“actinide management,” 125
Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, 36
Advanced Gas Cooled Reactors (AGR), 117
Advanced Test Reactor (ATR), 36
Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 142–143, 147
Alabama, 65
Albright, David, 144
alternative energy. See renewable energy
ANL. See Argonne National Laboratory (ANL)
Annan, Kofi, 159
AP-600 and AP-1000 reactor designs, 118–119
Archer, Christina, 168
Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), 35–36
atmospheric nuclear testing, 73, 108
atomic bombs, 135
Atomic Energy Authority, 143
Atomic Energy Commission, 22–23
Barnaby, Frank, 105
Beamhenge, 89
beta radiation, 47, 56–57, 62–63
Blanch, Paul, 90
Bombs: atomic, 135; history of nuclear, 135–140; hydrogen, 135–136; plutonium and making of, 132
breeder reactors, 123–125, 134
Britain, 135–136, 138, 182; alternative energy and, 171, 173–174; Chernobyl and, 76;
India and, 152; reactor designs of, 117; Sellafield reactor in, 105, 132; subsidies and, 31–32; Windscale reactor in, 124
British Royal Society, 133
Brookhaven National Labs, 36, 64
Browns Ferry (AL) reactor, 65
bunker busters, 140
Burnell, Scott, 87
Burson-Marsteller, xiii
Bush, George W., 146, 148, 152, 154, 165
Bush administration: energy policy of, 165–167; India and, 152–156; Iran and, 144–147; North Korea and, 148–150; nuclear policy of, 134–135, 139–140; Pakistan and, 158; reactor licensing process and, 27–28; Yucca Mountain and, 111, 114
Byrd, Caren, 23
California, 87–88; Public Utilities Commission, 173
Canada: CANDU reactors of, 116–117; India and, 152; Pickering-4 station in, 116
cancer and ozone, 187n3
cancer and radiation, 43–45, 49; Chernobyl and, 75, 77–78, 79–80, 196n91; children and, 45, 52, 63–64, 68–70, 77–78; lung, 48, 61; in meltdown scenario, 97–98; plutonium and, 61; spent fuel pools and, 102; Three Mile Island and, 68–69, 71, 74; thyroid, 69, 73, 77, 80, 98, 196n91; weapons testing and, 71–72
carbon dioxide (CO2): global warming and, 87, 165–167, 208n11; in nuclear fuel cycle, 6–7. See also greenhouse gas emissions
Carter, Jimmy, 100
cerium, 56
cesium, 64, 126; Chernobyl and, 76–77; spent fuel pools and, 101–102; Three Mile Island and, 69
CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) 114 gas, 10, 187nn3–4
Chavez, Hugo, 142
Cheney, Richard, 25, 145–146, 162
“Chernobyl on the Hudson” (Lyman), 200nn60, 63
children, 45, 52, 63–64, 98; Chernobyl and, 77–78; Three Mile Island and, 68–70
China, 135–136, 138; India and, 154–155; Pakistan and, 157; wind power in, 170–171
chromosomes, 43
“clean and green” claims, 3, 16–17, 187n3
“clean tech,” 172
Clinton administration, 147–148
Coal: conversion of, 161; -fired power, 12–13, 19–20, 22, 59; in nuclear fuel cycle, 4–11, 15–16
cold shutdown, 55
Columbia University, Three Mile Island study, 72
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 153, 157
conservation of energy, 175–183
containers, for radioactive waste, 14; dry cask, 103–105; of uranium hexafluoride, 188n27; Yucca Mountain and, 110–111
contamination: Chernobyl, 75; in India, 152–153; Three Mile Island, 69–71
cooling water, 13–14, 54, 58, 59; spent fuel pools and, 99–105
corrosion: reactors and, 13, 58, 81–82, 116, 121; storage and, 110
costs: capital, 19–20, 23, 118–119; economic (See economic costs); energetic (See energetic costs); health (See health costs); levelized, 20
Craig, Paul, 111
critical mass, 53
Crowell, C. J., 69
CRUD (Chalk River Unidentified Deposits), 13, 58
Cummins, Ed, 20
cystic fibrosis (CF), 42
Davidson, Kathy, 91
Davis-Besse (OH) reactor, 81–83, 116
decommissioning of reactors, 12–13, 33
