Our Enemies’ Eyes, 149.

8. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know, 143.

9. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 88.

10. Tenet, At the Center of the Storm.

11. Waugh, Hunting the Jackal, 139.

12. Benjamin and Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, 231.

13. Freeh, My FBI, 186–87.

14. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 93.

15. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know, 150.

16. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know, 143–44.

17. Colin Miner, “Sources Claim CIA Aid Fueled Trade Center Blast,” Boston Herald, February 24, 1994.

18. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 147–48.

19. Lance, Triple Cross, 173–74.

20. Lance, Triple Cross, 151–52.

21. Mahle, Denial and Deception.

22. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 96.

23. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 96.

24. David Kocieniewsky, “Terrorism Evidence Destroyed,” Newsday, April 16, 1995.

25. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 127.

26. Youssef M. Ibrahim, “Egyptian Group Says It Tried to Kill Mubarak,” New York Times, July 5, 1995.

27. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden.

28. Mahle, Denial and Deception, 247.

29. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 92.

30. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 141.

31. Jane Mayer, “Outsourcing Torture,” New Yorker, February 8, 2005.

32. Lance, 1,000 Years for Revenge, 233–35.

33. Zeman et al., “The Path to 9/11: Lost Warnings and Fatal Errors.”

10. The Plans

1. Miniter, Losing bin Laden, 114.

2. Miniter, Losing bin Laden, 114

3. Interview with David Shinn, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 5, 2002, 71, www.adst.org.

4. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 142.

5. Barton Gelman, “U.S. Was Foiled Multiple Times in Efforts to Capture Bin-Laden or Have Him Killed; Sudan’s Offer to Arrest Militant Fell Through after Saudis Said No,” Washington Post, October 3, 2001.

6. Lance, Triple Cross, 218–20.

7. “Judge Says Illegal Phone Taps Can Be Used in Bomb Trial,” Associated Press, December 19, 2000.

8. 9/11 Commission Report, 479.

9. Zeman et al., “The Path to 9/11: Lost Warnings and Fatal Errors.”

10. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 116.

11. Scheuer, “How Not to Catch a Terrorist.”

12. Bodansky, Bin Laden, 177.

13. Tenet, At the Center of the Storm, 102.

14. Tenet, At the Center of the Storm, 102

15. Scheuer, “How Not to Catch a Terrorist.”

16. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., day 37 (May 1, 2001) and day 39 (May 3, 2001).

17. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., day 24 (March 19, 2001), 5315–22.

18. Coll, Ghost Wars, 374–75.

19. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 149.

20. 9/11 Commission Report, public hearing, March 24, 2004.

21. David Rose, “The Osama Files,” Vanity Fair, January 2002.

22. Miniter, Losing Bin Laden, 148.

23. Scheuer, Imperial Hubris, 191–92.

24. Wright, Looming Tower, 243–44.

25. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 36, April 30, 2001.

26. Benjamin Weiser, “Prosecutors Portray the Strands of a Bin Laden Web of Terror,” New York Times, January 22, 2000.

27. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 203.

28. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, 5347–58.

29. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 202.

30. Lance, Triple Cross, 274–75.

31. Lance, Triple Cross, 276.

32. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 204.

11. The Execution

1. Bergen, The Osama bin Laden I Know, 196.

2. Bodansky, Bin Laden, 220.

3. Benjamin Weiser, “In Terrorism Case, a Plea Bargain Secretly 2 Years in the Making,” New York Times, October 24, 2000.

4. Richard Norris, notes of telephone interview with members of the Accountability Review Board, October 13, 1998.

5. Brzezinski interview with Le Nouvel Observateur, Paris, January 15, 1998.

6. Sudan director of intelligence interview, Vanity Fair, January 2002.

7. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 37, 5228.

8. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 167–69.

9. Interview with Eric Boswell, November 4, 1998, Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Arlington VA, www.adst.org.

10. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 37, 5378.

