Furnishings

Furnishings are the one category of design elements that lies almost wholly within the realm of interior design. While walls, floors, ceilings, windows, and doors are established in the architectural design of a building, the selection and arrangement of movable interior elements—furniture, window treatments, and accessories—are major tasks of interior design.

Furnishings mediate between architecture and people. They offer a transition in form and scale between an interior space and the individual. Furnishings make interiors habitable by providing comfort and utility in the tasks and activities we undertake.

Interior designers commonly differentiate between residential and commercial furnishings. Furnishings purchased for offices under furniture, furnishings, and equipment (FF&E) contracts, such as modular partition systems, chairs, and desks, are sometimes referred to as contract furnishings. The distinction may be one of style, durability, or fire resistance. Some pieces serve equally well in either residential or business settings. With the proliferation of home offices, many crossover pieces are now on the market. Some residential manufacturers have brought out lines of commercial office furniture with durable upholstery that are intended for both markets.

With recent changes in how office spaces have been designed and used, human- and earth-centered design have come to the forefront. Designers are moving away from lists of undesirable materials to focus on information and transparency in materials selection. Health Product Declarations (HPDs) put this sort of information into designers' hands for better decision making.

Designers are creating spaces that people want to explore. The power to be flexible with one's space, and to go somewhere else, creates a push and pull about ownership of the space. In offices, whiteboards are placed almost everywhere so that people can write down ideas and put them where others will see them.

Prebuilt offices recently have undergone a complete transformation. Commercial landlords are turning to finished office spaces for start-ups that would rather lease an office where set-up is not required. Businesses do not want to do anything beyond installing furniture, telephones, and computers; they want plug'n'play spaces. To appeal to businesses in technology, advertising, media, and information services, these spaces must incorporate ideal market positioning, technology, workplace organization, and aesthetics. Commonly, open-ceiling buildings require that architects work with engineers to ensure that the exposed mechanical layout meshes with the interior design.

Spaces open to use by the public usually have more stringent requirements for fire safety. Requirements for accessibility also affect furnishings in public spaces and at work. Facilities that receive intensive use, such as classrooms, healthcare facilities, and restaurants, require very durable and well-constructed furnishings.

In addition to fulfilling specific functions, furniture contributes to the visual character of interior settings. The form, lines, color, texture, and scale of individual pieces, as well as their spatial organization, play a major role in establishing the expressive qualities of a room. Furniture pieces can be linear, planar, or volumetric in form; their lines may be rectilinear or curvilinear, angular or free flowing. Their proportions can be primarily horizontal or vertical; they can be light and airy, or sturdy and solid. Their texture can be slick and shiny, smooth and satiny, warm and plush, or rough and heavy. Their color can be natural or transparent in quality, warm or cool in temperature, and light or dark in value.

Many designs mix furniture from different historical periods with contemporary pieces. Most designers do not seek to design period rooms, although these are appropriate in historic settings or for a client with a collection of antiques. Historical and cultural references extend to furniture arrangements and the selection of finishes and accessories as well as to pieces of furniture. The designs of the past that endure today are still in production, although some reproductions may lack the quality of the originals in material, craftsmanship, or durability.

Antique furniture is generally recognized as being at least 100 years old. Antiques are often identified with major cultures, periods, countries, or individuals.

Modern furniture is a term that refers to pieces produced in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century by designers including Michael Thonet, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and the craftsmen of the Bauhaus movement.

Contemporary furniture encompasses pieces produced today by working designers.

Furniture can, depending on the quality of its design, either offer or limit physical comfort in a real and tangible way. Our bodies will tell us if a chair is uncomfortable or if a table is too high or too low for our use.

Human factors, therefore, are a major influence on the form, proportion, and scale of furniture. Ergonomics is the application of human factors to design. To provide utility and comfort in the execution of our tasks, furniture should be designed first to respond or correspond to our dimensions, the clearances required by our patterns of movement, and the nature of the activity we are engaged in.

Our perception of comfort is, of course, conditioned by the nature of the task or activity being performed, its duration, and other circumstantial factors such as the quality of lighting, and even our state of mind. At times, the effectiveness of a furniture element may depend on its correct use—on our learning how to use it.

The way furniture is arranged in a room will affect how the space is used and perceived. Furniture can simply be placed as sculptural objects in space. More often, however, furniture is organized into functional groupings. These groupings, in turn, can be arranged to organize and structure space.

Most furniture consists of individual or unit pieces that allow for flexibility in their arrangement. The pieces are typically movable and may consist of various specialized elements as well as a mix of forms and styles.

Built-in arrangements of furniture, on the other hand, help retain more open space. There is generally more continuity of form among the furniture elements with fewer gaps between them.

Modular units combine the unified appearance of built-in furniture with the flexibility and movability of individual unit pieces.