Department of Energy (DOE), 90, 166, 178–179; proliferation and, 129, 139; “shadow R&D” of, 34–37; subsidies and, 26–28; Three Mile Island and, 67; waste and, 107, 109–114
depleted uranium (238) (DU), 51–52, 122–123, 125
Design Basic Threat (BDT), 90–92
Diablo Canyon (CA) reactor, 87
dioxide, uranium, 11
disposal of waste, 14–15; plutonium and, 133–134; at Yucca Mountain, 100–101, 107–114
DOE. See Department of Energy (DOE)
“drip shields,” 110
“early in-vessel” phase, 94
early warning systems, 138–139, 156
earthquakes, 87–88, 102, 109, 156
economic costs, 19–37, 163; alternative technologies and, 163–164; conservation and, 180; deregulation and, 24–29; of meltdowns, 99–100; of renewable energy, 163–164; socialized electricity and, 21–24, 26, 37; subsidies and, 21–24, 26–37
Egypt, 151
ElBaradei, Mohamed, 137
electricity, generation of, 161, 208n11; cost comparison of alternative, 163–164; decentralized vs. centralized, 162–163, 180, 208n6; environmental impact of alternative, 164–166; grid access and, 170; Manhattan project and, 4; output vs. capacity of, 162, 168; socialized, 21–24, 37; by solar power, 171–174; by wind power, 167–171. See also economic costs; energetic costs
energetic costs, 4–18;fallacious assessments of, 16; mining and milling and, 7–10; nuclear fuel cycle and, 4–11; radioactive waste and, 14–16; reactors and, 11–14
energy, renewable. See renewable energy
energy consumption, 175
enrichment, uranium, 10–11, 51–53, 137
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 95, 98, 108,110–111
Essick, Peter, 201n1
Europe: Chernobyl and, 76–77; EU and liability limitations, 32; nuclear proliferation and, 131–132; vs. U.S. energy use, 175. See also individual countries
Evacuation: meltdown scenario and, 95–98; spent fuel pools and, 102–103
evolution, radiation and, 39–41
Exelon, 26
“ex-vessel” phase, 94
FDA. See Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Fernex, Michael, 75
First Energy, 81
“first use” policy, 140
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 69–70
food contamination: Chernobyl and, 76–78; Three Mile Island and, 69–71
fossil fuel, in nuclear fuel cycle, 4–11, 15–16
France, 135–136; Chernobyl and, 76–77, 80; Cogema facility in, 132; Electricite de France in, 86; Israel and, 150
“Future of Nuclear Power, The” (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), 20, 163–164
gamma radiation, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 64, 102
“gap release” phase, 94
gaseous diffusion method, 10–11
gas-fired power, 12–13, 19–20, 22, 163
General Public Utilities, 74
Generation I reactors, 115
Generation II reactors, 115–117
Generation III reactors, 117–119, 130
Generation III+ reactors, 119–121
Generation IV International Forum (GIF), 129, 131–132
Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems Initiative, 35
Generation IV reactors, 121–130
Germany: Chernobyl and, 76–77; renewable energy and, 173
Gerusky, Thomas, 70
global warming, 6, 164–165, 208n11; chlorofluorocarbon gases and, 187n3–4; Generation IV, reactors and, 130; meltdowns and, 86–87; vs. ozone depletion, 186–187n3. See also greenhouse gas emissions
Gofman, John, 64
granite, extracting uranium from, 7–8
graphite fuel assemblies, 120
greenhouse gas emissions, 17; emanation of, 167;future projections of, 179–181; initiatives to reduce, 178; in nuclear fuel cycle, 188–189n27; regional agreements on, 167. See also global warming
Gulf Wars, and depleted uranium, 52
half-life of isotopes, 46
Halliburton, 25