11. Scheuer, “How Not to Catch a Terrorist.”

12. Wright, Looming Tower, 265–68.

13. Boswell interview, 1998.

14. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 37, 5380.

15. Wright, Looming Tower, 266.

16. Omar Abdel Rahman (Blind Sheikh) statement inside prison, http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=1685.

17. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 183, 185–92.

18. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 214.

19. Mark Morris, “Phone Used in Bin Laden’s Dealings Linked to Former Student,” Knight-Rider, September 20, 2001.

20. Hamm, Terrorism as Crime, 65.

21. Bodansky, Bin Laden, 253.

22. Wright, Looming Tower, 269.

23. “Al Qaeda’s London PR Office Fax Machine Sent Notice of East Africa Bombings,” Seattle-Post Intelligence, July 13, 1999.

24. Miller and Stone, The Cell, 206–7.

25. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 184.

26. Wright, Looming Tower, 273.

27. Lance, Tripe Cross, 296.

28. U.S. v. Usama bin Laden et al., trial transcript, day 14, March 7, 2001.

29. Wright, Looming Tower, 278–79.

30. Berntsen and Pezzullo. Jawbreaker, 22.

31. Reuters, “Charges Dropped in an Embassy Bombing,” New York Times, March 20, 2000.

32. Rose, “The Osama File.”

33. Gellman, “U.S. Was Foiled.”

34. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, statement of Patrick J. Fitzgerald, 108th Cong., October 21, 2003.

35. Nolan, Tyranny of Consensus, 93.

36 Government Accountability Office, Combating Terrorism, June 16, 1999.

38. James Risen, “U.S. Failed to Act upon Warnings in ’98 of a Plane Attack,” New York Times, September 18, 2002.

39. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 212.

40. Clarke, Against All Enemies, 204.

41. Clarke to Condoleezza Rice, memo, “Presidential Policy/Initiative Review: The al Qaeda Network,” National Security Council, January 25, 2001.

42. Barbara Elias, ed., “Bush Administration’s First Memo on al-Qaeda,” declassified January 25, 2001, Richard Clarke memo, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, no. 147, February 10, 2005, original post, updated September 27, 2006, http://www.911independentcommission.org/clarkememo012501.htm.

43. 9/11 Commission Report, 349.

12. The Outcomes

1. Lance, Triple Cross (rev. ed.), 209.

2. Mahle, Denial and Deception, 273.

3. Executive summary of “Office of the Inspector General: Report on Central Intelligence Agency Accountability Regarding Findings and Conclusions of the Report of the Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after September 1, 2001,” June 2005.

4. Nolan, Tyranny of Consensus, 80.

5. Eric Boswell, interview, 1998.

6. Drucker, Essential Drucker.

7. “1994 Rwanda Pullout Driven by Clinton White House, UN Equivocation,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, no. 511, April 16, 2015.

8. Bushnell, “One Story. Two Events. Seven Leadership Lessons.”

9. Mark Thompson, “The $5 Trillion War on Terror,” Time, June 29, 2011.

10. Kimberly Amadeo, “War on Terror Facts, Costs, and Timeline: Who Spent More on War? Bush or Obama?” Balance, January 17, 2017.

11. Nejad, Body Count, 15.

12. Amr and Ferris, “Displacement in the Muslim World.”

13. Undersecretary of State Patrick Kennedy testimony to the House Oversight Committee, October 10, 2012.

14. Accountability Review Board, “Report on Benghazi Bombing September 11, 2012,” September 19, 2012.

15. House Foreign Affairs Committee, Benghazi: Where Is the State Department Accountability?

16. Karen DeYoung, “How the Obama White House Runs Foreign Policy,” Washington Post, August 4, 2015.

17. Report of the Independent Panel on Best Practices, Washington DC, August 29, 2013. Published to internet by Aljazeera America, http://www.ajam.fullreport-final-best-practices-report.