Furniture is commonly constructed of wood, metal, or plastic and other synthetic materials. Each material has strengths and weaknesses that should be recognized in furniture design and construction if the piece is to be strong, stable, and durable in use.

Wood

The direction of its grain determines how wood is used and joined. Wood is strong when compressed with the grain, but can be dented or crushed when loaded perpendicular to the grain. In tension, wood can be pulled in the direction of its grain, but will split when pulled at a right angle to the grain. Wood is weakest in shear along its grain. Wood expands and contracts across its grain with changes in moisture content. All these factors bear on the way wood is configured and joined in furniture construction.

Plywood sheets consist of an odd number of plies (thin sheets) layered at right angles in grain direction to each other, giving strength in two directions. In addition, the quality of the face veneer can be controlled to increase strength in the outer layers, where stresses are greatest.

Particleboard is made by bonding small wood particles under heat and pressure. It is commonly used as a core material for decorative panels and cabinetwork. Adhesives used in both plywood and particleboard may contain formaldehyde; lower-VOC-content products are available.

Metal

Like wood, metal is strong both in compression and tension, but it does not have a strong grain direction. Metal is ductile (capable of being drawn into wire and hammered thin). These factors, along with a high strength-to-weight ratio, enable metal to have relatively thin cross sections and to be curved or bent in furniture construction. Metal can be screwed, bolted, riveted, or welded.

Plastic

Plastic is a unique material in the ways it can be shaped, formed, textured, colored, and used. There are thousands of types and variations of plastic materials available and under development today. While not as strong as wood or metal, plastic can be strengthened with glass fiber. More significantly, it can be easily shaped into structurally stable and rigid forms. Plastic furniture often consists of a single piece without joints or connections, and furniture made from other materials frequently contains plastic parts.

Textiles combining synthetic fibers and elastomers offer strength with flexibility and the property of returning to their original shape after being stretched. These materials are stimulating the design of furniture that supports the body without compressing tissues and nerves.

Many pieces of furniture combine a variety of materials, including chairs with wood or metal frames and fabric or plastic seats and backs, dressers with mirrors, and tables with glass tops. Upholstered furniture adds a layer of fabric-covered cushioning to a firmer frame, both for comfort and appearance. Some chairs and other furniture are being designed for disassembly and recycling of parts.

Seating should be designed to support the weight and shape of the user comfortably. Because of the great variation in body size, however, and the danger of designing too precisely for specific conditions, these illustrations reflect the factors that affect our personal judgment of comfort and a range of dimensions that should serve only as guidelines. All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses.)

The appropriate dimensions for a chair are determined not only by the dimensions of the human body and the chair's proposed use, but also by cultural factors and matters of s cale and style. A relatively uncomfortable, small, hard chair may encourage the customers in a fast-food restaurant to move on. A deeply upholstered lounge chair invites the user to relax.

The comfort factor is also affected by the nature of the activity the user might be engaged in. There are different types of chairs and seating for different uses. Ergonomic design principles are especially important for chairs intended for long periods of use, such as computer desk chairs. Adjustable heights and back supports allow different users to customize their chair's fit. Poorly designed seating is a major cause of health problems among sedentary workers, and today's designers are working on designs that encourage employees to stand up and move around.

Manufacturers are producing seating systems that provide both visual and acoustical privacy. They feature low-, mid-, or high-back panels and come in straight or curved forms, with upholstered, laminate, or wood surfaces. Some attach seating to backrests that serve as room dividers.

As new chair mechanisms have been developed recently, some existing chairs are being redesigned for the digital-era workplace for use by people no longer tethered to a desk.

Chairs for older users and people with mobility problems should have sturdy arms, relatively high seats, and stable bases. Bariatric seating accommodates very large people, and may perhaps also be shared by an adult and a child. Children's furniture has its own dimensional constraints.

All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses).

Upholstery fabrics should be selected to withstand the normal wear of their intended use. Commercial-grade fabrics are labeled for wear, sun, and fire resistance. The desire to avoid toxic materials such as formaldehyde, polyvinyl chloride, and phthalates that have raised health concerns has led designers to ban these materials. The Red List maintained by the International Living Future Institute (ILFI) classifies certain products as hazardous. Although a majority of the harmful chemicals are rinsed out in the production process, a percentage often remains that can be off-gassed into homes and workplaces or absorbed by people's skin. Designers today rely on HPDs to determine possibly toxic material contents. This level of transparency is not always available, and designers must rely on certifications by third-party organizations such as Greenguard, Cradle to Cradle, the Global Organic Textile standard, and the Living Product Challenge. Some manufacturers currently produce entire fabric lines that are PVC free, Greenguard certified, and made with recycled or natural fibers.