health costs, 39–80; cancer and, 43–45, 48–49, 52, 60–61; Chernobyl and, 74–80, 196n91; children and, 45, 52, 63–64, 68–70, 77–78, 98; of enrichment and fuel fabrication, 51–53; in meltdown scenario, 97–100; of mining and milling of uranium, 48–51; of nuclear accidents, 64–80; of nuclear weapons testing, 73; nuclear workers and, 45, 48–49, 51, 53, 75,152–153;of radioactive waste, 60–64; of routine nuclear plant operations, 53–60; spent fuel pools and, 102–103;Three Mile Island and, 65–74
Hendrie, Joseph, 67
hexafluoride, uranium, 10, 188n27
Hirsch, Seymour, 145
Holmstead, Jeffrey, 111
human reproduction, radiation and, 41–43
Humbolt Bay (CA) reactor, 87–88
IAEA. See International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Idaho National Laboratory (INL), 124; programs, 35–36
Illinois, 84
Indian Point (NY) reactors, 84, 92–100
Indo-U.S. Joint Statement, 152–156
INL. See Idaho National Laboratory (INL)
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Chernobyl and, 74–75; Iran and, 144–145; Israel and, 151; North Korea and, 147, 149–150; proliferation and, 129, 131–132
International Institute for Strategic Studies, 143
International Nuclear Research Initiative (I-NERI), 36
International Projects on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), 129, 131–132
iodine 131, 46, 55, 62–63; Three Mile Island and, 68–69
isotopes: half-life of, 46–47; released from plants, 55–57; types of radiation emitted by, 47–48
Jacobson, Mark, 168
John Deere Corporation, 170
Johnson, Carl, 67
joules, 187n9; per separative work unit (SWU), 11
Khan, Abdul Qadeer, 144, 156, 158
Kim Dae-jung, 148
Lahore Agreements, 157
Lake Ontario, 116
land contamination. See radioactive fallout
Large, John, 88
liability limitations, 32
life, beginning of, 40
Lochbaum, David, 58, 83, 85–86, 90; Congressional testimony of, 126–129
Los Alamos National Labs, 139
Lovins, Amory, “Nuclear Power: Economics and Climate-Protection Potential,” 162–163
Lyman, Edwin, 91; “Chernobyl on the Hudson,” 200nn60, 63
M15, 131
MAGNOX reactors, 117
Manhattan Project, 4
Massachusetts, 33
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. See MIT
McLeod, Gordon, 69
meltdowns, 64; from aging reactors, 83–86; Chernobyl, 74–80; economic consequences of, 99–100; evacuations and, 95–98; global warming and, 86–87; from mechanical and human error, 81–83; phases of, 94–95; radiation doses and, 96–98; scenario of, 92–100; spent fuel pools and, 99–105; terrorists-induced, 88–94; Three Mile Island, 65–74; from tsunamis and earthquakes, 87–88. See also nuclear accidents “Melt-through to China Syndrome,” 95–96
methane, 187n4
Metropolitan Edison Co., 74
milk contamination, Three Mile Island and, 69–71
milling of uranium, 7–10, 50–51
Millstone One (CT) reactor, 59
Minnesota, 169–170 “Mirage and Oasis” (New Economics Foundation), 19
MIT, “The Future of Nuclear Power,” 20, 163–164
Montreal Protocol, 187n3
MOX (mixed oxide fuel), 133–134
Mujaheddin-e Khalq (MEK), 145
Muller, H. J., 42
National Academy of Sciences, 46, 92, 133
National Cancer Institute (NCI), 73
National Nuclear Security Administration, 139
Navajo and Pueblo tribal land, 48–50
NCI. See National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Nevada, 173; Yucca Mountain in, 100–101, 107–114
New Economics Foundation, 164;
“Mirage and Oasis,” 19
New Jersey, 23, 173 New Scientist, 19–20, 164, 197n91
Nine Mile Point One reactor, 59
nitric acid, 187n4
NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) nuclear accidents: Chernobyl, 74–80, 124; loss of coolant, 124; reactivity excursion, 124; Three Mile Island, 65–74, 124. See also meltdowns nuclear club, 136
Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI), 3–4
Nuclear Energy Plant Optimization, 35
Nuclear Energy Research Initiative, 35
Nuclear Energy Technologies, 35