18. David Ignatius, “Can We Close the Power Gap?” Washington Post, March 1, 2013.

19. Krishnadev Calamur, “ISIS: An Islamist Group Too Extreme Even for Al-Qaida,” June 13, 2014, http://npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/06/13/321665375/isis-an-islamist-group- too extreme-even-for-al-qaida.

20. American Academy of Diplomacy Report, “American Diplomacy at Risk,” April 2015, http://www.academyofdiplomacy.org.

21. Diplopundit, “Did We Ship Anyone Off to Timbuktu?”

22. Edward Delman, “Obama Promised to End America’s Wars—Has He? The President’s Military Record by the Numbers,” Atlantic Monthly, March 30, 2016.

23. Ian Black, “Report on Syria Conflict Finds 11.5% of Population Killed or Injured,” Guardian, February 10, 2016.

24. Crawford. U.S. Costs of 2014.

25. “Most Victims of Terrorist Attacks Are Muslim,” VOA News, September 4, 2016.

26. Pew Research Center, “Beyond Distrust: How Americans View Their Government,” November 23, 2015.

27. Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index 2016.

28. Goepner, “Learning from Today’s Wars.”

29. “Migrant Crisis: Migration to Europe Explained in Seven Charts,” BBC News, March 4, 2017.

30. Spencer Ackerman, “NATO-Caused Civilian Casualties Increasing in Afghanistan,” Washington Independent, April 16, 2010.

31. Thomas H. Kean and Lee H. Hamilton, 9/11 Commission chairmen, “2016 Terror Threat Worse than 2009,” USA Today, September 9, 2016.

Epilogue

1. John Wagner and Scott Clement, “Poll Finds Disunited State of America,” Washington Post, October 29, 2017.

2. Remarks by President Trump to the People of Poland, July 6, 2017, White House Office of the Press Secretary, http://www.whitehouse.gov.

3. David Inserra, “Foiled Virginia Attack Brings Total U.S. Terror Plots to 97 since 9/11,” Daily Signal, September 7, 2017.

4. Carol Morello, “Security Chiefs: No Need for New War Authorization,” Washington Post, October 31, 2017.

5. Rashed Mian, “Is There Room for Dissent within the Trump Administration?” Long Island Press, February 1, 2017.

6. Jasmine C. Lee and Kevin Quealy, “The 425 People, Places, and Things Donald Trump Has Insulted on Twitter: A Complete List.” New York Times, January 3, 2018, http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/01/28/upshot/donald-trump-twitter-insults.html.

7. Josh Rogin, “Lindsey Graham: Trump’s State Department Budget Could Cause ‘a Lot of Benghazis,’” Washington Post, May 23, 2017.

8. A. Trevor Thrall and Erik Goepner, “Step Back: Lessons for U.S. Foreign Policy from the Failed War on Terror,” Policy Analysis 814, Cato Institute, June 26, 2017, https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/step-back-lessons-us-foreign-policy-failed-war-terror.

9. James A. W. Sarren, “Special Ops Rule in War on Terror,” Daily Beast, June 28, 2016, https://www.thedailybeast.com/special-ops-rule-in-war-on-terror.

10. Bacevich, New American Militarism, 218, 219.

11. Adam Frisk, “Donald Trump Says He’s ‘Only One That Matters’ When It Comes to Policy,” Global News, November 3, 2017, https://globalnews.ca/news/3842063/donald-trump-only-one-matters-policy/.

12. CNN.com World, “Bin Laden: Goal Is to Bankrupt U.S.; Al-Jazeera Releases Full Transcript of al-Qaeda Leader’s Tape,” November 1, 2004.

13. Rashmi Singh, “Assessing Success and Failure in Terrorism and Counterterrorism: Development of Metrics on the Global War on Terror and the Global Jihad,” National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, October 2011, http://www.start.umd.edu/research-projects/assessing-success-and-failure-terrorism-and-counterterrorism-development-metrics.

14. Goepner, “Learning from Today’s Wars.”

15. Goepner, “Learning from Today’s Wars.”