Upholstery materials include:

Cotton	Plant fiber with low elasticity and resiliency. Combustible and wrinkles easily. Primarily residential use.
Linen	Derived from stalk of the flax plant. Extremely strong, tends to be brittle, wrinkles easily. Commercial and residential use.
Ramie	Very strong, lustrous natural fiber. Stiff, brittle, nonelastic. Often blended with linen and cotton for commercial and residential use.
Silk	Produced by silk moths. Strongest natural fiber, resistant to solvents but degenerates in sunlight. Typically, only residential use.
Rayon	Manufactured from wood pulp. Viscose rayon blends well with other fibers and takes dyes well. Commercial and residential use.
Acrylic	Mimics silk or wool. Accepts dyes well, may pill. Outdoor use.
Vinyl	Simulates leather or suede. Durable, easy to clean. Not sustainable material. Residential and commercial use.
Polyester	Wrinkle resistant, abrasion resistant, dimensional stability, crease resistant. Commercial use.
Indoor/Outdoor Fabrics	Manufacturers such as Sunbrella Contract now sell their weather-resistant fabrics for both residential and commercial indoor and outdoor use.
Cork cloth	An impermeable and antimicrobial, pliable material available in several colorways, and used as an alternative to leather that lends itself to fabric-wrapped panels and upholstery.

Special Fabrics

Elastomeric fibers (spandex) return to their original shapes after being stretched. Commercial use.

Crypton^® is a process for treating a variety of fabrics, such as cotton, linen, silk, wool, acrylic, rayon, polyester, and coated fabrics, to make them highly durable, stain- and moisture-resistant.

Nanotex^® technology changes fibers on the molecular level to prevent damage by dirt, stains, and soil.

Metal fabrics are produced for interior and exterior applications including sunshades, ceilings, safety and security, partitions, and other uses.

Custom upholstery fabrics are specified through the Customer's Own Material (COM) system, which has now become part of the digital age with websites filled with information and advice. Designers can now have expedited communication with experts, quick turnaround times, overnight FedEx sampling, and access to important information on the behavior of upholstery fabrics.

Chairs

Armchairs	Intended for relaxing, conversation, or reading. Fully upholstered; constructed of wood, plastic, steel, or a combination of materials.
Side chairs	Usually lighter and smaller than armchairs; upright backs for dining and studying.
Lounge chairs	For relaxing in a semireclining position, often adjustable. Should be easy to get into and out of, neither too low nor too soft, and should provide proper back support.

Sofa	Designed for seating of more than two people. Generally upholstered; curved, straight, or angled; with or without arms.
Loveseat	A small sofa with only two seating positions.
Sectional	A sofa divided into separate parts that may be used in various configurations.
Sleeper	A sofa designed to be transformed into a bed.

Twilight sleeper sofa—Flemming Busk for Softline

Poet sofa – Finn Juhl, produced by Onecollection

Swan loveseat – Arne Jacobsen for Fritz Hansen

Suita sectional—Antonio Cittero for Vitra	Josie sectional—Mitchell Gold + Bob Williams

Petit Modele sofa—Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, and Charlotte Perriand, produced by Cassina

Freeform sofa—Isamu Noguchi, produced by Vitra

Commercial seating must be durably constructed to support workers without stress throughout the workday. Seating should not be selected solely on the basis of the user's status within the company or enterprise, but rather selected to accommodate the size of the individual user and to provide proper support for the type of activity envisioned.

Desk chairs	Designed to be flexible and mobile. Swivel mechanism, rolling casters, arms.
Executive chairs	Often designed as status symbols, these allow the user to lean back from the desk. Swivel mechanism. May not be appropriate for extended computer use. Being redesigned, trimmed back as much as possible, while still being comfortable.
Side chairs	Intended for office visitors or short-term use. Usually small in scale and often armless.
Stacking and folding chairs	Used for large gatherings of people or as auxiliary seating. Lightweight and modular, often made of steel, aluminum, or plastic. Some are available with arms and with padded seats and backs; some have coupling devices for use in rows.
Restaurant chairs	Must be durably constructed; comfort level is usually selected to match intended service style. Chairs with arms must be coordinated with tabletop heights. Chair size may affect seating patterns.
Stools	Should be selected for stability and ease of movement as well as for appearance.
Sofas	Arranged in L-shapes or U-shapes for conversation groups in lobbies, large private offices, waiting areas. Strangers generally sit at opposite ends, leaving center seat empty.
Loveseats	Useful in smaller private offices where they can be used for naps.
Modular or sectional seating	Available armless, with left or right arm only, or as corner piece. Modular seating also refers to seating with a continuous base to which individual seats are attached.
Booths	Commonly designed for two to four persons; larger booths and U-shaped or circular configurations present access problems for central seats. Usually upholstered.
Seating with privacy walls	Sofas or benches with high backs and sides that offer acoustic privacy for employees.
Banquettes	Long, usually upholstered seats facing multiple tables with chairs opposite, allowing tables to be moved along their length and clustered to accommodate varying sizes of groups.
Fixed seating	Used in auditoriums, lecture halls. Provides acoustic absorption as well as seating. Fire safety requirements for materials and arrangements. The advent of the “flipped classroom” where classwork and homework are reversed, with students listening to lectures and reviewing material online, and then working on assignments in class, has led to the use of mobile tables and wireless technology rather than theater-style seating in classrooms.
Sleep chairs	These chairs convert from lounge to sleep positions to support the needs of patient's families, whose presence can contribute to improved patient outcomes.