nuclear fuel cycle: compounds required in, 188–189n27; fossil fuel in, 4–11, 15–16; Generation IV reactors and, 121–129; uranium ores and, 6–9
Nuclear Hydrogen Initiative, 36
Nuclear Non-proliferation Review (UN), 159
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 136–137
nuclear power, defined, 4
“Nuclear Power: Economics and Climate-Protection Potential”; (Lovins), 162–163
nuclear power plants: radiation from, 46–60. See also reactors; individual facilities “Nuclear Power—the Energy Balance” (van Leeuwen and Smith), 6–7, 17–18
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC): appointments to, 28; background radiation and, 44–45; Davis-Besse reactor and, 81–83; evacuation requirements of, 95–98; need for reform of, 127; nuclear reactors and, 58, 83, 85–86; NUREG-1633 report of, 200n59; potassium iodide tablets and, 98; security and, 88–92; spent fuel pools and, 101–103; Three Mile Island and, 66–67; waste and, 110–111
nuclear waste. See radioactive waste Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 100, 107–108
nuclear weapons laboratory complex, 34
nuclear weapons proliferation, 62, 125, 131–140; Bush Administration policy on, 134–135, 139–140; current state of, 137–138; early warning systems and, 138–139, 156; hair-trigger alerts and, 138, 141, 156; history of, 135–140; plutonium and, 132–135; rogue nations and, 141–159; U.S. and Russian arsenals and, 141
nuclear weapons testing, 73, 108, 153
nuclear workers: below ground, 48–49; enrichment and, 51; fuel fabrication and, 53; in India, 152–153; “liquidators” at Chernobyl, 75; radiation doses and, 45
NUREG-1633
report (NRC), 200n59
Nustart Energy (consortium), 26, 119
Oakridge (TN) enrichment facility, 10, 51
Oconee (SC) Unit 3
Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology (NE), 33
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 22
Oxera, 24
ozone layer, 40; depletion vs. global warming, 186–187nn3–4
Paducah (KY) enrichment facility, 10–11, 51
Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR), 119–121
Pennsylvania, Three Mile Island, 65–74, 124
Pickering-4
station (Canada), 116
plutonium, 61–62; availability of, 132–135; bomb making and, 132; CANDU reactors and, 117; carcinogenic dose of, 133; Generation IV reactors and, 122–126; stockpiles, 133; “transmutated,” 133–134
Plutonium Economy, 122
Porter, Jon, 112
Portsmouth (OH) enrichment facility, 10, 51
potassium iodide tablets, 98
Potter, Tom, 178
Price-Anderson Act, 30, 32, 128
proliferation of weapons. See nuclear weapons proliferation psychic numbing, 78
Public Utilities Holding Company Act (PUHCA), 24–26
“purges,” 55
Quad Cities (IL) Unit I reactor, 84
radiation, 39–60; alpha, 47, 60; background, 40, 44–45; beta, 47, 56–57, 62–63; and disease, 43–46; doses of, 44–45; doses of, during meltdown scenario, 96–98, 200n59; and evolution, 39–41; gamma, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 62–63, 102; and human reproduction, 41–43; magnitude of, in reactors, 15; man-made, 41, 46–48, 53; released from nuclear power plants, 46–60; routes of exposure to, 47–48; sickness, 68, 96; uranium mining and milling and, 48–51. See also Chernobyl;Three Mile Island radioactive decay period, 12
radioactive fallout: Chernobyl and, 76–80; in meltdown scenario, 95–100
radioactive hydrogen. See tritium radioactive waste, 14–16; health costs of, 60–64; reprocessing and, 122–123; types of, 107, 200n1; unconfined, 60, 195n57; Yucca Mountain and, 100–101, 107–114
Radiological Facilities Management, 36
Ray, Dixie Lee, 23
