Over the years certain aerobatic manoeuvres have become standard features of individual displays. Not surprisingly these manoeuvres have been given names although a spectator would be forgiven for not having a clue what the commentator is talking about as the name doesn’t always describe the manoeuvre: do you know your English Bunt from a Cuban Eight? A Lomcovak from a Lazy Eight? The following are some of the more common manoeuvres you will see at an airshow.
Consists of a maximum climb, maximum bank combination to obtain the greatest altitude gain for a given airspeed and at the same time making a 180° course reversal. (Low, positive g manoeuvre can be performed in all aircraft).
5/8s of a loop to the 45 degree line, 1/2 roll,3/4s of a loop to the 45 degree line, 1/2 roll, 1/8s of a loop to level flight (half of the Cuban Eight is called a “half Cuban Eight”, and the figure can be flown backwards, known as a “Reverse Cuban Eight”).
Half Cuban Eight: From level flight, 5/8s loop to the inverted 45° line, 1/2 roll to erect down 45° line, pull to level flight.
Reverse Half Cuban Eight. From level flight pull to the 45° up line, 1/2 roll to inverted 45° up line, then 5/8s of a loop to level flight.
1/4 loop (pull or push) to vertical, as momentum/airspeed decreases, rudder is applied and the aircraft rotates around its yaw axis, the nose falls through the horizon and points towards the ground, a momentary pause is made to draw the vertical down line, and 1/4 loop to level flight. This figure is sometimes called a stall turn which is a misnomer because the aircraft never actually stalls. The manoeuvre is performed when the aeroplane decelerates through 20 - 30kts (more or less, depending on the aeroplane flown) of airspeed. The cartwheel portion of the hammerhead is performed with full rudder and full opposite aileron. Gyroscopic forces from the propeller during the rapid rate of yaw will produce a pitching and rolling moment and a degree of forward stick will be required to keep the aeroplane from coming off-line over the top. The yaw is stopped with opposite rudder while the ailerons and elevator remain in position, then once the yaw is stopped and the aeroplane is pointed down vertically, all controls are returned to neutral together. Although they can be flown left or right in any aeroplane with the proper technique, a hammerhead is best flown to the left with a clockwise rotating prop, and to the right with an anticlockwise rotating prop (as in a Yakovlev type), due to propeller torque/gyroscopic effects.
Roll-off-the-top; half loop, half roll: 1/2 looping up followed by half a roll. There should be no pause between the end of the looping section and the start of the roll to erect flight.
Split S: Essentially an Immelmann in reverse. Half roll (from erect to inverted) followed by positive pitch to give a half loop. Converts altitude to airspeed, and reverses direction.
Fly the aircraft so that the fuselage is perpendicular to the ground (along the wings’ Zero lift axis). The attitude of the aircraft is judged, not the flightpath, therefore the aircraft may drift downwind during a vertical manoeuvre.
45° up line: Fly the vertical attitude plus or minus 45°. As for vertical lines the attitude of the aircraft is judged, not the flightpath as viewed by a ground observer, which may differ depending on whether the figure is flown into or with the wind, and the wind strength.
Inside Loop: A vertical circle entered from straight and erect level flight. A positive pitching movement is used at all points in the loop to draw the circle, so that the aeroplane canopy is pointing inwards. Both the inside and outside loop are sometimes casually referred to as a ‘loop the loop’.
Outside Loop: A vertical circle entered from straight and erect level flight, canopy pointing out of the loop. Loop can be above or below the straight and level entry altitude, from erect or inverted attitude. (Draws extreme negative G).
English Bunt: Half an outside loop starting from upright, straight and erect level flight. (The pilot pushes the stick forward and draws a half circle in the sky from the top down).
A family of auto-rotational manoeuvres, consisting of normal or “flat” spins, either upright or inverted. Two components must exist to spin an aircraft: 1) critical angle of attack (COA), which means that the aircraft is stalled, and 2) yaw.
Bell Tailslide: 1/4 looping up, straight vertical (full power) until the aircraft loses momentum. The aircraft falls backwards, tail first, until the nose drops through the horizon to a vertical down position. 1/4 loop (push or pull) to recover to level flight.
A family of rapid auto rotational or “horizontal spins,” not unlike spins. Rotation is induced by a rapid pitch input followed by rapid yaw input, thus stalling one wing further than the other. This imbalance in lift causes the high speed roll.
Dive: extreme nose down attitude (not necessarily vertical), resulting in an increase in both airspeed and descent rate.
Lazy Eight: 1/4 looping up, wingover (left or right), 1/2 looping down+up, wingover (right or left), 1/4 looping down.
Lomcovak: family of auto rotational, tumbling figures. In all varieties, the aircraft appears to tumble out of control. For example, one style involves the aircraft tumbling (simultaneously) nose over tail and wingtip over wingtip in a negative-g, gyroscopic condition. Introduced by Czechs such as Ladislav Bezák, and others.
Pugachev’s Cobra: the nose of the aircraft is pulled up suddenly. The aircraft pitches up to 90–120° angle of attack. The nose then falls back to the horizontal, and the aircraft accelerates away in the original direction.
Kulbit: post-stall manoeuvre similar to Pugachev’s Cobra, but going to 360° pitch angle, flying a “loop”
Roll: Rotational motion around the longitudinal axis (the nose rotates around its centre).
Barrel Roll: a combination of a loop and a roll. The flight path during a barrel roll has the shape of a horizontal corkscrew and follows a helical path.
Aileron Roll: 360° revolution about the longitudinal axis at maximum roll rate. It consists of a pitch-up followed by a roll which is uncontrolled in the pitch axis, resulting in an initial climb, and then descent to the original altitude.
Slow Roll: roll around the longitudinal axis slowly, maintaining level flight by cross-controlling the elevator and rudder inputs.
Hesitation Roll: slow roll, stopping momentarily at various points during the roll. Common variations include a two-point roll, three-point roll, four-point roll, etc.
The Scissors: flying in a zigzagging pattern, either horizontal or rolling.
Standing Eight: inside loop, 1/2 roll (inverts the aircraft), inside loop (towards the ground) 1/2 roll on top of the loop.
Wingover: left or right 180° tight turn (yaw) at the top of a 1/4 looping (up).
Zoom Climb: dive followed by extreme nose up attitude (not necessarily vertical). Consists of an initial airspeed gain resulting in an increased rate of climb, followed by airspeed loss and decreased rate of climb, returning to the original speed and altitude.
Falling Leaf: throttle off, wings-level stall, allowing the plane to side-slip in one direction, then countering the slip with rudder before a spin develops, allowing it to side-slip to the other direction, countering with rudder again, diving to exit the manoeuvre.
Torque Roll: tail slide performed with aileron added in the direction of the engine torque. The aircraft climbs in the vertical until forward momentum is lost, and rolls due to the torque of the engine as it tail slides.
Air shows are facing uncertain times. Economic pressures effect both parties – the organisers and aircraft operators. In Britain, the tragic crash at Shore-ham in 2015 has added to the burden. Soaring insurance costs and the need for increasingly more stringent safety measures means that many of the smaller air shows have had to be cancelled as they are no longer financially viable. The knock-on effect is that there is less income for the display pilots and teams. It will take several seasons for the true impact to reveal itself but as long as aircraft are allowed to fly, people will want to come and watch, wherever they may be.