Chappelle—Jerry Helling/Bernhardt Design

Tables are essentially flat, horizontal surfaces, supported off the floor, and used for dining, working, storage, and display. They should have the following attributes:

• Strength and stability to support items in use
• Correct size, shape, and height off floor for intended use
• Construction of durable materials

Tabletops can be of wood, glass, plastic, stone, metal, tile, or concrete. The surface finish should be durable and have good wearing qualities. The surface color and texture should have the proper light reflectance for the intended visual task.

Tabletops can be supported with legs, trestles, solid bases, or cabinets. They can also swing out or down from wall storage units and be supported by folding legs or brackets. Table bases should relate in scale and size to the tabletop to provide adequate support and stability.

Desks and Work Surfaces
All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses).

Dining tables	Selected for style, number of seats (with optional leaves for expansion), and fit in room. Both custom and manufactured designs are available.
Occasional tables	Coffee tables are designed to hold books, magazines, and beverages in front of a sofa. End tables provide surfaces for a lamp and other accessories next to a seat. Other small tables hold accessories and help to balance the room's décor.

Restaurant tables	Selected for durability, style, number of seats, and fit in space. Center post support; tabletops can be custom or stock. Rectangular “deuces” (tables for two) can be combined for larger parties, circular tables are often used for large groups, and square tables can be oriented on diagonal.
Conference tables	Large single tables with many seats, or smaller tables designed to be reconfigured for conference and seminar rooms. Selected for capacity, flexibility, and appearance.
Boardroom tables	Large tables, often custom, designed for prestige and style. May have built-in data and communications equipment.
Hotel guest room tables and desks	Similar to residential pieces in style, but with commercial quality for durability.

Designers often refer to an individual's work area—comprising a desk, chair, computer and related equipment, and storage as well—as a workstation. The desk and adjacent horizontal surfaces are called work surfaces. Office environments continue to change, but many people still work in cubicle-based workstations. These systems are still manufactured, and are also available for reuse, which has both economic and sustainability advantages. For individuals needing a high level of focus for their work, private offices and other acoustically protected spaces are still necessities. Today, these spaces are somewhat more likely to be assigned for the task, rather than for the status of the user.

However, the trend toward home offices and the use of portable computers and wireless communications are creating a market for office furnishings that are flexible in use and easy to move. Seating and work surfaces are now designed for multiple employees who come and go on varied schedules. Furnishings can be clustered for small group work and meetings, then dispersed for individual work.

These very open workspaces raise the bar for acoustic privacy issues, and must be carefully planned. Some workspaces are designed around four popular work styles: collaborative, learning, interacting, and focusing. The goal is to encourage collaboration, concentration, and chance encounters, with a variety of furnishings and layouts. Workstations can become a bit more personal, with options to make people feel better and help them do their work better.

Coworking spaces for start-ups and freelancers provide opportunities for those working from a home office to meet, collaborate, and enjoy the company of other people. Coworking spaces tend to be big, airy, and welcoming, with opportunities to take a break and chat with others. They offer a way to meet friends, expand networks, and eventually find opportunities and people to work with.

Desks vary in style and function. The traditional desk incorporates drawers and storage into its base. A desk may also consist simply of a freestanding table or work surface supported on a pedestal base with storage. This basic workstation can be extended with additional work surfaces to the side or behind the user.

The selection of a desk should consider how it would be used as well as issues of style and status. The size and configuration of the desk should respond to the need to accommodate storage and equipment, including computers and peripherals. Desks may also be shared by a number of workers.

Standing Desks

Sitting at a desk all day, especially with poor posture and little overall motion, can have negative effects on the human body, such as obesity, back problems, and heart disease.

Standing desks are adding a vertical dimension to the interiors of progressive office spaces. Some are fixed at heights for use when standing, while others are adjustable for standing or sitting (sit-stand desks). Standing at a desk can substantially reduce worker reports of muscular-skeletal discomfort. Standing can lower fatigue while supporting the worker's ability to change posture more readily are often viewed as a healthier way to work.

There are typically three varieties of sit-stand desks:

1. Hand-crank: The user manually turns a handle to raise or lower the desk. Tend to be less expensive.
2. Electric: Typically operated by pushing buttons to adjust the height or bring the desk to a preset position.
3. Counter-balanced: Manually operated more easily than hand-crank models.