reactors: Advanced Gas Cooled (AGR), 117;Advanced Test (ATR), 36; aging, 83–86; boiling water (BWR), 100, 116; breeder and fast, 123–126, 134; CANDU, 116–117; cleanup of, 13; construction of, 11–12; cooling water of, 13–14, 54, 58, 59, 100–105; decommissioning and dismantling of, 12–13; exportation of, 142–143; Generation I, 115; Generation II, 115–117; Generation III, 117–119, 130; Generation III+, 119–121; Generation IV 121–130; heavy vs. light water, 116; high temperature, gas-cooled (HTGR), 119–121; licensing process for, 28–29; magnitude of radiation and, 15; MAGNOX, 117; no-fly zones and, 88; Pebble Bed Modular (PBMR), 119–121; permits for, 27–28; pressurized water (PWR), 100, 115–116; radiation released from, 53–60; “thermal,” 123. See also by country; individual plants
Reid, Harry, 111
renewable energy, 161–174; economics of, 163–164; environmental impact of, 164–166; R&D on, 22; solar power as, 171–174; subsidies for, 36–37; wind power as, 167–171
reprocessing, 100, 122–123, 132–133; research and development, 22, 33–37
“Responsible Electricity Future, A,” (Synapse Energy Economics), 178–183
Rice, Condoleezza, 149
rogue nations, 141–159; India, 152–156; Iran, 142–147; Israel, 150–152; North Korea, 147–150; Pakistan,156–159
Rotblat, Joseph, 140
Rumsfeld, Donald, 146
Russia, 117, 135–136, 138–139, 141; Chernobyl and, 75, 77–80; Iran and, 143; Mayak facility in, 132; Pakistan and, 157
San Onofre (CA) reactor, 87
Scandinavia, Chernobyl and, 77, 79
Schulte, Gregory, 144
Schweitzer, Brian, 161
security of nuclear power plants, 89–92
Sharif, Nawaz, 157
Shays, Christopher, 92
Shoreham (NJ) reactor, 23
socialization of nuclear energy, 21–24, 26, 37
spent fuel: India and, 154; pools, 99–105; terrorism and, 102
steam generators tubes, 85
Stevens, Craig, 114
storage, 15–16; dry cask, 103–105; open-rack, 104; sites, 108;Yucca Mountain and,107–114
Strategic Command contingency plans,145–146
Summer (SC) reactor, 84
“sunshine units,” 4
Susquehanna River, 67
Sweden, Chernobyl and, 79
Synapse Energy Economics, “A Responsible Electricity Future,” 178–183
terrorists-induced meltdowns, 88–92, 93–94, 102, 134
thermoluscent dosimeters (TLDs), 66
Three Mile Island, 65–74, 124; court cases involving, 72, 74; milk contamination and, 69–71; official health studies on, 71–72; radiation release estimates, 66–67
thyroid disorders, 69, 73, 77, 98, 196n91
TMI Public Health Fund, 72
transmission and distribution (T&D), 180
transportation of waste, 15–16, 114
tritium, 13–14, 54, 56–57, 68; CANDU reactors and, 116; manufacturing of, 139
UN Development Program-UN Children’s Fund (UNDP-UNICEF), 79
Union of Concerned Scientists, 84
United Nations Environment Protection (UNEP), 29
United States: radiation releases from plants in, 59; weapons arsenal of, 141. See also Bush Administration; individual departments and agencies
United States Enrichment Corp, 10–11
University Reactor Infrastructure and Education Assistance Program, 35
uranium: 235, 10, 51; 238 (depleted), 51–52, 122–123, 125; dioxide, 11; enrichment, 10–11, 51–53, 137; grades of, 7–8; hexafluoride, 10, 188n27; mining and milling, 7–9, 48–51; Navajo and Pueblo tribal land and, 48–50; ores in nuclear fuel cycle, 6–9; reserves, 8
U.S. energy bill (2005), 29–30, 162–163
U.S. Geological Service (USGS), 111–112
Vajpayee, Atal Bihari, 157
van Leeuwen, Jan Willem Storm and Philip Smith: “Nuclear Power—the Energy Balance,” 6–7, 17–18
Wackenhut Corporation, 91
Wang Zhongying, 171
Washington (state), 173
waste. See radioactive waste “waste burn-up,” 126
Watts Barr plant (TN), 139
weapons. See nuclear weapons proliferation Westinghouse, 118–119, 143
Wing, Steve, 72
World Health Organization (WHO), 75
Yankee Rowe (MA) reactor, 33
yellow cake, 8
Yeltsin, Boris, 138