There may be significant differences in height adjustment between models, and especially between different mechanisms. Add-on adjustable accessories can be used with fixed-height desks, but may introduce new ergonomic risks due to set heights and limited adjustments. Height-adjustable sit-stand benches are another option that provides flexibility and health benefits. For offices where workers stand at their desks, extra space may be required to put their chairs while they stand.

It is becoming more common for the workplace culture to be designed to encourage movement throughout the day. Offices are being designed with a wide variety of work settings, including standing areas, lounge settings, and private rooms, so that employees can easily change their workspace. Where this is not possible, sit-stand desks can still encourage more movement and better posture.

Adjustable sit-stand desk

Standing Desk
All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses).

Abak Environments, Herman Miller

While the private office encloses a workstation within a room, open office environments utilize modular work surfaces and storage units to integrate multiple workstations and enhance user communication and productivity.

Today, open office environments are more likely to be freestanding than housed in cubicles. As equipment becomes lighter and less wiring is needed, walls are less essential. Short panels provide little or no visual and acoustical separation.

Office workers may find themselves with minimal amounts of real estate. Work surfaces can be arrayed in closely spaced rows. This can aid communication and cooperation, but may create stress and territorial problems for some workers. Whether working in such close quarters increases or decreases productivity and worker satisfaction may depend on individual work-style preferences, the amount of time spent at the workstation, and whether the rest of the space offers other options.

In the past, the commercial office furnishings market was too large-scale and expensive for small home businesses to access. Many of the pieces being designed today can work well in a home office, and manufacturers are beginning to make office furnishings available to this new market.

Sense desking system, Herman Miller

Canvas office landscape, Herman Miller

Beds consist of two basic components: the mattress or mattress set and the base or support frame. There are various types of mattresses, each made in its own way to respond to and support the user's body shape and weight. Personal judgment and choice, therefore, are required in the selection of a mattress.

Not all coil-spring mattresses are equal; most today are made with synthetic fibers and foam, and all have the same spring gauge. Experts generally agree that the best mattresses are the simplest, made with ingredients like organic cotton, wool, and natural (from trees) latex.

Interior designers are involved in the selection of the base or bed frame, headboard, footboard, canopy, associated tables, storage pieces, lighting, and electronic controls. The designer may also specify bed linens and covers and other room furnishings.

Headboards, footboards, and canopies define the volume of space occupied by a bed.

A bed can rest on a platform base, emphasizing the horizontality of the setting.

A bed built into a corner or alcove takes up less floor space, but it may be difficult to make.

A bed can be integrated into a wall storage system at the head or foot of the bed, or both.

Bunk beds utilize vertical space to stack sleeping levels. Storage and desk surfaces can also be integrated into the system.

Sofas and armchairs that convert into beds offer convenient short-term sleeping arrangements.

All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses).

Modular storage system available with plain, glass, or louvered doors

The amount and type of furniture in a bedroom depends on the size of the room, the style of the project, and the needs of the intended user. A bedroom with a separate walk-in closet or dressing room may need fewer pieces of unit furniture for storage. A child's bedroom may double as a playroom or study area, while guest bedrooms may have alternate lives as home offices, sewing rooms, or storage rooms. Bedrooms may include extensive video and audio equipment or computer equipment, requiring special provisions for wiring.

Built-in storage can help to keep the lines of the room clean and avoid clutter. Individual pieces can balance the size and scale of the bed and add style, detail, and useful surfaces.

Armoire—Luigi Massoni

Modular set of chests of drawers and cupboards can be used singly or in stacked or tandem groupings.

Armoires are freestanding closets with doors covering the front, often with drawers inside at the bottom.

Chests for bedcovers and clothing storage range from simple wood boxes opening at the top to more elaborate pieces with drawers below.

Antique-style court cupboards and press cupboards have drawers or doors in both their upper and lower sections.

Secretaries, also called escritoires and highboys, have slanting fronts that drop down to create a writing surface with drawers below. They sometimes have bookcases or display cases above.

Dressing tables are designed for the user to sit facing a mirror while applying makeup or jewelry. Dressers hold smaller items of clothing and often include a mirror.

Night tables and nightstands are designed for bedside use.

French Provincial armoire

American block-front secretary

English dressing table

Early American dresser

English naval captain's chest

Chinese chest

Chest of drawers

BCS 3-Drawer nightstand—George Nelson for Herman Miller

Dimensional Criteria
All dimensions are in inches, with their metric equivalents in millimeters (shown in parentheses).

Providing adequate and properly designed storage is an important concern in the planning of interior spaces, particularly where space is tight or where an uncluttered appearance is desired. To determine storage requirements, analyze the following:

Accessibility:	Where is storage needed?
Convenience:	What type of storage should be provided? What sizes and shapes of items are to be stored? What is the frequency of use?
Visibility:	Are items to be on display, or concealed?

Storage should be distributed where needed. How far we can reach while we are seated, standing, or kneeling should govern the means of access to the storage area. Active storage of often-used items should be readily accessible, while dead storage of little-used or seasonal items can be hidden away.

Knoll pull-out storage

The size, proportion, and type of storage units used depend on the type and amount of items to be stored, the frequency of use, and the degree of visibility desired. Basic types of storage units are shelves, drawers, and cabinets. These may be suspended from the ceiling, mounted on a wall, or simply placed on the floor as a piece of furniture. Storage units can also be built into the thickness of a wall, occupy a niche, or utilize otherwise unusable space such as under a stairway.

Forms of Storage

Shallow shelves are best for active storage because items are always in view. In deep storage spaces, little-used items gravitate toward the back, while often-used items migrate toward the front. The term “cabinets” generally refers to the casework built to accommodate shelves and drawers. Drawers are suitable for items that lie flat or for items that can be contained within the drawer compartments.

In a residence, built-in storage and cabinetry are most common in kitchens, pantries, and bathroom spaces, but can effectively be extended into other spaces as well. Standard-sized bases and wall cabinets are fitted into the kitchen layouts of most homes.

In commercial buildings, the varying demands of offices, schools, research facilities, libraries, retail stores, and other facilities are met by a wide variety of manufactured casework and custom-built pieces.

• Offices often feature bookcases and credenzas for storage and display.
• Reception desks may be custom-designed to project a corporate image.
• Retail display cases may be stock design, corporate standard pieces, or custom designs.
• Food-service counters and server lines must accommodate equipment and flow, as well as meet accessibility requirements.
• Hospital nurses' stations and patient-room cabinetry accommodate equipment. Increasingly, rather than large, imposing reception desks, patients are greeted by staff members carrying tablets in the hospital's entry area.

Countertops are used in both residential and commercial projects. Residential countertops are typically found in kitchens and bathrooms, but may also occur in laundry rooms, pantries, and home offices. Commercial countertops may be subject to heavier use, and where food is prepared, materials must meet health codes.

Sustainable options include reuse of existing countertop materials and use of recycled materials. Countertop materials include:

• Plastic laminates: Waterproof, stain resistant, easily cleaned. Not heat resistant; joints may be damaged, scratches are not repairable. Dark edge line requires trim.
• Granite: Durable, water resistant, and heat resistant.
• Slate: Water and heat resistant, stain proof, antibacterial.
• Soapstone: Water, heat, and stain resistant; pleasant feel. Bimonthly oil treatment required.
• Marble: Wine will stain, sealant required; heat resistant.
• Solid surfacing: Water and stain resistant; light stains, scratches, scorch marks can be buffed out; may water spot. Integral sinks available.
• Epoxy resin: Durable, poured surface over painted or other surfaces.
• Engineered composite stone: Nonporous; abrasion, stain, and impact resistant. Resinous feel and appearance.
• Concrete: Durable, tactile surface acquires patina from use; may stain and crack; sealer recommended.
• Tile, ceramic: Heat and stain resistant, durable; grout requires maintenance.
• Wood: Water may damage surface; requires monthly application of mineral oil. Light damage may be sanded off.
• Paper composite: Made of paper treated with resin, then pressed and baked into solid sheets. Sanitary, scratch and heat resistant.
• Zinc: Warm metal appearance, easy maintenance. Many finishes available.

Wall storage systems consist of modular shelving, drawer, and cabinet units that can be combined in various ways to form self-supporting assemblies. The units may have open fronts or be fitted with solid, glass, or louvered doors. Some systems integrate display lighting into their construction.

A wall system can serve effectively as a freestanding room divider.

A wall storage system can form a shallow alcove space.

A wall storage system may be a freestanding assembly or be placed into a wall recess.

Offices

Back storage units or credenzas are designed for storing documents, supporting equipment, and displaying work in progress. They eliminate clutter on the desk by containing box drawers, file drawers, doors with shelves, pullout equipment shelves, or bar units.

Filing systems should be selected for the client's filing needs, space availability, and quality of workmanship. Vertical files have two to five drawers, usually 15 or 18 inches (381- or 457-mm) wide, and 18 to 29 inches (457-mm to 736-mm) deep.

Lateral files are two to five drawers high and are usually 30, 36, or 42 inches (762-, 914-, or 1067-mm) wide and 15 or 18 inches (381- or 457-mm) deep.

Credenza
29″ (736-mm) high
18″ to 20″ (457- to 508-mm) deep

Vertical file

Lateral file

In the broad category of window treatments are included devices that aid in the control of light, available views, and the passage of air, heat, and cold. Some window treatments can reduce heat loss in the winter and heat gain in the summer. However, window treatments are not effective at reducing air leakage or infiltration; this requires caulking and weatherstripping around windows.

Exterior Window Treatments

Exterior treatments are normally designed as integral elements of a building's architecture. If added to an existing building, such alterations should respect the existing architectural style.

Awnings	Made from water-repellant and mildew- and fade-resistant synthetic fabric stretched over a frame to provide shade. Some are retractable.
Overhangs and recessed windows	Provide protection from sun and rain. If oriented properly, overhangs will allow sunlight in through windows in the winter.
Trellises	Open framework that filters light and provides support for vines, whose leaves provide summer shade.

Interior Window Treatments

Interior window treatments vary according to how they temper the light, provide ventilation and a view, and alter a window's form and appearance. They play a role in absorbing sound, conserving energy, and enhancing fire safety. Window treatments differ in how they open and close; they should not interfere with a window's operation or restrict access to its hardware.

Innovations in solar shading, including how shades can enhance overall building performance and occupant comfort, are well worth the interior designer's attention. It is important to consider both the product's appearance from the room side and from the outside. Light-colored fabrics usually reflect more solar energy and reduce interior heat gain better than dark-colored ones, but allow more visible light transmission, which may increase visual discomfort and glare. Dark-colored fabrics reduce glare and create better views to the exterior. The density of a shade's weave can help achieve optimal levels of daylighting, privacy, and views of nature, but the trend to light-colored fabrics remains strong.

Shade fabrics offer the greatest adjustability to balance daylight, glare, and view according to occupant needs. However, a shade is only effective if used in the correct position at the appropriate time. Occupants near a west-facing façade need to control heat and glare. Automated shade controls (preferably with manual overrides) can help with these potential issues, and can be especially effective in large, shared spaces such as lobbies and conference rooms.

Hard Window Treatments

Shutters

• Rigid panels, usually of wood, are hinged to open and close like miniature doors.
• Panels usually have adjustable louvers so that filtering of light and view can be controlled.
• Shutters provide a clean, precise, uncluttered appearance.
• When closed, shutters enhance a sense of enclosure.
• Louvered shutters work best for summer shading, allowing ventilation and natural daylight to enter, while blocking some solar heat; they are less effective at blocking winter heat loss.

Blinds

• Horizontal blinds consist of thin or wide slats of wood, plastic, or metal.
• The spacing and adjustability of slats provide good control of light and airflow; thin slats obstruct a view less than wide slats.
• Blinds are difficult to clean and tend to collect dust.
• Thin horizontal blinds inserted between the panes of thermal glazing in a window remove this problem.
• Vertical blinds have slats, generally of opaque or translucent fabric, that pivot at the top and bottom.
• Use only cordless blinds to remove threat of strangling in spaces occupied by infants and young children. Manual or automatic controls are available.
• Blinds are more effective at reducing summer heat gain than winter heat loss.

Fabric window treatments soften the lines of an interior space and add visual stimulation and detail. They can adjust for privacy needs and varying light levels, absorb sound, and provide thermal insulation. Sheer fabric softens and diffuses light, filters the view, and provides daytime privacy. Synthetic drapery fabrics including acetate, polyester, nylon, and acrylic offer better resistance to sun and flame.

Draperies

Draperies are fabric panels made of heavy opaque, partially opaque, or translucent fabrics that are generally pleated, hung on a rod, and pulled to one or both sides of the window.

Types of drapery pleats include pinch, barrel, box, and pencil pleats.

• Draperies can be full and hung straight, tied back, or gathered into puffs (pouffed). Festoons are fabric swags hanging between two points.
• Draperies can reduce heat exchange or convection when hung close to windows and down to the windowsill or floor, sealed at both sides, and overlapped at the center.
• Drapery color and the use of an open or closed weave fabric also contribute to heat gain and loss.

Curtains

• Curtains are less formal than draperies. They may be stationary or hand operated. Their tops can be looped, shirred, scalloped, or pleated. There may be a valance at the top.
• Curtains can be hung within the window frame or outside the frame to unify a group of windows.
• Shirred or sash curtains are gathered directly on rods across the sash of a window, and either hang straight down or are fastened to another rod at the bottom.
• Café curtains are made in tiers, either to cover the whole window or only the bottom half.

Shades

• Shades work best to prevent heat loss or gain when mounted close to glass with sides close to wall.
• Shades can be made of translucent, opaque, or blackout fabric. Vinyl, fiberglass mesh, bamboo, or wooden slatted shades are also available.
• Shades usually operate from the top down to cover part or all of a window opening, although bottom-up styles are available. Manual and automatic controls and skylight mountings are available.
• Mesh shades may not meet the openness factor they advertise. There are shades available with close tolerances for openness factors to manage glare.
• Mesh shades are available in white, black, and a variety of grays in between.
• Roller shades have a spring mechanism attached to a length of flexible material.
• Translucent, transparent, or opaque pleated shades fold into a compact accordion shape.
• Cellular or honeycomb blinds are made by bonding two or three layers of polyester fabric with an insulating layer of air. They offer limited thermal insulating properties and varying degrees of translucence. Cellular shades stack compactly.
• Roman shades are pulled up into horizontal pleats when raised by cords, and hang flat when extended.
• Austrian shades are made of sheer or semi-sheer fabric gathered vertically into soft horizontal scallops by cords.
• Balloon, pouf, or cloud shades form balloonlike poufs when pulled up with vertical cords.
• Dual shades have a highly reflective white surface on one side and a heat-absorbing dark surface on the other; they can be reversed seasonally, with the reflective side facing the warmer (indoor or outdoor) side.
• Quilted roller shades and some types of Roman shades feature layers of fiber batting and sealed edges to provide both insulation and an air barrier.

Accessories in interior design are those items that provide a space with aesthetic enrichment and embellishment. These items may provide visual delight for the eye, textural interest for the hand, or stimulation for the mind. Ultimately, accessories—individually or collectively—are the inevitable evidence of habitation.

Accessories help relate architectural interiors to human scale and to differentiate personal, social, and public zones around the human body. They help to identify the intended use of a space and the character of its users.

Accessories should be selected to support the design concept of the space and to reinforce design principles such as rhythm, balance, texture, pattern, and color. They can tie design elements together or function as a focal point.

Accessories that can add visual and tactile richness to an interior setting may be utilitarian or decorative.

Utilitarian Accessories

Utilitarian accessories include useful items such as the following:

• Accessories for office use, such as desktop mats, business card holders, paper clip holders, and filing trays, are often sold as sets.
• Tabletop accessories for restaurants support the concept and style of service.
• Guest room accessories express a hotel's concept and level of service.
• Residential cooking, dining, and bathroom accessories are often used for both function and display.

Decorative Accessories

Decorative accessories delight the eye, the hand, or the intellect without necessarily being utilitarian in purpose. Decorative accessories and artwork should be included in the project budget, and provisions must be made for display and lighting. Decorative accessories may include:

Artwork	Research has shown that art's purpose in our lives ranges from the purely decorative to the highly functional, providing stress relief, serving as a wayfinding tool, supporting corporate culture, and connecting companies to local communities. The selection and placement of artwork can emphasize strong design elements or alter the perception of the proportions of the space. Artwork may be selected from a client's collection, acquired to start a collection, or commissioned especially for a given project. Art consultants help designers and clients find and acquire appropriate pieces. In addition to paintings, prints, and photos, designers may include sculpture and crafts such as ceramics, art glass, metalwork, and textiles.
Collections	Collections of objects almost always have personal meaning. Collections often create an opportunity for repetition of form, color, texture, or pattern. Individual pieces may be featured as focal elements.
Residential	What we choose to display in our homes expresses how we live and what we value. Designers can help clients edit their possessions, select new ones, and display them effectively. Accessories that express individuality are generally more interesting than product lines preselected to coordinate.

Artisanal crafts are a reviving trend. Working with artisans brings its own challenges and frustrations, along with opportunities such as employment for women in rural communities and the opportunity to bring rare craft techniques into a design. To be successful, a designer must dedicate time to understanding the craft and its techniques. Visiting artisan suppliers helps the designer to successfully work in the new technique. It is important to set clear expectations about communication and the need for the artisan to be able to say “no” when necessary. Handmade pieces often take longer to make than manufactured ones, and this needs to be built into the schedule. Investing in the development of artisan suppliers is also an important step in developing a long-term relationship. Handmade products tend to have more imperfections than manufactured ones, and this can become a source of interest and pride. Slight inconsistencies can make the pieces very special.

Plants and flowers, as visible signs of nature, bring their expression of life and growth to interior spaces. Plants can improve air quality and raise indoor humidity levels. However, planting materials may shelter insects and other pests and can harbor molds. Plants must be carefully selected for their required levels of light and maintenance, as well as for scale, form, and color. Some businesses hire companies to select, place, maintain, and replace plants on a schedule.

Artificial and preserved plants can closely resemble living plants and can substitute for them where the use of live plants is limited by lack of light or pest control concerns. The use of artificial and preserved plants continues to expand as their quality improves.

Artificial plants are composed of polyester fabric leaves attached to plastic petioles, which are in turn attached to real or composite wood branches and trunks. The leaves are often realistically photo embossed.

Most preserved plants are palms; real leaf sheaths and fronds are attached to artificial trunks. The fronds are treated to stay soft and green, and for fire safety. Although they do not need irrigation, artificial plants and floral arrangements may be prone to brittleness and dust collection, and, like live plants, require maintenance. They should be replaced when they begin to deteriorate.